Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem
Prerequisites: Cancelling fractions; summation notation; rules of indices.
Maths Applications: Proving trig. identities using complex numbers;
probability.
Real-World Applications: Counting problems; Hardy-Weinberg Formula
(biology).
Factorials and Binomial Coefficients
In a race with 3 people, in how many ways can the runners finish ? There
are 3 possibilities for the first place; for each of these 3 possibilities,
there are 2 possibilities for the remaining 2 places; for each of these 2
possibilities, there is only 1 possibility for the final place. So, there are
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways the runners can finish.
Definition:
For n ∈ , the factorial of n (aka n factorial or factorial n) is,
def
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × … × 3 × 2 × 1
def
Note that 1! = 1 and the convention 0! = 1 is made.
In how many ways can a child pick 3 crayons from a selection of 5
coloured crayons (all different colours) ? There are 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 ways
of choosing 3 crayons, if the order in which they are taken matters.
However, the child isn’t interested in which order they’re picked, so this
answer of 60 is too big. Whichever 3 colours are picked, there are 3 ! = 6
ways of doing so. Therefore, the value of 60 is 6 times too large; hence,
the actual number of ways of choosing 3 crayons from 5 without worrying
about the order is 60 ÷ 6 = 10.
The order matters in a permutation, as opposed to a combination.
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
Definition:
The number of ways of choosing r objects from n without taking into
account the order (aka n choose r or the number of combinations of r
objects from n) is given by the binomial coefficient nC r defined by,
n n def
n!
Cr ≡ =
r r ! (n − r )!
Evaluating a Binomial Coefficient Without a Calculator
Example 1
7 7!
C4 =
4! (7 − 4)!
7 × 6×5 × 4 ×3×2×1
=
(4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × (3 × 2 × 1)
7 ×6×5
=
3×2×1
= 35
Properties of Binomial Coefficients
n n
• =
r n − r
n n n + 1
• + = (Khayyam-Pascal Identity)
r − 1 r r
Example 2
n
Solve the equation = 15.
n − 2
n!
= 15
2! (n − 2)!
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
n (n − 1) (n − 2)!
= 15
2 (n − 2)!
n (n − 1)
= 15
2
n 2 − n = 30
n 2 − n − 30 = 0
(n − 6) (n + 5) = 0
Hence, n = 6 or n = − 5. However, as n cannot be negative, n = 6.
Example 3
n + 1 n n
Show that − = .
3 3 2
A very simple proof can be obtained by replacing r with 2 in the
Khayyam-Pascal Identity. However a more ‘ get your fingers dirty ’
method will be given, which illustrates some general techniques when
manipulating binomial coefficients.
Starting with the LHS,
n + 1 n (n + 1)! n!
− = −
3 3 3! (n − 2)! 3! (n − 3)!
(n + 1) n ! n!
= −
3! (n − 2) (n − 3)! 3! (n − 3)!
n! n + 1
= − 1
3! (n − 3)! n − 2
n! n + 1 − n + 2
=
3! (n − 3)! n − 2
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
n! 3
=
3! (n − 3)! n − 2
n! 3
=
3 . 2! (n − 3)! (n − 2)
n!
=
2! (n − 2)!
n
=
2
which equals the RHS.
Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal’s triangle - also known as Pingala’s triangle, Khayyam’s triangle, Yang
Hui’s triangle and Tartaglia’s triangle, after mathematicians who
discovered or studied the triangle before Pascal – is the following infinite
arrangement of evaluated binomial coefficients:
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
The top row consisting of the single entry 1 is the 0th row. Each number
not on an edge of the triangle is obtained by adding the 2 numbers in the
previous row and just to the right and left of that entry (this is the
Khayyam-Pascal identity).
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem
Taking powers of a binomial can be achieved via the following theorem.
Theorem (Binomial Theorem):
For whole numbers r and n,
(x + y) n
=
∑C
r = 0
n
r
x n −r y r
Written out fully, the RHS is called the binomial expansion of (x + y) n .
Using the first property of the binomial coefficients and a little
relabelling, the Binomial Theorem can be written slightly differently.
Corollary:
(x + y) n
=
∑C
r = 0
n
r
x r y n −r
Note that there are n + 1 terms in any binomial expansion.
Expanding a Binomial
Example 4
Expand (x + y) 5 .
∑
5
5 5 −r r
(x + y) 5 = x y
r
r = 0
5 5 5
= x5 y 0 + x 4 y1 + x3 y2 +
0 1 2
5 2 3 5 1 4 5 0 5
x y + x y + x y
3 4 5
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
= x 5 + 5 x 4 y + 10 x 3y 2 + 10 x 2y 3 + 5 xy 4 + y 5
Note that the powers of x go up by 1 as the powers of y go down by 1,
and that the sum of the powers of x and y equal 5. Also, the number of
terms in the expansion is one more than the value of n. The binomial
coefficients are evaluated using Pascal’s triangle.
