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Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural

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University of South Florida
Scholar Commons
Graduate School Theses and Dissertations USF Graduate School

1-1-2011

Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity

Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in
Panama
Kevin Orner
University of South Florida, kevin.d.orner@gmail.com

Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd

Part of the American Studies Commons, Civil Engineering Commons, and the Environmental
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Scholar Commons Citation

Orner, Kevin, "Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama" (2011).
Graduate School Theses and Dissertations.
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3271

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 Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of

Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama

by

Kevin D. Orner

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
College of Engineering
University of South Florida

Co-Major Professor: James R. Mihelcic, Ph.D.

Co-Major Professor: Maya A. Trotz, Ph.D.
Ricardo Izurieta, M.D.

Date of Approval:
October 18, 2011

Keywords: Disinfection, Water Quality, Pathogen Destruction,

Ct Method, Rural Aqueducts, Sustainable Development

Copyright © 2011, Kevin D. Orner

 Acknowledgements

First, thank you to my wife Sarah for joining me for our first year of marriage in

a bamboo hut. You are the love of my life—I can’t wait to see what adventures

God has in store for us in the future.

Thank you to my parents, Keith and Brenda, my sister Emily, and my brother

Joe, for your love and support.

Gracias a las comunidades de Calabazal, Quebrada Mina, y Caracol para

tenernos como familia. ¡Idoli y Boja van a regresar muy pronto!

Also thanks to Dr. Mihelcic and Dr. Trotz for your support and encouragement

both on campus and in the field. You are great professional examples for me.

In memory of Peter Bosscher. Thank you for showing me what it means to

pursue grace and peace, to be a passionate Christian and passionate

engineer in all parts of my life.

 Table of Contents

List of Tables iii

List of Figures vii

Abstract ix

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Motivation, Objectives, and Hypotheses 4

Chapter 2: Literature Review 8

Background on Water Disinfection 8
The Focus on Disinfection 12
Physical and Chemical Disinfection Strategies 12
Comparison of Chlorine Compounds Used for Disinfection 14
Comparison of Chlorine Delivery in to Water System 15
Comparison of Chlorine Concentration Testing Options 16
Comparison of Chlorine Concentration Monitoring and Modeling
Options 19
Application of Field Free Chlorine Concentration to Ct Values 21

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods 24

Location of Field Study 24
Physical Description and History of MINSA’s In-Line PVC
Chlorinator 27
Methods 31
Testing Procedure for Field Study 1 (April 28-30) 32
Free Chlorine and Total Chlorine Concentration Testing
Procedure 33
Flow Testing Procedure 34
Tablet Weight Testing Procedure 34
Location of Testing 35

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 39

Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada
Mina and Calabazal Water System Using One Tablet
Installed in the Chlorinator that was not Provided in a Sealed
Plastic Wrapper 41

i
 Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in the
Calabazal Water System Using One Tablet Installed in the
Chlorinator that was Stored in the Sealed Plastic Wrapper
before Use 48
Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in the
Calabazal Water System Using Three Tablets Installed in the
Chlorinator that were Stored in the Plastic Wrapper before
Use 51

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research

and Field Application 60

References 67

Appendices 71
Appendix A: In-Line Chlorinator Materials List Developed for
Panama 72
Appendix B: Total Chlorine Concentration Measurements 73
Appendix C: Flow and Tablet Weight 76

ii
 List of Tables

Table 1: Intestinal Parasites in Children Under 12 Years Old during

Testing in San Felix compared with Testing Throughout
Panama and their Primary Method of Transmission 3

Table 2: Panama Monthly Rainfall Based on Monthly Averages for the

30-year Period 1971-2000 4

Table 3: Description of Health Significance, Persistence in Water

Supplies, Resistance to Chlorine, Relative Infectivity, and
Important Animal Source of Common Bacteria, Viruses,
Protozoa, and Helminths 13

Table 4: Description of Chlorine Compounds’ Common Name,

Chemical Formula, Form, and Percent Active Chlorine by Mass 14

Table 5: Comparison of Analytical Methods for Chlorine by Analysis

Range, Detection Level, Estimated Precision, Application, and
Skill Level 17

Table 6: Comparison of HACH Chlorine Testing Products by Type,

Measurement, Range, Increment, Price, and Reagent Price 18

Table 7: Safe Water’s Table of Drinking Water Quality Characteristics

and Ct Values for Common Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa. 23

Table 8: Comparison of Quebrada Mina and Calabazal Gravity Flow

Water Systems in Terms of Year Built, Number of
Beneficiaries and Households, and Physical Characteristics
of the Water Systems 27

Table 9: Summary of Procedural Changes after Field Study 1 33

Table 10: Distance between Testing Locations for Calabazal Aqueduct 36

Table 11: Approximate Distance between Testing Locations for Quebrada

Mina Aqueduct 37

Table 12: Description of Field Studies 1-7, Including Dates of Study,

Tablet Description, and Calculation for Number of Chlorine
Tests Needed in Quebrada Mina and Calabazal 38

iii
Table 13: Comparison of Free Chlorine and Total Chlorine
Concentration Averages and Standard Deviation during Field
Studies 5, 6, and 7 40

Table 14: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina

Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 1
(April 28-30, 2011) 43

Table 15: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina

Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 2
(June 17-20, 2011) 44

Table 16: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28
-30, 2011) 47

Table 17: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17
-20, 2011) 47

Table 18: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 3 (June 22
-23, 2011) 47

Table 19: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 4 (June 23
-24, 2011) 47

Table 20: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 5 (August 7
-14, 2011) 50

Table 21: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 6 (August 17
-24, 2011) 50

Table 22: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 7 (August 25-
September 1, 2011) 51

Table 23: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System Leaving Tank during Field Studies 5, 6 and 7 53

Table 24: Ct or Concentration Requirements as defined by Various

Regulatory and Public Health Organizations 54

Table 25: Ct Required Using Chlorination for Inactivation of Pathogens

Common to Panama and Pathogens Common in Cases of
Intervention 55

iv
Table 26: Comparison of Ct and Free Chlorine Concentration Required for
Pathogen Inactivation for Pathogens Present in Panama to
Free Chlorine Concentration in Calabazal Water System
Leaving Tank during Field Studies 5,6, and 7. 58

Table B.1: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina

Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 1
(April 28-30, 2011) 73

Table B.2: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina

Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 2
(June 17-20, 2011) 73

Table B.3: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28
-30, 2011) 73

Table B.4: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17
-20, 2011) 73

Table B.5: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 3 (June 22
-23, 2011) 74

Table B.6: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 4 (June 23
-24, 2011) 74

Table B.7: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 5 (August 7-
14, 2011) 74

Table B.8: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 6 (August 17-
24, 2011) 74

Table B.9: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 7 (August 25-
September 1, 2011) 75

Table C.1: Flow Measured in Quebrada Mina and Calabazal Water

Systems during Field Studies 1-7 76

Table C.2: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in

Quebrada Mina Water System during Field Studies 1 and 2 76

Table C.3: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in

Calabazal Water System during Field Studies 1-4 76

v
Table C.4: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in
Calabazal Water System during Field Studies 5-7 76

Table C.5: Comparison of Actual Duration of Chlorine Tablet against

Claimed Duration of Tablet based on Manufacturer’s Claim of
2g of Chlorine for Every 1000 Liters of Water Passing through
Chlorinator in Field Studies 1-7 in the Communities of
Quebrada Mina and Calabazal 77

vi
 List of Figures

Figure 1: Geographical Location of Panama 2

Figure 2: Overview of Ct Requirements of Common Disinfectant Agents

in Pathogen Inactivation 9

Figure 3: Typical Breakpoint Chlorination Curve based on Chlorine

Applied and Chlorine Concentrations 11

Figure 4: 2 Log Disinfection of Selected Microorganisms by Free

Chlorine in Terms of Time and pH 21

Figure 5: Map of Calabazal, Quebrada Mina, and Surrounding

Communities 25

Figure 6: Design of Panama Ministry of Environmental Health’s

(MINSA) In-Line PVC Chlorinator 28

Figure 7: MINSA PVC Chlorinator in the Field 30

Figure 8: Water System Map for Village of Calabazal Showing

Sampling Locations (Red Circles) and Location of Chlorinator
(Black Circle) 36

Figure 9: Water System Map for Village of Quebrada Mina Showing

Sampling Locations (Red Circles) and Location of Chlorinator
(Black Circle) 37

Figure 10: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina

Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 1
(April 28-30, 2011) and Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011) 43

Figure 11: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-
30, 2011), Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011), Field Study 3
(June 22-23), and Field Study 4 (June 23-24) 46

Figure 12: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System at Different Locations during Field Study 5 (August
7-14, 2011) and Field Study 6 (August 17-24) 49

vii
Figure 13: Calabazal Three Tablets Stored in Wrapper before Use Field
Study 7 Free Chlorine and Total Chlorine Concentration 51

Figure 14: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water

System Leaving Tank during Field Studies 5,6, and 7 52

Figure 15: Diagram of 3,000-Gallon Storage Tank in Calabazal 56

viii
 Abstract

It is well established that water quality is directly linked to health. In-line

chlorination is one technology that can be used in the developing world to

potentially inactivate pathogens and improve water quality. The purpose of

this study was to determine the effectiveness of the Panamanian Ministry of

Health’s in-line PVC chlorinator under three different operating conditions in a

rural water supply system. Free and total chlorine were measured entering the

storage tank, leaving the storage tank, and at three households along the

transmission line of the water system in the two rural indigenous communities

of Calabazal and Quebrada Mina in western Panama during April-August

2011. The Ct method for disinfection was used to compare the measured free

chlorine concentration to the concentration required to inactivate common

pathogens found in gravity flow water systems in Panama, such as E. coli,

Salmonella typhi, Hepatitis A, Giardia lamblia, and E. histolytica, as well as

other pathogens of interest to the global health community, such as Vibrio

cholerae and Rotavirus. When the chlorine tablet was sealed in a plastic

wrapper prior to use to prevent contact with humid surroundings, the chlorine

was able to dissolve in seven days instead of three hours into the

transmission line. The use of one tablet, sealed in a plastic wrapper before

use, was able to obtain the required free chlorine concentration estimated to

disinfect E. coli, Vibrio cholerae, Rotavirus, Salmonella typhi, and Hepatitis A.

However, it did not achieve a free chlorine concentration above 0.27 mg/L
ix
needed to inactivate Giardia lamblia nor above 0.35 mg/L needed to inactivate

E. histolytica. The use of three properly stored tablets in the chlorinator was

able to provide a free chlorine concentration above 0.35 mg/L for only one

day, reaching 0.37 mg/L, before falling below 0.35 mg/L to a level of 0.26

mg/L the next day. The study suggests that with three tablets the in-line PVC

chlorinator can be an effective technology if slightly more free chlorine

concentration can enter the system. The cost of this technology could be

allocated to every owner with a house connection in the communities of

Calabazal and Quebrada Mina by increasing their monthly tariff by $1 each

month.

x
 Chapter 1: Introduction

It has been extensively noted in many peer reviewed reports that water quality

is directly linked to health (e.g., Semenza et al., 1998, Egorov et al., 2002).

International organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), United

Nations (UN), World Bank, and United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) all devote extensive time, money and energy into water

management, supply and quality. The Millennium Development Goals state

that by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to

drinking water and basic sanitation should be halved compared to 1990

baselines, noting that accelerated and targeted efforts are needed especially

in rural households.

Panama, with a population of around 3.5 million, borders Costa Rica and

Columbia, as shown in Figure 1 (CIA World Factbook, 2011). Panama’s

Cordillera mountain range bisects the Caribbean coast from the Pacific coast.

The Comarca Ngabe Bugle, situated in western Panama, is home to about

150,000 inhabitants, the majority of Panama’s indigenous population (Instituto

Nacional, 2011). 83% of indigenous people live below the poverty line, 70% in

extreme poverty, compared to 33% of non-indigenous below the poverty line

and 13% in extreme poverty.

1
 Figure 1: Geographical Location of Panama
(CIA World Factbook, 2011)

According to the WHO/UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund) Joint

Monitoring Program for water and sanitation, 97% and 83% of Panama’s

urban and rural population respectively receive water from an improved

source (WHO/UNICEF, 2011). In the Comarca Ngabe Bugle area of Panama

only 23% of the population receives piped water (World Bank, 2000).

Gastrointestinal diseases like Salmonella typhi, Hepatitis A, and amebiasis

are reported to be most common in Panama (PAHO, 2007). The Gorgas

Institute found that in the town of San Felix, three miles away from the focus

of this thesis, 67% of the 379 children under 12 years old tested positive for

intestinal parasites. Specific causal agents are noted below in Table 1. This

study will only focus on pathogens primarily transmitted by water, not soil.

2
 Table 1: Intestinal Parasites in Children Under 12 Years Old during Testing in San Felix
compared with Testing Throughout Panama and their Primary Method of Transmission
(Adapted from Gorgas Institute, 2011)

Causal Agent San Félix Panama Primarily Transmitted by Water

(n=379) (n=2 026) or Soil
Giardia lamblia 35 (9.2%) 314 (15.5%) Water
E. coli 44 (12%) 129(6.4%) Water
Hystolitica 14 (3.7%) 82 (4.0%) Water
I. buschii 29 (7.6%) 63(3.1%) Water
C. mesnilii 3(0.8%) 14 (0.7%) Water
Crypstoridium spp. 5(1.3%) 87 (4.3%) Water
C. cayetanesis 5 (1.3%) 7 (0.3%) Water
C. belli 0 (0%) 1(0.05%) Water
S. stercolaris 1(0.4%) 13 (0.64%) Water and Soil
A.lumbricoides 69(18.2%) 189 (9.3%) Soil
E. nana 15(3.9%) 74(3.6%) Soil
Uncinarias 23(6.1%) 40 (1.9%) Soil
T. trichura 10(2.6%) 26(1.3%) Soil
E. vernicularise 0 (0%) 1 (0.05%) Soil
H. nana 1(0.4%) 9(0.4%) Soil
Total 254 (67.0%) 1039(51.3%)

Although temperatures remain much the same throughout the year, Panama’s

great seasonal variation in precipitation complicates the water supply

situation. Although precipitation data for the Comarca Ngabe Bugle was

unavailable, data from Panama City in Table 2 indicates the general trend in

Panama that the months of December-April are drier while May-November

are much wetter.

Rural communities in the foothills of the Comarca take advantage of the short

distance from the high mountains to the flat coast and often use gravity to

capture spring water and transport via PVC pipes to their houses. Community

members also hike to unprotected springs to obtain their water. During the

periods of low rainfall, the months of December to April, many of these

springs dry, making water access even more difficult.

3
 Table 2: Panama Monthly Rainfall Based on Monthly Averages for the 30-year Period 1971-
2000
(Reproduced from World Weather Information Service, 2011)
o
Mean Temperature F
Mean Total Rainfall Mean Number of Rain
Month Daily Daily (mm) Days *
Minimum Maximum
Jan 65.3 92.1 29.3 2.9
Feb 65.1 93.6 10.1 1.3
Mar 65.1 94.6 13.1 1.4
Apr 67.1 95.7 64.7 4.9
May 70.0 94.1 225.1 15
Jun 70.3 92.8 235.0 16
Jul 69.8 93.0 168.5 14
Aug 69.6 93.0 219.9 15
Sep 69.8 91.2 253.9 17
Oct 69.4 90.7 330.7 20
Nov 68.5 91.2 252.3 16
Dec 66.6 91.9 104.6 7.5
Mean number of rain days = Mean number of days with at least 0.1 mm of rain.

Motivation, Objectives, and Hypotheses

Panama has to increase both urban and rural population access to improved

water sources in order to meet its MDG commitments in 2015. With only 83%

of the rural population having access to an improved water source and living

in regions close to natural springs, the springs become the major water

source. Water originating from these rural springs requires protection through

the installation of a spring box and disinfection because of possible

contamination due to the close proximity to fields and pasture. The dispersed

nature of the communities and households that are served by a spring makes

decentralized forms of disinfection the most feasible.

Methods of disinfection used in Panama include point of use treatment at the

household level, drip chlorinators installed directly above a water storage

tank, or in-line PVC chlorinators, which are modeled after the more expensive

in-line chlorinators used for pools in other parts of the world. The in-line PVC

chlorinators are a low-cost solution that the Panama Ministry of Environmental

4
Health promotes in the Comarca Ngabe Bugle. However, the author of this

thesis found no scientific studies or reports on the effectiveness of these in-

line chlorinators in estimated pathogen (any disease-causing agent)

destruction via provision of sufficient chlorine and contact time in the storage

and distribution system. EPA states that a residual amount of chlorine after

water leaves the treatment tank/plant inactivates microorganisms in the

distribution system, indicates distribution system upset and controls biofilm

growth (EPA, 2011).

Accordingly, the motivation for this study is to determine whether in-line

chlorination systems located in rural water supply systems effectively disinfect

pathogens common to Panama and other parts of the world by examining the

concentration and contact time of chlorine in rural water supply systems.

The study has the following two objectives:

1. Develop an understanding of the drinking water supply systems in two

indigenous rural communities in Panama in order to determine if disinfection

by in-line application of chlorine is effective in the disinfection of pathogens in

gravity flow water systems.

2. Provide guidance on the proper concentration and contact time required to

disinfect common pathogens identified in Panama and other parts of the

world.

5
The study has four hypotheses.

1. There is greater chlorine concentration in the gravity-fed water system in

the first two hours after a new chlorine tablet is added to an in-line chlorinator

than after more time.

Task: Measure chlorine concentration in the system within two hours

using the Hach Colorimeter after a new tablet is added to an in-line

chlorinator, than continue testing concentration to determine effect of

time.

2. Home water connections nearest the chlorinator will have higher chlorine

concentration than home water connections farther away.

Task: Measure the chlorine concentration at home water connections

located at various distance intervals from the chlorinator.

3. The chlorine tablet will dissolve in proportion to the flow entering the tank.

Task: Measure weight loss of the chlorine tablet and measure the

chlorine concentration during the rainy season and dry season.

4. The application of the chlorine tablet in the in-line chlorinator will result in

free chlorine concentration necessary to achieve the Ct values required to

disinfect specific pathogens that may be present in Panamanian gravity flow

water supply distribution systems.

Task: Obtain list of commonly occurring pathogens in Panama along

with established Ct values for those pathogens. Compare the

6
established Ct values with Ct values determined from field

measurements of chlorine concentration and contact time.

7
 Chapter 2: Literature Review

While no scientific studies were identified by the author directly related to

monitoring in-line disinfection of rural water supply systems in the developing

world, research in the developing world has been focused on the selection

criteria of small scale gravity driven, water powered, and diffusion chlorinators

in the developing world (Skinner, 2001) and the effectiveness and acceptance

of household chlorination in the developing world. The closest study found

was on the effectiveness of Pulsar 1 and Aquatab chlorinators in Northern

Ghana (Cash-Fitzpatrick, 2008).

Background on Water Disinfection

The Ct approach relates C, the concentration of a chemical disinfectant (e.g.,

mg/L of a disinfectant such as free chlorine, ozone, or chlorine dioxide) with t,

the residence time of the chemical disinfectant in the water system. The

concentration of a particular disinfectant can be multiplied by time to produce

a Ct value. Ct values vary depending on the type of disinfection agent,

pathogen of interest, and water quality parameters such as pH and

temperature. Current disinfection methods include using oxidizing agents like

chloramines, free chlorine, combined chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or ozone or by

using physical agents like UV light. Figure 2 portrays the Ct values at which

five disinfectants are effective in inactivating common pathogens.

8
 Figure 2: Overview of Ct Requirements of Common Disinfectant Agents in Pathogen
Inactivation
(Adapted from Mihelcic and Zimmerman, 2010)

Chlorine, a common disinfectant, is an oxidizing agent that reacts with many

substances, including iron, manganese, hydrogen sulfide, organic

compounds, and ammonia. To ensure that the chlorine is disinfecting

pathogens rather than solely reacting with the dissolved substances

mentioned above, the chlorine dosage must always exceed the chlorine

demand. Subtracting the demand from the dosage gives the chlorine

concentration.

9
Free chlorine is measured by the quantity of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and

hypochlorite (OCl-) ion present in an aqueous solution. The reaction involving

adding calcium hypochlorite to water (type of chlorine present in the chlorine

tablets used in this study) is shown as.

Ca(OCl)2 + 2H2O → Ca2+ + 2HOCl + 2OH—

HOCl  H+ + OCl-

However, ammonia (NH3), if present, reacts with hypochlorous acid (HOCl) to

form the weak disinfectant chloramines, which contain between one (NH2Cl)

to three (NCl3) moles of chlorine per mole of nitrogen.

NH3 + HOCl  NH2Cl (monochloramine)+ H2O

NH2Cl + HOCl  NHCl2 (dichloramine)+ H2O
NHCl2 + HOCl  NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O

The chloramines, referred to as combined chlorine, need longer contact times

and higher concentrations than their free chlorine concentration counterparts.

Adding free chlorine to combined chlorine results in the quantity of total

chlorine.

If ammonia is not present, all the concentration is said to be free chlorine.

When ammonia is present, the situation is different. Following Figure 3, once

the chlorine has reacted with any other chemicals or materials present, the

chlorine remaining is called the chlorine concentration, serving to disinfect the

water. At this point the chlorine reacts with ammonia to form chloramine

compounds. Free chlorine can only be formed after all ammonia has been

converted.

10
 Figure 3: Typical Breakpoint Chlorination Curve based on Chlorine Applied and Chlorine
Concentrations
(Reproduced from EPA, 1978)

A common way to describe the kinetics of the disinfection process is to use

Chick’s law, which assumes that a first-order equation can relate the

concentration of chlorine and the number of organisms. The differential

equation is dN/dt =-K×N, where dN/dt is the rate of change in the number of

organisms with time (organisms/volume/time), N is the concentration of

organisms (organisms/volume), and K is the Chick’s law rate constant

(1/time).

11
The Focus on Disinfection

Pathogens are commonly present in drinking water around the world.

Diarrheal diseases and other water-borne pathogens can cause significant

negative health consequences, thus inactivation of these pathogens is

pursued. One option is to protect and improve the water source, the other is to

disinfect the water before it reaches the consumer.

Physical and Chemical Disinfection Strategies

If improving the water source is not preferred, the water can be disinfected.

Options can be physical like water boiling, UV radiation, and filtration or

chemical with the use of chlorine gas, chlorine solution, ozone gas, or iodine.

Because chlorine is both simple and relatively inexpensive, it is often the

preferred choice in the developing world. The World Health Organization

reports that “chlorine residual throughout the distribution system is an

essential safety measure when distribution system integrity cannot be

assured,” a common situation in the developing world (WHO, 2003). Table

3 reports that bacteria has low resistance to chlorine, moderate resistance

to viruses and helminthes, and high resistance to most protozoa.