Example 5
4
2
Expand x 2 − .
x
∑
4
4 r
2 2 4 4 −r 2
x −
x
= x
2
( ) −
x
r
r = 0
0 1 2
4 4 2 4 3 2 4 2 2 2
= x2 ( ) −
x
+ x2 ( ) − + x
x
( ) −
x
0 1 2
3 4
4 1 2 4 0 2
( )
+ x2 −
x
+ x2 ( ) −
x
3 4
2 4 2 8 16
= x 8 (1) + 4 x 6 − + 6 x 4 2 + 4x − 3 + 4
x x x x
32 16
= x 8 − 8 x 5 + 24 x 2 − +
x x4
Finding the General Term
Definition:
The general term in a binomial expansion is,
n
C r x n −r y r
Essentially, the general term is everything in the Binomial Theorem apart
from the summation sign.
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
Example 6
13
3
Find and simplify the general term in the expansion of x 2 + .
x
∑
13
13 r
2 3 13 13−r 3
x +
x
= x
2
( )
x
r
r = 0
The general term is the expression after the summation sign on the RHS
of the above equation. So,
r
13 13−r 3 13 13
General term = x 2 ( )
x
= 3r x 26−2r x −r = 3r x 26−3r
r r r
Finding a Specific Term or Coefficient
Example 7
9
5
Find the term independent of x in the expansion of x − .
x2
r
9 5 9
General term = x 9−r − 2 = ( −5)r x 9−3r
r x r
The term independent of x occurs when the index 9 − 3r = 0, i.e. when
r = 3. Thus, the required term is,
9 3 9 ×8× 7 × 6×5 × 4 ×3×2×1
( −5) = × ( −125) = − 10 500
3 (3 × 2 × 1) × (6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
Example 8
15
28 x
Find the term containing x in the expansion of x 2 + .
2
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
r
15 15−r x 15
General term = x 2 ( ) = 2−r x 30 −r
r 2 r
The term containing x 28 occurs when the index 30 − r = 28, i.e. when
r = 2. Thus, the required term is,
15 −2 28 15! 1 28 105 28
2 x = × x = x
2 2! 13! 4 4
Example 9
11
Find the coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of 2 − x ( ) .
11 11
General term = 211−r ( −x )r = ( −1)r 211−r x r
r r
The coefficient of x 4 occurs when r = 4. Thus, the required coefficient
is,
11 4 7 11!
( −1) 2 = × 128 = 42 240
4 4! 7 !
Evaluating a Natural Power of a Decimal
Example 10
Calculate the value of (0 · 8) 4 using the Binomial Theorem.
(1 + x) 4 = 1 + 4 x + 6 x 2 + 4 x 3 + x 4
Letting x = − 0 · 2,
(0 · 8) 4 = 1 + 4 ( − 0 · 2) + 6 ( − 0 · 2) 2 + 4 ( − 0 · 2) 3 + ( − 0 · 2) 4
= 1 − 0 · 8 + 6 (0 · 04) − 4 (0 · 008) + 0 · 001 6
= 1 − 0 · 8 + 0 · 24 − 0 · 032 + 0 · 001 6
= 0 · 409 6
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
Obviously, a calculator should be used for questions similar in spirit to
Example 10.
Applications of the Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem is often used to solve probabilistic problems.
Example 11
A fair coin is flipped 5 times. Calculate the probability of obtaining
exactly 3 heads.
This problem can be solved by listing all possible combinations of heads
and tails (e.g. HHHHH, HTHTH, etc.), picking those that give exactly 2
heads and dividing by the total number of possibilities. No doubt, this is a
very lengthy process. However, the Binomial Theorem can be used to sort
this out very quickly.
If p stands for the probability of obtaining a head and q for the
probability of obtaining a tail, then obviously p + q = 1 (total
probability equals 100 %). Hence, and this is where the link to the
Binomial Theorem comes in, (p + q) n = 1. In our case, n = 5. Then,
(p + q) 5 = p 5 + 5 p 4q + 10 p 3q 2 + 10 p 2q 3 + 5 pq 4 + q 5
The first term in this expansion gives the probability of obtaining 5
heads, the second term 4 heads and a tail etc. (check this using a tree
diagram – for example, the coefficient 5 in the second term gives the
number of ways 4 heads and 1 tail can be obtained). As the coin is fair, p
1
= q = . Thus, the required probability is,
2
P (exactly 3 heads) = 5 p 4q
4
1 1
= 5. .
2 2
5
=
32
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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 1) The Binomial Theorem
Notice that the sum of the coefficients in the above expansion equals 32
(the total number of possibilities for 5 flips).
Example 12
If the probabilities of dominant (T) and recessive (t) alleles, denoted by p
and q respectively, for an organism with n copies of the same
chromosome are linked via the equation,
( p + q) n = 1
find the probability that an organism with 4 copies of the same
chromosome has the genotype TTtt if q = 0 · 2.
The biological details of the problem are not relevant, only the general
structure of the problem. We have n = 4 and the genotype TTtt
corresponds to the term p 2q 2 (2 T’s and 2 t’s) in the binomial expansion
of (p + q) 4 . Expanding this gives,
(p + q) 4 = p 4 + 4 p 3q + 6 p 2q 2 + 4 pq 3 + q 4
Since p + q = 1, p = 0 · 8. The required probability is thus,
P (TTtt) = 6 p 2q 2
= 6 (0 · 2) 2 (0 · 8) 2
= 0 · 153 6
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