12
Table 3: Description of Health Significance, Persistence in Water Supplies, Resistance to
Chlorine, Relative Infectivity, and Important Animal Source of Common Bacteria, Viruses,
Protozoa, and Helminths

(Reproduced from WHO, 2006)

13
Comparison of Chlorine Compounds Used for Disinfection

Chlorine gas is commonly found in developed countries. However,

hypochlorites are more common in developing countries for disinfection

because of their wide availability, ease and safety of handling, and simplicity

of requisite feed systems (Harris, 1992). Available hypochlorites include

sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach), usually in liquid form, chlorinated lime

(bleaching powder), usually in solid form, and calcium hypochlorite (HTH-high

test hypochlorite) also usually available in the solid forms of powder, tablets,

or granules (Harris, 1992; Richardson, 2004; Skinner, 2001). The various

chlorine compounds available in the developing world are reviewed in Table

4.

Table 4: Description of Chlorine Compounds’ Common Name, Chemical Formula, Form, and
Percent Active Chlorine by Mass
Compound Common Name Chemical Formula Form Percent
active
chlorine by
mass (%)
Dilute sodium Household Solution of sodium Liquid 1-5
hypochlorite bleach hypochlorite
Sodium NaOCl Liquid 10-15
hypochlorite
Chlorinated Bleaching CaO*2CaOCl2*3H20 Solid 25-35
lime powder
Calcium High-test Ca(OCl) 2*4 H20 Solid 60-70
hypochlorite hypochlorite

Sodium hypochlorite can be used both in small scale water systems and in

the home (WHO, 2000). Containing 10-14% available chlorine, sodium

hypochlorite can be highly toxic and hazardous (Skinner, 2001; Richardson,

2004). Diluted into household bleach, the substance is more stable. However,

it has the potential to be corrosive, gives off gas, and loses 10% of available

chlorine in 10 days (Harris, 1992). Also, it can be stored no more than 4-6

14
weeks, with a maximum shelf life of 60-90 days (WHO, 1993). However, with

proper storage, avoiding exposure to light and heat, it can last several months

(Skinner, 2001). Thus, bulk purchases and long-term storage are not

advisable (Harris, 1992).

Another type of chlorine disinfectant is chlorinated lime. Containing 25-37%

available chlorine, it also decomposes rapidly with rising temperature,

moisture, and light (Skinner, 2001; WHO, 1993). Chlorinated lime and

quicklime are more stable at high temperatures, with only 25-30% available

chlorine (Harris, 1992). It is recommended to dissolve the chlorinated lime into

solution to 2% available chlorine before entering water (WRC, 1984).

Calcium hypochlorite, a more stable chlorine compound, contains 60-70%

available chlorine. It has the positive characteristics of easy transport and

storage potential (Harris, 1992). It can be in the form of a pure powder; tablets

are not in the pure form in order to reduce the absorption of moisture. It is

recommended to store calcium hypochlorite in a cool, dry, airtight container to

reduce absorption of moisture (Skinner, 2001).

Comparison of Chlorine Delivery Options in to Water System

Chlorine delivery to the water system is usually classified into three

categories: gravity-driven, water-powered, and diffusion-based. Gravity-driven

options include: Mariotte Jar; inverted bottle with water seal; constant-head

tanks; inverted bottle with floating valve; floating draw-off; and Vandos

chemical feeder. Water-powered chlorinators are wheel feeder dosers, float-

15
powered chemical doser, hydraulic motor/piston driven dosers, Venturi-

powered dosers, Direct suction dosers, Displacement-bag doser. Lastly,

diffusions-based options include Pot chlorinators and floating chlorinators,

Continuous flow diffusers, Intermittent flow diffusers (Skinner, 2001). In the

developing world, options are sometimes limited by the lack of electricity.

One particular gravity-driven chlorinator that does not require electricity and

still provides relatively accurate dosing is the Pulsar 1 unit, originally used in

chlorinating pools using calcium hypochlorite tablets, but this time adapted to

the developing world in Ghana. The study noted technical feasibility, but with

challenges in training for operation and maintenance of the Pulsar 1 unit

because of its technical complexity. Also, the majority of testing took place in

the United States; the implementation and testing of the unit took place during

a three week trip to Ghana and not studied over the long term for durability of

the unit, training of the operator, or change in flow or water quality due to

seasonal variability (Cash-Fitzpatrick, 2008).

Comparison of Chlorine Concentration Testing Options

Chlorine concentration testing has multiple functions. One, it can be used in

conjunction with coliform testing to help in dosing instead of modeling (Gibbs

et al, 2006). Concentration testing is used to determine the effectiveness of

chlorine in disinfection. Chlorine reacts with organics, metals, ammonia,

sulfides, and bacteria, thus the concentration records the chlorine left in the

system after reacting with the above mentioned items.

16
In order to test the chlorine concentration, a variety of options are available.

The DPD (N,N Diethyl-1,4 Phenylenediamine Sulfate) method is the most

common, reacting with chlorine to change the color of the liquid (Wilde, 1991;

Skinner 2001; Reed, 2005). Two DPD testing methods exist--the color-wheel

or the digital colorimeter. The color wheel, or comparator, is affordable, but

relies on subjective measurement, thus training is needed to ensure

consistency in data. The color wheel can be accurate to 0.1 mg/L (Reed,

2005; Skinner, 2001). The second option, the colorimeter is more expensive

up front and per test, but is quick, easy, and offers high level precision when

calibrated (Harp, 2002). The DPD method is compared with other methods in

Table 5.

One notable company that produces field water quality testing kits is the

HACH Company (Loveland, CO). Table 6 compares the color comparison and

digital colorimeter in a variety of categories. In this study, the HACH Pocket

Colorimeter II Test Kit, using the DPD Colorimetric method, was used

because of its quick and precise measurements.

Table 5: Comparison of Analytical Methods for Chlorine by Analysis Range, Detection Level,
Estimated Precision, Application, and Skill Level
(Adapted from Harp, 1995)
Method Analysis Range Detection Level Estimated Application
(mg/L) (mg/L) Precision (%
RSD)
DPD 0-5 0.005 1-2 Free and Total
Colorimetric
ULR-DPD 0-0.5 0.002 5-6 Total
Colorimetric
DPD Titration 0-3 0.018 2-7 Free and Total
Iodometric Up to 4% 1 NR Total Oxidants

17
Table 6: Comparison of HACH Chlorine Testing Products by Type, Measurement, Range, Increment, Price, and Reagent Price
(Adapted from HACH, 2011)

18
Comparison of Chlorine Concentration Monitoring and Modeling

Options

With increased technology, knowledge, materials, and capacity in the

developing world, water system operators are likely to look for better ways to

effectively analyze the inactivation of pathogens using chlorine in their water

systems. Chlorine not only decays, but also reacts with organic and inorganic

material, biofilms attached to pipe walls, and corroded pipe materials before

reaching the user (Vasconcelos et al., 1997). The ability to model data will

help predict chlorine concentration levels within a system as the chlorine is

consumed, thus helping with the operation of a system to deliver disinfected

water to the community. Many theoretical models and applications of chlorine

concentration modeling exist, but none have been applied in the developing

world setting.

In the developed world, two types of modeling frameworks exist. The first is

the Process-Based Modeling Framework. To produce the process-based type

of model that accurately portrays how chlorine reacts in a water system, “a

good understanding of the system…along with extensive, accurate data to

produce the hydraulic model used to determine travel times of water in the

system” is required (Gibbs et al., 2006). The data is harder to obtain in the

developing world because of variability in water supply flows due to seasonal

variation and weather patterns and changing usage trends due to, for

example, seasonal working schedules. This process-based method requires

“extensive and accurate data regarding numerous water quality

parameters… [making] development of mathematical water quality models

19
quite challenging” (D'Souza and Kumar, 2010). The framework models the

decay of chlorine in its reactions interacting with substances in the water

(bulk-decay) and with the pipe surfaces (wall-decay) to produce most-

commonly first order exponential decay equations. The wall-decay

reactions are modeled with existing data on pipe material, initial chlorine

concentration, flow velocity, corrosion, and biofilm to produce the

coefficients for the models (Huang, 2007).

The second type of model is called the Data-Driven Statistical Model. It is

often used in situations when data of the water system is imprecise,

difficult to obtain or unavailable, a common situation in the developing

world. The statistically based models are based on dependent and

independent variables like temperature, flow rates, and chlorine input. One

example of a data-driven model is an artificial neural network, which can

predict the chlorine decay between two points by using historical data to

“identify the intricacies of a process and discover and establish complex

non-linear relationships between input and output variables” (Gibbs et al.,

2006; Rodriguez, J. West, Powell, & Serodes, 1997). Both the process-

based model and the data-driven model are applicable but not been used

in the developing world.

20
Application of Field Free Chlorine Concentration to Ct Values

As discussed previously, multiplying the chlorine concentration by the contact

time results in the Ct value—the higher the value, the more resistant to

disinfection the pathogen is.

With the values of free chlorine concentration, contact time, and pH,

conclusions can be drawn to previous studies (Figure 4) as to the

effectiveness of the disinfection in inactivating key pathogens. In Figure 4,

disinfection of E. coli present in water with a pH of 7 requires a Ct of 0.1,

disinfection of Hepatitis A requires a Ct of 10, and disinfection E. histolytica

with a ph of 7 requires a Ct of 35.

Figure 4: 2 Log Disinfection of Selected Microorganisms by Free Chlorine in Terms of Time,

and pH
(Reproduced from WHO, 2004)

Table 7 provides a summary of a variety of studies on different pathogens to

find their appropriate Ct value, which is used in comparison to the results of

21
the field studies that measured free chlorine in this study. In this table, Ct

values are listed as < 0.25 mg x min/L for E. coli, 1 mg x min/L for Salmonella

typhi, < 0.41 mg x min/L for Hepatitis A, and < 15 mg x min/L for Giardia

lamblia. In intervention contexts, the chlorinator could be applied to urban

areas after storage tanks in a distribution system. Therefore, this study will

include values for Vibrio cholerae (<0.5) and Rotavirus (0.05).

In conclusion, previous studies have been done in the developed world on

concentration and contact time of chlorine as well as advanced modeling of

disinfection of water supply systems, but the application of the Ct method and

modeling to rural gravity flow water systems in Panama and other developing

world locations to study the effectiveness of an in-line chlorinator is unique.

22
Table 7: Safe Water’s Table of Drinking Water Quality Characteristics and Ct Values for Common Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa. Pathogens common to
Panama include E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Hepatitis A, Giardia lamblia, and E. histolytica. Vibrio cholerae, Rotavirus are also used because of their
applicability to cases of intervention. (Reproduced from Center for Disease Control, 2007)

23
 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods

Location of Field Study

The two communities studied in this research are Calabazal and Quebrada

Mina. Both communities are served by gravity flow water supply systems.

Figure 5 shows their relative location to each other.

The Comarca Ngabe Bugle is situated in western Panama, where the

Cordillera mountain range divides the Comarca Ngabe Bugle in two—the one

half located on the northern Caribbean side and the other located on southern

Pacific side. Most of the aqueducts in the Comarca Ngabe Bugle are gravity-

fed water systems that originate from springs. The two systems selected for

this study, Calabazal and Quebrada Mina, shown in Figure 5, are fairly

representative of most water systems in the area. Both systems have

chlorinators placed upstream from the storage tank and receive more flow in

the wet season (April to December) and less flow in the dry season

(December to April). For more information on the components and

construction of gravity flow water systems and spring box design, please see

Mihelcic et al. (2009).

24
Figure 5: Map of Calabazal, Quebrada Mina, and Surrounding Communities

25
The Panama Ministry of Environmental Health (MINSA) in San Felix supplies

a materials list for construction of the chlorinator along with chlorine tablets

(Appendix A). The community is responsible for purchasing the materials and

constructing the chlorinator. The water system is managed by a local water

committee, made up of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary, and

two messengers, all who are members of the community. It is common for

each committee member to serve for two years before a new committee is

elected. If there are any problems that the community is unable to resolve,

MINSA is able to provide technical support.

Quebrada Mina is an indigenous community of 140 people. It is located just

off the newly paved road heading to the larger town of Cerro Iglesias. In 2009,

a Peace Corps Volunteer worked with community leaders and the NGO

Waterlines, to construct a new aqueduct, connecting 25 houses to two

springs. A storage tank was built, sprouting two main lines that lead to the

community. In order to maintain the aqueduct, the water committee organizes

regular water meetings and workdays, which require all households

connected to the aqueduct to send one representative to attend and

participate.

Calabazal is a neighboring community located approximately ten minutes

away from Quebrada Mina by walking east. It is home to 325 residents and

has a primary school and health post. The aqueduct system, built in 2001 with

the help of the local government, has 25 house connections. Water from a

spring is captured by a spring box, transported to a storage tank, and then

26
split into three main lines to the community. The chlorinator was installed on

October 8, 2010, just up the line from the tank. Table 8 compares the gravity

flow water systems of Quebrada Mina and Calabazal. Quebrada Mina has a

newer water system with less beneficiaries, but the system is a little more

spread out. Water enters the storage tank from two separate transmission

lines, one carrying water from one spring and the other carrying water from

two springs. The Quebrada Mina system has the chlorinator installed on only

one transmission line up line from the 3,000 gallon storage tank.

Table 8: Comparison of Quebrada Mina and Calabazal Gravity Flow Water Systems in Terms
of Year Built, Number of Beneficiaries and Households, and Physical Characteristics of the
Water Systems
Quebrada Mina Calabazal
Year Built 2009 2001
Number of Beneficiaries 140 325
Number of Households 25 40
Type of Water Source 3 springs 1 spring
Distance to Last House on Line 1,400m 300m
Size of Storage Tank 3,000 gal 3,000 gal
Number of House Connections 25 25
Location of Chlorinator Up line from tank Up line from tank

Physical Description and History of MINSA’s In-Line PVC Chlorinator

The chlorinator is essentially a PVC cylinder with a screw-on top, where a

chlorine tablet can be inserted in the cylinder and the top screwed back on. It

is recommended to place the chlorinator directly into the line right upstream

from the storage tank to achieve sufficient contact time for the chlorine. Figure

6 shows how as the water passes by the chlorinator, the 3-inch chlorine tablet

slowly dissolves into the water.

27
 Figure 6: Design of the Panama Ministry of Environmental Health’s (MINSA) In-Line PVC
Chlorinator. The ½” hole can be enlarged to increase flow into the 3” PVC cylinder. The
reduction can be changed depending on the diameter of tube of the transmission line.

A MINSA technical worker mentioned to this study’s author that before 1998,

MINSA recommended the use of a 55-gallon drip chlorinator tank that was

placed on top of the water tank (see Mihelcic et al., 2009 for description). After

problems of chlorinator tanks not being used and maintained properly in the

Comarca Ngabe Bugle due to lack of training and interaction with the agency,

MINSA searched for a different solution—the in-line chlorinator. The in-line

chlorinator is not an officially approved and tested design by MINSA, just a

technology they believe could be more effective in the Comarca Ngabe Bugle.

There is space in the chlorinator for more than one tablet to be added.

The chlorinator does not have a stated maximum flow it can handle; however,

the amount of chlorine that dissolves into the water can be adjusted by the
28
size, quantity and location of holes in the PVC container that holds the

chlorine tablet (e.g., ½ inch hole in Figure 6). The holes are normally just

under ½ inch in diameter.

The chlorine tablets are manufactured by the company Provichlor, part of

Ruequim (Morelia, Mexico). Each tablet is three inches in diameter, weighs

200 grams, is reported to contain 60% calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) (by

weight), and is designed to have 2 grams of tablet dissolved into every 1,000

liters of water to ensure that the concentration is above the minimum

concentration of 1 mg/L. At the start of testing, tablets were provided from

MINSA to the study’s author through an unsealed clear hard plastic cylinder,

holding approximately 10 tablets. Accordingly, some tablets were not

adequately protected from the humidity—the author observed that when

placed in water for five minutes, they promptly broke apart upon touch.

MINSA then delivered the tablets in individually wrapped plastic packages, the

recommended manner for storage because the chlorine does not have the

ability to react with moisture in the air.

The Comarca MINSA office receives money from MINSA in Panama City to

purchase the tablets. The tablets are purchased for $2 a piece from a retailer

in the nearby city of David. The tablets were initially sold for $1 a piece in the

Comarca Ngabe Bugle, but the water committees were reluctant to purchase

the tablets as they were unsure of the benefits. MINSA now distributes the

tablets for free to ensure more regular use.

29
Figures 7a-d display the process of installing the chlorinator into the aqueduct,

shown from the installation in Calabazal in October 2010.

a b

d c

Figure 7: MINSA PVC Chlorinator in the Field. Clockwise from upper left:
a) 3¨ diameter chlorine tablet being added to 3” PVC capsule; b) 3¨ PVC capsule inside 4”
Tube; c) PVC chlorinator in the field; d) Chlorinator installed below ground surface upstream
of water storage tank

30
Methods

During each round of testing, free chlorine and total chlorine concentration

were measured every time at each sampling location. The chlorine

concentration (free and total chlorine) was determined using a HACH Pocket

Colorimeter II (Cat. No. 58700-00). Low range testing occurs within the range

of 0.02-2.00 mg/L and high range 0.1-8.0 mg/L. This HACH Pocket

Colorimeter II tests for free chlorine and total chlorine concentration using the

DPD (N,N Diethyl-1,4 Phenylenediamine Sulfate) method, a USEPA accepted

method, that uses powder pillows as an indicator (APHA, 2005). To measure

free chlorine, the DPD in the pillow is oxidized by the chlorine (added as

calcium hypochlorite) in the water, causing the water to turn a magenta color.

DPD can also react with bromine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, iodine,

ozone and permanganate, creating a false positive. To determine total

chlorine, potassium iodide is added, which then is oxidized by the

chloramines. This reaction results in iodine, which reacts with DPD and turns

the water a magenta color. The pillows have an estimated detection limit of

0.1 mg/L. DPD Chlorine Spec Color Standards (Cat. 26353-00) of 0.23, 0.94,

and 1.63 mg/L were obtained and used from HACH Company to ensure that

the instrument was working consistently and properly.

Other factors that could affect the chlorine concentration downstream from the

chlorinator, such as temperature and flow rate, were also measured. Turbidity

measurements were not taken as an instrument was unavailable. The

temperature was measured at every location that a sample was collected for

analysis of chlorine during the Field Study 1. The flow was measured entering

31
the storage tank at the beginning of each field study. Additionally, the tablet

weight was also measured at the beginning of each time period for which

sampling of chlorine occurred. Tables and figures regarding temperature,

flow, and tablet weight are provided in Appendix B.

Testing Procedure for Field Study 1 (April 28-30)

After recording the dry weight of the tablet, the tablet was inserted into the

chlorinator and removed after one hour to record the wet weight. The

temperature was measured by collecting a 1,000-mL sample and inserting an

environmental thermometer into the sample for one minute before reading the

result. Free chlorine and total chlorine concentration were measured at the

source (i.e., spring), entering the storage tank two meters downstream from

the chlorinator, leaving the storage tank, the first house, the middle house,

and the last house on the transmission line. All chlorine measurements were

done in duplicate. This process of recording the wet weight of the tablet and

testing for free and total chlorine was then repeated two days later. As the

results were obtained from Field Study 1, the procedure was modified slightly

for the subsequent field studies. The changes in the experimental plan, made

in an attempt to achieve better results in future rounds, are provided in Table

9, and included sampling more frequently, using dilutions, and obtaining only

one sample instead of two. When the tablets were not sealed in a plastic

wrapper before use, the entire tablet dissolved in a matter of hours. Testing

took place around every two hours for one day. When the tablets were sealed

in plastic wrapper before use, the tablet dissolved in approximately one week.

32
In this case, testing occurred every twenty-four hours until the concentration

fell below the detection limit.

Table 9: Summary of Procedural Changes after Field Study 1

Field Study 1 Field Study 2 Field Studies 3 & 4 Field Studies 5-7
# of chlorine 2 2 2 2
tests made at
each point
Time Intervals 2,24,48 1,3,5,8,24 1,3,5,8,24, 2, 1 day, 2 days, 3
(hr) between 25,27,29,32,48 days, 4 days,5
sampling days, 6 days, 7
days
Gathering of 5 min after Same time as Same time as free Same time as free
sample for Total free chlorine free chlorine chlorine chlorine
Chlorine
measurement
Dilutions used None Yes (1/10) Yes (1/10) None
before analysis
for chlorine
pH Test Yes Yes, only at Yes, only at 1hr None
1hr
Temperature Yes None None None
measured
New Tablet No No Yes No
added at 24
hours

Free Chlorine and Total Chlorine Concentration Testing Procedure

For samples collected at the spring, a 100-mL beaker was filled from the

cleanout valve after confirming the presence of no sediment and then letting

the water run for 15 seconds. When testing the water entering the tank, the

100-mL beaker was filled from the water entering the tank through the inlet

pipe. Leaving the tank, the sample was collected from the storage tank’s

cleanout valve after 15 seconds and confirming no sediment. A 100-mL

sample was collected in a glass beaker from the faucets of the homes after

water was run for fifteen seconds. Two 10-mL cells provided by HACH were

filled using the 100-mL sample, serving as blanks. The meter cap was

removed from the HACH Pocket Colorimeter II, the first blank was placed in

the cell holder and the cap was placed over the cell compartment. The blank

33
was then zeroed, the blank removed, and the contents of one DPD Free

Chlorine or Total Chlorine Powder Pillow were added to the blank. The cell

was shaken for 20 seconds, was wiped down of excess liquid or fingerprints

with a dry towel, and then returned to the cell holder and covered with the

cap. The enter key was pressed after one minute in order to obtain the free

chlorine concentration. This procedure was repeated for the second blank.

After thoroughly rinsing the two cells with water from the faucet, the procedure

was repeated to obtain the total chlorine concentration. All free chlorine and

total chlorine concentration results reported are the average of two

measurements obtained from one sample. Apart from the chemical added, the

only difference between the free chlorine and total chlorine analysis was that

the measurement for total chlorine requires a waiting period of four minutes

instead of one minute.

Flow Testing Procedure

A 1,000-mL container was used to measure the flow rate because this size fit

best in the limited space available to measure flow in to the full storage tank.

The container was used to collect all the water entering the tank until the

container was filled while a stopwatch measured the time elapsed. This

procedure was repeated twice and the results were averaged.

Tablet Weight Testing Procedure

A kitchen scale was used to measure the weight of the tablet at the beginning

of each testing period. The scale was placed on a level surface and zeroed.

Next, a dry tablet was placed on the scale until the reading steadied, usually

34
after about three seconds. Readings were obtained before initially placing a

new tablet in the chlorinator, after five minutes submerged in water, and then

during every testing period. The wet tablet was dried by gently shaking the

tablet until all excess water was removed. The tablet was weighed after

sampling the water entering the tank and before sampling the water leaving

the tank so that the chlorine concentration readout entering the tank wouldn’t

be affected by the tablet not being present for two or three minutes.

Location of Testing

Initially, two communities’ water systems were tested, Calabazal and

Quebrada Mina. After receiving similar results from both communities (Field

Studies 1-2), further testing was only conducted in Calabazal due to its closer

proximity between sampling locations (Field Studies 3-7).

In Calabazal and Quebrada Mina, the testing occurred at the spring (before

the chlorinator), entering the water storage tank (2 m after the chlorinator),

leaving the storage tank, the first house, the middle house, and the last house

along the transmission line. Testing required approximately two hours to test

at all locations. Once results continuously confirmed no detection of chlorine

at the spring, the testing for chlorine concentration was discontinued at that

location. The distances between testing locations in Calabazal are provided in

Table 10, and a map of Calabazal aqueduct that shows sampling locations is

provided in Figure 8. The distances between testing locations in Quebrada

Mina are provided in Table 11 and a map of the Quebrada Mina aqueduct that

35
shows sampling locations is provided in Figure 9. A summary of the testing

dates and quantity of samples is shown in Table 12.

Table 10: Distance between Testing Locations for Calabazal Aqueduct

Starting Location Ending Location Distance (m)

Spring Tank 661
Tank First House 23
First House Middle House 143
Middle House Last House 177

Figure 8: Water System Map for Village of Calabazal Showing Sampling Locations
(Red Circles) and Location of Chlorinator (Black Circle). The line leading to the
school, shown in orange, diverges before the tank and is not chlorinated. The letter P
represents pluma, the word for faucet in Spanish.

36
 Table 11: Approximate Distance between Testing Locations for Quebrada Mina Aqueduct

Starting Location Ending Location Distance (m)

Spring Tank 300
Tank First House 240
First House Middle House 630
Middle House Last House 597
Spring Last House 1767

Figure 9: Water System Map for Village of Quebrada Mina Showing Sampling Locations (Red Circles) and Location of Chlorinator (Black Circle). The
letter P represents pluma, the word for faucet in Spanish

37
Table 12: Description of Field Studies 1-7, Including Dates of Study, Tablet Description, and Calculation for Number of Chlorine Tests Needed in Quebrada
Mina and Calabazal.
Field Study Location Tablet Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of
Description Communities Testing Chlorine Sampling Chlorine Tests
Sampled Times Measurements Locations in Field Study
1: (April 28-30) Calabazal One Tablet 2 3 2 6 72
Q. Mina Without Wrapper
2: (June 17-20) Calabazal One Tablet 2 5 2 6 120
Q. Mina Without Wrapper
3: (June 22-23) Calabazal One Tablet 1 5 2 6 60
Without Wrapper
4: (June 23-24) Calabazal One Tablet 1 5 2 6 60
Without Wrapper
5: (August 7-14) Calabazal One Tablet 1 8 2 6 96
Stored in
Wrapper Before
Use
6: (August 17-24) Calabazal One Tablet 1 8 2 6 96
Stored in
Wrapper Before
Use
7: (August 25- Calabazal Three Tablets 1 8 2 6 96
September 1) Stored in
Wrapper Before
Use

38
 Chapter 4: Results and Discussion

The results are organized into three sections: results of one tablet installed in

the chlorinator that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper; one tablet

installed in the chlorinator that was stored in the plastic wrapper before use;

and three tablets installed in the chlorinator that were stored in the plastic

wrapper before use. The one tablet installed in the chlorinator that was not

provided in a sealed plastic wrapper section contains results from two

communities: Quebrada Mina and Calabazal. Because of similar results in this

first study, only the water system of Calabazal was tested for one tablet stored

in the sealed plastic wrapper before use and three tablets stored in the sealed

plastic wrapper before use. Approximately two hours were needed to test at

every testing location in the system, from the spring to the last house on the

line.

Although the Ct method utilizes the free chlorine concentration, total chlorine

was measured to verify free chlorine measurements. Out of 257 free chlorine

concentration measurements, only 23 resulted in measurements that

exceeded the measured total chlorine concentration, and only 3 were greater

by more than 0.02 mg/L. This suggests the techniques used in the field to

measure free chlorine were consistent and accurate. Total chlorine

measurements can be found in Appendix B.

39
Table 13 summarizes the average and standard deviation for free chlorine

and total chlorine concentration during Field Studies 5, 6, and 7. The results

show a general trend of the total chlorine being approximately 50% higher

than free chlorine, indicating the presence of chloramines, a weaker

disinfectant, in the water system.

Table 13: Comparison of Free Chlorine and Total Chlorine Concentration Averages and
Standard Deviation during Field Studies 5, 6, and 7
Field Free Chlorine Free Chlorine Total Chlorine Total Chlorine
Study Concentration Concentration Concentration Concentration
Average (mg/L) Standard Deviation Average (mg/L) Standard Deviation
5 0.09 0.07 0.13 0.08
6 0.10 0.06 0.13 0.07
7 0.21 0.09 0.30 0.11

In Quebrada Mina, the pH increased as water traveled from the spring box

(6.8-7.2) to the last house (7.4-7.6), with little variation between Field Studies

1 and 2. In Calabazal, a pH value of 6.8 was measured at every location

during every test. The piping is the same, so the difference is likely attributed

to the source water.

Temperature was measured in Field Study 1. In Quebrada Mina, cooler

temperatures were recorded at the spring (24-25 oC), increasing up to 30 oC

at some house connections. In Calabazal, the spring recorded temperatures

of 25-26 oC and up to 28 oC at some houses.

Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in the Quebrada Mina

and Calabazal Water System Using One Tablet Installed in the

Chlorinator that was not Provided in a Sealed Plastic Wrapper

The results of the free chlorine concentration measured in the Quebrada Mina

water system using one tablet installed in the chlorinator without a wrapper is
40
displayed in Figures 10a-b and Tables 14-15. Results of the free chlorine

concentration measured in Calabazal are provided in Figures 11a-d and

Tables 16-19. Free chlorine concentration was originally tested at the 48 and

72 hour marks because of the recommendation of a MINSA technical worker

that tablets should last approximately ten days.

Figure 10a indicates that in Field Study 1 in Quebrada Mina after two hours of

contact, over 8 mg/L of free chlorine concentration was measured leaving the

tank and at the first house on the line, indicating that the tablet dissolved

rapidly during the first few hours after insertion in to the chlorinator. After 24

hours, free chlorine concentrations were measured between 0.06-0.69 mg/L.

After 48 hours, chlorine was mostly not present in the system (0.04 mg/L free

chlorine leaving the tank, 0.25 mg/L free chlorine at the last house). Beginning

in Field Study 2, sampling took place at the 1, 3, 5, 8, and 24 hour marks.

Figure 10b shows results from five samples taken during the first 24 hours

after insertion of a new tablet into the chlorinator during Field Study 2. It

indicates that the majority of the chlorine entered the tank before the third

hour, with all free chlorine concentration exiting the system before testing at

24 hours. A free chlorine concentration of 21 mg/L was recorded entering the

tank after 1 hour (flow rate of 3.18 gpm), which then mixed with the non-

chlorinated water arriving from the other spring (flow rate of 3.97 gpm) and the

water already present in the tank, leaving the tank with a concentration of 1.02

mg/L free chlorine after 1 hour (all flow measurements can be found in

Appendix C). After 3 hours, free chlorine concentration ranged from 2.6 mg/L

41
entering the tank to 14.7 mg/L free chlorine at the last house, showing how

the chlorine tablet had previously reached its maximum output, therefore

resulting in higher free chlorine concentrations at the end of the line and lower

free chlorine concentrations closer to the chlorinator. At the 5 hour mark, free

chlorine concentrations at the houses ranged from 5.1-12.3 mg/L, then lower

again to 4.2-8.7 mg/L after 8 hours. Residents responded to the high

concentrations by saying that they would not drink water that tasted like pure

chlorine. Free chlorine concentrations at all locations were measured below

0.05 mg/L after 24 hours.

Free 2 hr avg
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

10.0
7.5
5.0 Free 24 hr avg
2.5
0.0 Free 48 hr avg
Spring Entering Leaving First Middle Last
Tank Tank House House House
a Location

25
Free 1 hr avg
20
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

Free 3 hr avg
15

10 Free 5 hr avg

5 Free 8 hr avg

0 Free 24 hr avg
Entering Leaving First Spring
Middle Last
Tank Tank House House House
b Location
Figure 10: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina Water System at
Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011) and Field Study 2 (June 17-20,
2011). Results are shown for different time periods after the addition of one chlorine tablet
that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
a) Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011)
b) Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011)

42
 Table 14: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina Water System at
Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011). Results are shown for different
time periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic
wrapper.
Free Chlorine Free Chlorine Free Chlorine
Location (mg/L) at 2 hr (mg/L) at 24 hr (mg/L) at 48 hr
Spring 0.02 0.01 0.01
Entering Tank 0.05 0.24 0.03
Leaving Tank 8.05 0.06 0.04
First House 8.60 0.11 0.01
Middle House 0.02 0.18 0.08
Last House 0.02 0.42 0.25

43
 Table 15: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina Water System at
Different Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011). Results are shown for different
time periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic
wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) at 1 (mg/L) at (mg/L) at 5 (mg/L) at 8 (mg/L) at
Location hr 3 hr hr hr 24 hr
Spring 0.00
Entering
Tank 21.0 2.6 0.05 0.10 0.03
Leaving
Tank 1.02 7.7 6.3 5.7 0.04
First House 0.00 9.3 5.7 4.8 0.01
Middle
House 0.00 2.6 5.1 4.2 0.04
Last House 0.00 14.7 12.3 8.7 0.04

In Field Study 1 in Calabazal, shown in Figure 11a, free chlorine

concentrations above 8 mg/L were recorded at 2 hours leaving the tank, at the

middle house, and at the last house. The values decreased to a maximum

free chlorine concentration of 0.14 mg/L after 24 hours and 0.01 mg/L after 48

hours.

Free chlorine concentrations during Field Study 2, shown in Figure 11b, at the

houses increased from 0.59-2.01 mg/L after 1 hour to 1.50-2.9 mg/L after 3

hours and then decreased to 0.10-0.39 mg/L after 5 hours and remained

steady at 0.05-0.36 mg/L after 8 hours. Because of darkness and safety

concerns, further testing was not conducted after 8 hours. Water continued to

flow out of two overflow pipes and out the tank breather throughout the field

testing due to an abundance of water entering the tank and low demand,

possibly losing some chlorinated water. Because future water system

operators will work to maintain chlorine concentration in the system at all

times, results from Field Studies 1-2 indicate that tablets should be replaced

44
daily to maintain proper free chlorine concentration in the system at all times.

To mimic that situation, Field Study 4 commenced the day immediately after

the chlorine concentration left the system from Field Study 3.

In Field Study 3, shown in Figure 11c, free chlorine concentration entering the

tank dropped from 4.6 mg/L after 1 hour to 0.08 mg/L after 3 hours, indicating

that the tablet dissolved rapidly. The maximum free chlorine concentration

recorded at the houses dropped from 2.8 mg/L (1 hour) to 1.44 mg/L (3 hours)

to 0.38 mg/L (5 hours) to 0.18 mg/L (8 hours) to 0.03 mg/L (23 hours). Field

Study 4 indicated similar results, with maximum free chlorine dropped from

3.2 mg/L (1 hour) to 1.93 mg/L (3 hours) to 1.15 mg/L (5 hours) 0.60 mg/L (8

hours) to 0.05 mg/L (23 hours). The slightly higher values between Field

Studies 3 and 4 indicate that chlorine demand possibly increased when

chlorine was not present. One possible explanation for the slightly higher

values further away from the storage tank in Field Study 4 could be from the

chlorine tablet breaking apart into smaller pieces and dissolving as they move

downstream. The higher values also could be from the initial shock of the

dissolving chlorine tablet moving downstream, being filled in by unchlorinated

water upstream. Field Studies 1-4 all show the tablet dissolving within three

hours, with free chlorine concentrations falling below 0.5 mg/L within 8 hours.

45
 Free 2 hr avg

Free Chlorine (mg/L)

10
8
6 Free 24 hr avg
4
2
0
Spring Entering Leaving First Middle Last Free 48 hr avg
Tank Tank House House House
Location
a
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

Free 1 hour avg

6
Free 3 hour avg
4
2
Free 5 hour avg
0
Spring Entering Leaving First Middle Last
Free 8 hour avg
Tank Tank House House House
Location
b
Free 1 hour avg
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

8 Free 3 hour avg

6
4
2
0 Free 5 hour avg

Free 8 hour avg

Free 23 hour avg

Location
c
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

8.0 Free 1 hour avg

6.0 Free 3 hour avg
4.0
2.0 Free 5 hour avg
0.0 Free 8 hour avg
Free 23 hour avg

Location
d
Figure 11: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011), Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011), Field
Study 3 (June 22-23, 2011), and Field Study 4 (June 23-24, 2011). Results are shown for
different time periods after the addition of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed
plastic wrapper. a) Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011) b) Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011)
c) Field Study 3 (June 22-23, 2011) d) Field Study 4 (June 23-24, 2011)

46
 Table 16: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Chlorine Free Chlorine Free Chlorine
Location (mg/L) at 2 hr (mg/L) at 24 hr (mg/L) at 48 hr
Spring 0.07 0.01 0.01
Entering Tank 5.2 0.01 0.01
Leaving Tank 8.6 0.14 0.01
First House 2.6 0.04
Middle House 8.6 0.03
Last House 8.8 0.02

Table 17: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods afterinsertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Chlorine Free Chlorine Free Chlorine Free Chlorine
Location (mg/L) at 1 hr (mg/L) at 3 hr (mg/L) at 5 hr (mg/L) at 8 hr
Spring 0.02
Entering Tank 4.2 0.69 0.04 0.03
Leaving Tank 0.74 0.62 0.15 0.14
First House 2.0 2.9 0.36 0.29
Middle House 0.67 2.50 0.39 0.36
Last House 0.59 1.50 0.10 0.05

Table 18: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 3 (June 22-23, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) at 1 (mg/L) at 3 (mg/L) at 5 (mg/L) at (mg/L) at 23
Location hr hr hr 8 hr hr
Spring 0.07
Entering Tank 4.6 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02
Leaving Tank 7.3 1.77 0.24 0.04 0.02
First House 0.00 1.26 0.37 0.18 0.00
Middle House 2.8 1.21 0.22 0.13 0.02
Last House 0.03 1.44 0.38 0.15 0.03

Table 19: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 4 (June 23-24, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) at
Location at 1 hr at 3 hr at 5 hr at 8 hr 23 hr
Entering Tank 6.9 0.22 0.05 0.03 0.04
Leaving Tank 4.0 1.38 0.42 0.20 0.00
First House 2.9 1.01 0.47 0.33 0.05
Middle House 3.2 1.77 0.49 0.33 0.03
Last House 0.2 1.93 1.15 0.60 0.00

47
Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in the Calabazal Water

System Using One Tablet Installed in the Chlorinator that was Stored in

the Sealed Plastic Wrapper before Use

The free chlorine concentration for Calabazal, tested for in Field Studies 5 and

6, used one tablet stored in a sealed plastic wrapper before use. The results

are displayed in Figures 12a-b and Tables 20-21.

In Field Study 5, one tablet, which was stored in a sealed plastic wrapper

before use, reported consistent values of 0.02-0.24 mg/L free chlorine in days

1-6, steadily declining over time. The 2 hour free chlorine concentration

entering the tank was higher (0.36 mg/L) and at day 7 was lower (0.01 mg/L)

than day 1-day 6. The maximum free chlorine concentration decreases

throughout the test from 0.24 mg/L (day 1) to 0.14 mg/L (day 4) to 0.04 mg/L

(day 7). Field Study 6 was similar, reporting free chlorine concentration of

0.04-0.24 mg/L during days 1-6 and falling below 0.02 mg/L on day 7.

48
 0.4
Free 2 hr avg

Free 1 d avg
0.3
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

Free 2 d avg

0.2 Free 3 d avg

Free 4 d avg
0.1
Free 5 d avg

0.0 Free 6 d avg

Entering Leaving Tank First House Middle Last House
a Tank Location House Free 7 d avg

Free 2 hr avg

0.25
Free 1 d avg

0.20
Free 2 d avg
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

0.15 Free 3 davg

0.10 Free 4 d avg

0.05 Free 6 d avg

0.00 Free 7 d avg

Entering Leaving Tank First House Middle Last House
Tank House Free 5 d avg
b Location

Figure 12: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 5 (August 7-14, 2011) and Field Study 6 (August 17-24, 2011).
Results are shown for different time periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was
stored in a sealed plastic wrapper. a) Field Study 5 (August 7-14, 2011) b) Field Study 6
(August 17-24, 2011)

49
Table 20: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 5 (August 7-14, 2011). Results are
shown for different time periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was stored in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) at (mg/L) at 1 (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at
Location 2 hr d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Entering Tank 0.36 0.15 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.08 0.01
Leaving Tank 0.11 0.06 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.06 0.03 0.00
First House 0.04 0.24 0.21 0.14 0.12 0.08 0.04 0.04
Middle House 0.08 0.19 0.11 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.04
Last House 0.03 0.13 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.02

Table 21: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different Locations during Field Study 6 (August 17-24, 2011). Results are
shown for different time periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was stored in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) at (mg/L) at 1 (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at
Location 2 hr d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Entering Tank 0.13 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.08 0.07 0.02 0.01
Leaving Tank 0.13 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.08 0.01
First House 0.15 0.12 0.13 0.16 0.08 0.04 0.01
Middle House 0.11 0.08 0.16 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.02
Last House 0.17 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.05 0.00

50
Results of Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in the Calabazal Water

System Using Three Tablets Installed in the Chlorinator that were Stored

in the Plastic Wrapper before Use

Values from Field Studies 5 and 6 remained below the recommended value of

0.3 mg/L for inactivation of pathogens present in Panama. In an effort to

increase the free chlorine concentration above 0.3 mg/L, three tablets stored

in wrapper before use were inserted in the chlorinator and their results

displayed in Table 22 and Figure 13.

0.5
Free 2 hr avg

0.4 Free 1 d avg

Free Chlorine (mg/L)

Free 2 d avg
0.3
Free 3 d avg
0.2
Free 4 d avg
0.1 Free 5 d avg

0.0 Free 6 d avg

Entering Leaving First Middle Last
Free 7 d avg
Tank Tank House House House
Location

Figure 13: Calabazal Three Tablets Stored in Wrapper before Use Field Study 7 Free
Chlorine and Total Chlorine Concentration

Table 22: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 7 (August 25-September 1, 2011). Results are shown for
different time periods after insertion of three chlorine tablets that were stored in a sealed
plastic wrapper.
Free Free Free Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin Chlorin
e e e e e e e e
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Location at 2 hr at 1 d at 2 d at 3 d at 4 d at 5 d at 6 d at 7 d
Entering
Tank 0.23 0.33 0.44 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.21 0.20
Leaving
Tank 0.08 0.37 0.26 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.23 0.12
First House 0.39 0.35 0.22 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.21
Middle
House 0.17 0.25 0.15 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.25
Last House 0.31 0.24 0.04 0.18 0.04 0.15 0.23

51
With the exception of days 1 and 2, when the values increase up to 0.44

mg/L, the free chlorine concentration entering the tank remained constant

between 0.20 and 0.23 mg/L. All other values congregated between 0.15 and

0.35 mg/L through the testing, trending slightly downward with time.

Acknowledging the deficiencies of one tablet without wrapper, Figure 14 and

Table 23 compare one tablet stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use

(Field Studies 5 and 6) and three tablets stored in sealed plastic wrapper

before use (Field Study 7). Free chlorine leaving the tank is compared

because that value will be used as C in the Ct method.

0.40
0.35
0.30
Free Chlorine (mg/L)

0.25
0.20 Field Study 5

0.15 Field Study 6

0.10 Field Study 7

0.05
0.00
2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Time

Figure 14: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System Leaving Tank
during Field Studies 5, 6, and 7. Results are shown for different time periods after insertion of
one tablet stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Studies 5 and 6) and three
tablets stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Study 7).

52
 Table 23: Free Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System Leaving Tank during Field Studies 5, 6, and 7.
Results are shown for different time periods after insertion of one tablet stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Studies 5 and 6) and three tablets
stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Study 7).
Free Free Free Free Free Free Free Free
Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine Chlorine
(mg/L) (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at (mg/L) at
# Tablets at 2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
1 Tablet (Field
Study 5) 0.11 0.06 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.06 0.03 0.00
1 Tablet (Field
Study 6) 0.13 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.08 0.01
3 Tablets (Field
Study 7) 0.08 0.37 0.26 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.23 0.12

53
The Ct values determined during field testing will be compared to Ct

requirements defined by various organizations and also by Ct requirements

for the inactivation of pathogens specific to Panama. Table 24 summarizes

the Ct and concentration requirements by various regulatory and public health

organizations.

WHO recommends no more than 5.0 mg/L free chlorine concentration and

CDC recommends no more than 2.0 mg/L, so that no unpleasant taste or odor

is found. The Ct required for pathogens is also noted in Table 25 for

pathogens common to Panama, including Salmonella typhi, Hepatitis A,

Giardia lamblia, E. coli, and E. Hystolytica, and other pathogens of interest to

the global health community such as Vibrio cholerae and Rotavirus.

Table 24: Ct or Concentration Requirements as defined by Various Regulatory and Public

Health Organizations
Organization Ct Requirement Concentration
(mg*min/L) Requirement (mg/L)
Surface Water Treatment 0.2
Rule
EPA (2 log removal) 50
Wisconsin DNR 0.5
Center for Disease Control 0.2 (after 24 hours of
(in terms of storage) storage)
Connecticut Department of 2 0.2 (for 10 minutes)
Public Health
Connecticut Department of 6
Public Health (4 log
removal)
WHO (bacteria) 0.04-0.08
WHO (viruses) 2-30
WHO (protozoa) 25-245
Parr, et al. 0.3-0.5
(EPA, 2011; Wisconsin DNR, 2007; Center for Disease Control, 2011; State of Connecticut
Department of Public Health, 2010; WHO, 2011; Parr, et al., 1995)

54
Table 25: Ct Required Using Chlorination for Inactivation of Pathogens Common to Panama
and Pathogens Common in Cases of Intervention. Ct values valid at temperature and pH
listed in the table. (Center for Disease Control, 2007)
Ct Required for Temperature pH
Pathogen Inactivation C
Pathogen (mg x min/L)
Salmonella 20-25 7
typhi 1
Hepatitis A 0.41 25 8
Giardia lamblia 15 25 7
E. coli 0.25 23 7
E. Hystolytica 20 27-30 7
Vibrio cholerae 0.5 20 7
Rotavirus 0.05 4 7

Of the organizations listed, WHO has the highest Ct standard among those

focused in the developing world (Table 24) at 25 mg x min/L for the

inactivation of most bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Of the Ct requirements to

inactivate common pathogens in Panama, E. hystolytica has the highest Ct

requirement of 20 mg*min/L. Some organizations in the United States, like the

EPA and the Connecticut Department of Public Health, require the Ct value to

be met before or at the first house on the transmission line. This study used

the concentration leaving the storage tank because of its close proximity to

the first house and to the rest of the system, the additional contact time of

chlorine in the water, and because the operator would be at the storage tank

to operate and maintain the chlorinator, located two meters up line from the

storage tank.

A schematic of the storage tank in Calabazal is shown in Figure 15. The water

from the spring passes through the chlorinator before entering the tank from

the top left hand side of the figure. The chlorinated water leaves both through

55
the outflow but also the overflow, wasting chlorinated water, because of the

large inflow of water into the storage tank.

Figure 15: Diagram of 3,000-Gallon Storage Tank in Calabazal. The water from the spring
passes through the chlorinator, enters the tank on the top left, and leaves the tank on the
bottom right. Water continuously leaves the tank through the overflow.

To compare field Ct values to Ct values obtained from literature (provided in

Tables 24 and 25), concentration and time are needed, where C (mg/L) is the

free chlorine concentration leaving the tank (assuming water in the tank is

completely mixed in the tank) and t is the residence time of the storage tank

(minutes). The field free chlorine concentration values leaving the tank are

found in Table 23. In Calabazal, the tank volume is 3,000 gallons (11,350

liters). The maximum flow recorded over the course of this study was 15.9

gallons per minute (60 liters per minute).

If the tank was completely mixed, the contact time would simply be the

volume divided by the flow. However, if the inlet and outlet are unbaffled and

56
there are no intrabasin baffles, the baffling condition is considered poor. In

such cases a baffling factor of 0.3 is used because the poor circulation causes

reduced contact time (State of Connecticut Department of Public Health,

2010). Therefore, estimated contact time in the tank is 56.6 minutes (3,000

gallons /15.9 gpm×0.3). If the baffling factor was ignored, the contact time in

the tank would increase to 189 minutes, in which case the required

concentration would drastically decrease. In order to reach a conservative

answer in which it is more likely that pathogens are inactivated, the baffling

factor of 0.3 was used. In Table 26, the pathogens common to Panama and

their respective Ct values are compared to the free chlorine concentration and

residence time measured during field testing.

According to the values calculated during this study, one tablet stored in a

wrapper before use between 2 hours and 6 days was not able to inactivate

Giardia lamblia and E. hystolytica. Three tablets stored in a wrapper before

use was only able to inactivate Giardia lamblia and E. hystolytica on day 1.

Both scenarios were able to inactivate all other pathogens common to

Panama, as well as vibrio cholerae and rotavirus, pathogens of interest to the

global health community. Both scenarios indicated concentrations falling

below the required concentration to inactivate pathogens after seven full days

of the tablet being in the system, therefore a new tablet should be inserted on

a weekly basis.

57
 Table 26: Comparison of Ct and Free Chlorine Concentration Required for Pathogen Inactivation for Pathogens Present in Panama to Free Chlorine
Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System Leaving Tank during Field Studies 5,6, and 7. Results are shown for different time periods after insertion
of one tablet stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Studies 5 and 6) and three tablets stored in sealed plastic wrapper before use (Field Study 7).
a) One Tablet (Field Study 5) b) One Tablet (Field Study 6) c) Three Tablets (Field Study 7)
a)
Free Chlorine
Ct Required for Concentration
Pathogen Inactivation Time Required for Pathogen
Pathogen (mg/L/min) (min) Inactivation (mg/L) 2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Salmonella
typhi 1 56.6 0.02 + + + + + + + -
Hepatitis A 0.41 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + -
Giardia
lamblia 15 56.6 0.27 - - - - - - - -
E. coli 0.25 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + -
E. Hystolytica 20 56.6 0.35 - - - - - - - -
Vibrio
cholerae 0.5 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + -
Rotavirus 0.05 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + -
“+” indicates that the field free chlorine concentration exceeds the required concentration for pathogen inactivation.
“-” indicates that the field free chlorine concentration does not exceed the required concentration for pathogen inactivation.

58
 Table 26 (continued)
b)
Ct Required for Concentration
Pathogen Inactivation Time Required for Pathogen
Pathogen (mg/L/min) (min) Inactivation (mg/L) 2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Salmonella
typhi 1 56.6 0.02 + + + + + + + -
Hepatitis A 0.41 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + +
Giardia
lamblia 15 56.6 0.27 - - - - - - - -
E. coli 0.25 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + +
E. Hystolytica 20 56.6 0.35 - - - - - - - -
Vibrio
cholerae 0.5 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + +
Rotavirus 0.05 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + +
“+” indicates that the field free chlorine concentration exceeds the required concentration for pathogen inactivation.
“-“ indicates that the field free chlorine concentration does not exceed the required concentration for pathogen inactivation

c)
Ct Required for Concentration Required
Pathogen Inactivation Time for Pathogen
Pathogen (mg/L/min) (min) Inactivation (mg/L) 2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
Salmonella
typhi 1 56.6 0.02 + + + + + + + +
Hepatitis A 0.41 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + +
Giardia lamblia 15 56.6 0.27 - + - - - - - -
E. coli 0.25 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + +
E. Hystolytica 20 56.6 0.35 - + - - - - - -
Vibrio cholerae 0.5 56.6 0.01 + + + + + + + +
Rotavirus 0.05 56.6 0.00 + + + + + + + +
“+”indicates that the field free chlorine concentration exceeds the required concentration for pathogen inactivation.
“-“ indicates that the field free chlorine concentration does not exceed the required concentration for pathogen inactivation

59
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research and

Field Application

Water quality is directly linked to health, noted extensively in many peer

reviewed reports. In-line chlorination is one technology that can be used in a

rural gravity flow water system found in the developing world to inactivate

pathogens and improve water quality. The purpose of this study was to

determine the effectiveness of the Panamanian Ministry of Health’s in-line

PVC chlorinator. To do so, free chlorine concentration was measured entering

the storage tank, leaving the storage tank, and at three households along the

transmission line of the water system in the two rural indigenous communities

of Calabazal and Quebrada Mina in western Panama.

The study’s hypotheses investigated the immediate effects of the insertion of

a new tablet on chlorine concentration in the system, the effect of distance on

chlorine concentration, the effect of flow on chlorine concentration, and the

comparison of established Ct values with actual Ct values determined from

field measurements of chlorine concentration and contact time.

Measuring the chlorine concentration in the system, both immediately after a

new tablet was added to an in-line chlorinator and after more time had

elapsed, showed higher free chlorine concentration immediately after insertion

of a new tablet. Field Studies 1-4 note that an unsealed tablet in a plastic
60
wrapper before use dissolves in approximately three hours. Therefore, an

unsealed tablet can cause the chlorine to dissolve at a faster rate than

normal. Field Studies 5 and 6 recorded the results using one tablet from a

sealed plastic wrapper. Field Study 5 entering the tank indicates a

concentration of 0.36 mg/L that reduces to 0.15 mg/L after 1 day. Values at

the houses on the transmission line in Field Study 5 decreased from 0.13-0.24

mg/L after 1 day to 0.08-0.14 mg/L after 3 days, dissolving approximately 30

grams of the tablet per day instead of approximately 45 grams of the tablet.

Field Study 6 displays constant values of free chlorine concentration both

entering the tank (0.13 mg/L after 2 hours, 0.10 mg/L after 1 day, 0.17 mg/L

after 2 days) as well as at the houses (0.11-0.17 mg/L after 1 day, 0.07-0.16

mg/L after 3 days). Field Study 7, when three tablets were inserted, results in

a slow increase in concentration entering the tank from 2 hours (0.23 mg/L) to

day 2 (0.44 mg/L) before decreasing during the rest of the testing period. The

residual at the houses shows the same trend as the previous rounds,

decreasing slowly over the time from day 1 (0.17-0.39 mg/L) to day 3 (0.04-

0.22 mg/L).

The second hypothesis relates free chlorine concentration to distance from

the in-line chlorinator. In Calabazal, the distance from the tank to the last

house on the line is less than 350 meters, a lot shorter than transmission lines

in other rural communities throughout the world. Measuring the chlorine

residual at faucets located at various intervals from the chlorinator gave very

little change between leaving the tank and the last house on the line,

indicating little chlorine demand added in the transmission line leaving the

61
tank. In Field Study 5, of the eight time intervals of testing, four decreased in

concentration and four increased in concentration from leaving the tank to the

last house on the transmission line. Field Study 6 reported all concentrations

decreasing from the tank to the last house. Field Study 7 also reported all

concentrations decreasing from the tank to the last house, with the exception

of day 7, the last day of testing. This indicates that free chlorine concentration

decreases as distance from the tank increases.

Measuring the weight loss of the chlorine tablet in association with the flow,

more weight loss of the tablet occurred with greater flow in to the tank

(Appendix C). Reflecting on the data from the insertion of one tablet, not

sealed in a plastic wrapper before use, indicates that in Quebrada Mina the

flow increased by a factor of fifteen between Field Study 1 and Field Study 2

(0.21 to 3.18 gpm), however this was not reflected in tablet weight loss which

decreased from 120 g over one hour in Field Study 1 and 138 grams in one

hour in Field Study 2. Likewise, the flow entering the tank in Calabazal

increased by a factor of three from Field Study 1 to Field Studies 2-4, however

the difference in tablet weight was inconsequential. The tank was full of water

throughout the field studies and the flow rate remained constant into the tank,

therefore the residence time was not affected. The results of tablet weight and

flow entering the tank report that the tablet weight and flow were not

correlated. However, the claimed duration of the tablet, based on the

manufacturer’s claim that 2 g of the tablet will dissolve in every 1,000 liters of

flow, was greatly overestimated for the tablets left unsealed prior to use,

62
whereas the tablets sealed prior to use dissolved 0.34 g of the tablet in every

1,000 liters of flow (Appendix C).

Based on a list of pathogens common in Panama and pathogens of interest to

the global health community and their respective Ct values from the literature,

the required concentration for pathogen inactivation was compared to field

values of free chlorine concentration. The Ct values are based on disinfection

using free chlorine because Ct is a function of the disinfectant. The free

chlorine concentration was compared using the Ct method to the

concentration required to inactivate common pathogens found in gravity flow

water systems in Panama, such as E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Hepatitis A,

Giardia lamblia, and E. histolytica, and other pathogens of interest to the

global health community, such as Vibrio cholerae and Rotavirus. Chlorine

tablets sealed in a plastic wrapper reduced contact with humid surroundings

prior to use, and this extended the dissolution time and increased the time in

the transmission line. One tablet sealed in a plastic wrapper before use

achieved the required free chlorine concentration to disinfect E. coli, Vibrio

cholerae, Rotavirus, Salmonella typhi, and Hepatitis A, but achieved neither

the 0.27 mg/L needed to inactivate Giardia lamblia nor the 0.35 mg/L needed

to inactivate E. histolytica. The use of three tablets was able to provide free

chlorine concentration above 0.35 mg/L for only one day, reaching 0.37 mg/L,

before falling below 0.35 mg/L to a level of 0.26 mg/L the next day. Results

indicated that one tablet was able to inactivate most pathogens; however

three tablets reached slightly higher free chlorine concentration. Given a

3,000 gallon tank and 15.90 gallons per minute of flow, 0.35 mg/L of free

63
chlorine is required leaving the tank to disinfect all pathogens. Design and

operation are based on the flow through the chlorinator, therefore the required

concentration will be different in communities with a different flow rate.

Future research should be performed in the field on additional scenarios using

the PVC in-line chlorinator. For example, variations in flow, size, and location

of the inlet hole into the chlorinator could be tested to achieve the required

free chlorine concentration for pathogen inactivation. Different types of

calcium hypochlorite tablets could be tested—they could potentially have

different inert materials that could affect the rate of dissolution into the water.

One and three tablets were used in this study—other quantities of tablets

could be used in future studies. Additionally, various regions have different

pathogens common to their particular area, as well as varying temperature,

turbidity, and pH. Reactions speed increases with increased temperature,

whereas turbidity could negatively impact the ability of chlorine to react with

pathogens in the water. If the turbidity is high, tanks could be put in series to

allow both settling of particles and sufficient residence time. pH also affects

the balance of HOCl and OCl-, with optimum conditions above 7.6 so that

HOCl is preferred in solution . The effects of temperature, turbidity, and pH

could all be studied in relation to the PVC in-line chlorinator, therefore testing

of the in-line chlorinator in other parts of the developing world would be

beneficial.

Additionally, future research could be done on the implementation of an in-line

chlorinator in an urban setting. The chlorinator can be easily installed into a

64
PVC line to increase chlorine residual in the transmission line, which could be

relavent in long transmission lines. Urban use of the chlorinator could also be

necessary during the failure of the existing disinfection system or for

intervention in an outbreak of a pathogen such as vibrio cholerae.

Very little research exists on the use of modeling in the developing world. The

ability to use data easily obtainable in the field for a model of chlorine residual

in a water system would be a valuable resource to water system operators

across the developing world.

Field implementation would require an initial cost for materials for construction

of the chlorinator of approximately $35 USD (year – 2011). The in-chlorinator

requires using three $2 tablets a week, therefore the cost of disinfection per

month is approximately $24, or approximately $1 per household per month in

a community like Calabazal or Quebrada Mina with 25 connections. With the

existing tariff of $0.50 per month, the new tariff would increase to $1.50 per

month, about 2 percent of household income, somewhat comparable to a US

household where income from someone making $8 per hour would have a

utility bill of around $30 per month. In the case of Panama, the cost of

chlorine tablets is subsidized by the local environmental health agency, but

the author recommends including the cost of disinfection to the existing tariff

to each household as proper disinfection of the water supply would improve

community health, thus reducing the cost of trips to the hospital, doctor’s

visits, and medicine.

65
The chlorinator is recommended to be installed upstream from the storage

tank to increase contact time, however chlorinated water can be lost if the

storage tank is overflowing. The Ministry of Environmental Health in Panama

initially distributed the unsealed tablet to the communities in the Comarca

Ngabe Bugle. During this time, other Peace Corps Volunteers serving in the

region noted the lack of effectiveness of the unsealed tablet and a

corresponding lack of confidence from community members of their own

water committees. Through communication to the communities they were

serving, the Ministry of Environmental Health found out that the unsealed

tablet was ineffective and presented individually sealed tablets. Continued

communication and interaction with the water committees, especially through

visits to the communities themselves, will help ensure correct operation and

maintenance of the chlorinator and the water system as a whole. To confirm

the correct concentration of chlorine in the water, the Ministry of Health

encourages water system operators to use a color wheel, purchased for $15

USD, to visually compare the chlorinated water with a value indicating the

amount of chlorine in the water. It is also possible to train members of the

community, potentially women, to taste the water to determine whether the

amount of chlorine present is below the required level or too high.

66
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70
Appendices

71
Appendix A: In-Line Chlorinator Materials List Developed for Panama

Description Quantity
4” Cylinder and Screw Cap 1
3” Cylinder and Screw Cap 1
3” Cap 1
4” Union 1
4” Tee 1
4” to 2” Reduction 2
3” Tube 2
4” Tube 2

72
Appendix B: Total Chlorine Concentration Measurements

Table B.1: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina Water System at
Different Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011). Results are shown for different
time periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic
wrapper.
Location 2 hr avg (mg/L) 24 hr avg (mg/L) 48 hr avg (mg/L)
Spring 0.05 0.00 0.04
Entering Tank 8.80 0.45 0.06
Leaving Tank 8.80 0.15 0.11
First House 8.80 0.28 0.04
Middle House 0.00 0.39 0.17
Last House 0.03 0.69 0.34

Table B.2: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Quebrada Mina Water System at
Different Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011). Results are shown for different
time periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic
wrapper.
1 hr avg 3 hr avg 5 hr avg 8 hr avg 24 hr avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Spring 0.00
Entering Tank 27.0 5.1 0.16 0.15 0.16
Leaving Tank 1.01 9.5 8.1 5.9 0.08
First House 0.01 12.5 7.5 4.6 0.10
Middle House 0.02 0.1 6.9 4.4 0.16
Last House 0.00 17.0 16.0 15.0 0.06

Table B.3: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 1 (April 28-30, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
Location 2 hr avg (mg/L) 24 hr avg (mg/L) 48 hr avg (mg/L)
Spring 0.02 0.01 0.02
Entering Tank 8.80 0.02 0.02
Leaving Tank 8.80 0.26 0.03
First House 7.00 0.04
Middle House 8.80 0.03
Last House 8.80 0.02

Table B.4: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 2 (June 17-20, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
1 hr avg 3 hr avg 5 hr avg 8 hr avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Spring 0.02
Entering Tank 7.80 1.34 0.02 0.05
Leaving Tank 1.23 1.10 1.20 0.16
First House 5.00 5.50 1.51 0.43
Middle House 1.20 4.60 1.34 0.41
Last House 0.77 2.90 0.52 0.15

73
Appendix B (continued)
Table B.5: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 3 (June 22-23, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
1 hr avg 3 hr avg 5 hr avg 8 hr avg 23 hr avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Spring 0.04
Entering Tank 6.35 0.10 0.12 0.09 0.04
Leaving Tank 7.35 3.30 1.17 0.45 0.01
First House 0.00 2.15 1.09 0.57 0.01
Middle House 3.20 2.20 1.15 0.31 0.02
Last House 0.06 2.50 1.49 0.60 0.04

Table B.6 Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 4 (June 23-24, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after insertion of one chlorine tablet that was not provided in a sealed plastic wrapper.
1 hr avg 3 hr avg 5 hr avg 8 hr avg 23 hr avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Entering Tank 7.75 0.40 0.09 0.08 0.00
Leaving Tank 4.20 2.35 1.30 0.63 0.00
First House 3.50 1.55 2.20 0.62 0.05
Middle House 3.90 3.05 1.47 0.66 0.04
Last House 0.22 2.70 1.80 1.71 0.01

Table B.7: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 5 (August 7-14, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was stored in a sealed plastic wrapper.
2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
avg avg avg avg avg avg avg avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Entering
Tank 0.40 0.20 0.09 0.23 0.18 0.10 0.08 0.06
Leaving Tank 0.10 0.14 0.20 0.17 0.17 0.09 0.05 0.00
First House 0.06 0.25 0.26 0.13 0.14 0.08 0.04 0.05
Middle
House 0.14 0.21 0.17 0.12 0.15 0.09 0.00 0.01
Last House 0.02 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.04

Table B.8: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 6 (August 17-24, 2011). Results are shown for different time
periods after the insertion of one chlorine tablet that was stored in a sealed plastic wrapper.
2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
avg avg avg avg avg avg avg avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Entering Tank 0.20 0.13 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.04 0.02 0.01
Leaving Tank 0.16 0.25 0.12 0.17 0.20 0.11 0.06 0.06
First House 0.22 0.19 0.14 0.19 0.15 0.11 0.01
Middle House 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.01
Last House 0.16 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.01

74
Appendix B (continued)
Table B.9: Total Chlorine Concentration Measured in Calabazal Water System at Different
Locations during Field Study 7 (August 25-September 1, 2011). Results are shown for
different time periods after insertion of three chlorine tablets that were stored in a sealed
plastic wrapper.
2 hr 1d 2d 3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
avg avg avg avg avg avg avg avg
Location (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Entering
Tank 0.32 0.43 0.71 0.42 0.28 0.27 0.30 0.31
Leaving Tank 0.07 0.42 0.41 0.27 0.30 0.28 0.32 0.36
First House 0.42 0.46 0.24 0.27 0.26 0.21 0.32
Middle
House 0.31 0.42 0.20 0.28 0.22 0.21 0.26
Last House 0.33 0.34 0.15 0.23 0.17 0.29 0.29

75
Appendix C: Flow and Tablet Weight

Table C.1: Flow Measured in Quebrada Mina and Calabazal Water Systems during Field
Studies 1-7
Flow (gpm) in Flow (gpm) in Flow (gpm) in
Community Field Study 1 Field Study 2 Field Study 3-7
Q. Mina (Entrance w/
chlorinator) 0.21 3.18
Q. Mina (Entrance w/o
chlorinator) 0.76 3.97
Calabazal 5.29 15.90 15.90

Table C.2: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in Quebrada Mina Water
System during Field Studies 1 and 2
Description Field Study 1 Field Study 2
Dry Weight (g) 196 194
5 min Wet Weight (g) 208 194
1 hr Wet Weight (g) 86 56
24 hr Wet Weight (g) 0 0

Table C.3: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in Calabazal Water System
during Field Studies 1-4
Field Field Field Field
Description Study 1 Study 2 Study 3 Study 4
Dry Weight (g) 193 194 184 186
5 min Wet Weight (g) 204 190 186 186
1 hr Wet Weight (g) 108 66 64
2 hr Wet Weight (g) 12 14
3 hr Wet Weight (g) 0 0
4 hr Wet Weight (g) 0
24 hr Wet Weight (g) 0

Table C.4: Tablet Weights Recorded at Various Time Intervals in Calabazal Water System
during Field Studies 5-7
Middle Bottom
Field Field Top Tablet Tablet in Tablet
Study Study in Field Field in Field
Description 5 6 Study 7 Study 7 Study 7
Dry Weight (g) 202 198 202 200 200

5 min Wet Weight (g) 206 204 210 208 206

2 hr Wet Weight (g) 208 206 212 212 208

1 day Wet Weight (g) 160 166 200 198 172

2 day Wet Weight (g) 114 130 172 178 130

3 day Wet Weight (g) 76 92 154 166 102

4 day Wet Weight (g) 46 62 140 154 80

5 day Wet Weight (g) 12 36 124 140 58

6 day Wet Weight (g) 4 14 106 126 30

7 day Wet Weight (g) 0 2 90 98 2

76
 Appendix C (continued)
Table C.5: Comparison of Actual Duration of Chlorine Tablet against Claimed Duration of Tablet based on Manufacturer’s Claim of 2g of Chlorine for Every
1000 Liters of Water Passing through Chlorinator in Field Studies 1-7 in the Communities of Quebrada Mina and Calabazal
Volume
Duration of flow
of over Starting Rate of
Field Flow Flow Tablet tablet Weight Dissolution
Community Study (gpm) (Lpm) (d) (L) (g) (g/1000 L)
Q. Mina 1 0.21 0.79 0.1 114 208 1820
Q. Mina 2 3.18 12.04 0.1 1733 194 112
Calabazal 1 5.29 20.02 0.1 2883 204 70.8
Calabazal 2 15.9 60.18 0.1 8666 190 21.9
Calabazal 3 15.9 60.18 0.1 8666 186 21.5
Calabazal 4 15.9 60.18 0.1 8666 186 21.5
Calabazal 5 15.9 60.18 7 606630 206 0.34
Calabazal 6 15.9 60.18 7 606630 204 0.34
Calabazal 7 15.9 60.18 7 606630 206 0.34

77

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