UNIT II ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

Early history of the universe – Big-Bang and Hubble expansion model of the
universe – cosmic microwave background radiation – dark matter and dark
energy.

2.1 Introduction:
The physical universe is defined as all of space and time (collectively
referred to as spacetime) and their contents. Such contents comprise all of
energy in its various forms, including electromagnetic radiation and matter, and
therefore planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic
space. The universe also includes the physical laws that influence energy and
matter, such as conservation laws, classical mechanics, and relativity.

The universe is often defined as "the totality of existence",

or everything that exists, everything that has existed, and everything that
will exist. In fact, some philosophers and scientists support the inclusion of
ideas and abstract conceptssuch as mathematics and logicin the definition
of the universe. The word universe may also refer to concepts such as the
cosmos, the world, and nature.

The universe began 13.8 billion years ago, and in its early years, it looked
completely different than it does now. For nearly 400,000 years, the entire
cosmos was opaque, which means we have no direct observations of anything
that happened during that time. Even after the universe became transparent, it
was still a long time before the first stars and galaxies formed, leaving us with
limited information about that period. Despite those problems, the early epochs
of cosmic history are essential for everything that came after, leading
researchers to find ways to figure out exactly what happened when our universe
was in its infancy.
 Until roughly 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the entire universe was a
thick opaque cloud of plasma of electrons and nuclei. As the universe expanded,
it cooled off enough to let the plasma become atoms, and the cosmos became
transparent. We observe the light from this time as the cosmic
microwave background (CMB).

The CMB is remarkably uniform in temperature all across the sky, which
is surprising. Usually for two things to be exactly the same temperature, they
need to be in contact. However, two points on the CMB on opposite sides of the
sky would never have been close together since the Big Bang — unless
something else was going on to connect them.

The most widely accepted hypothesis for that “something else” is cosmic
inflation. In a tiny fraction of a second after the Big Bang, quantum fluctuations
drove the universe to “inflate” much faster than the rate we observe at later eras.
The part of the cosmos that became our observable universe was smaller than it
would seem today, so the points opposite to each other on the sky now would
have been in contact before inflation happened.

Much of the research on inflation involves understanding how it worked,

and determining how we can detect its effects. For example, inflation would
have created gravitational waves in the early universe, leaving small but
potentially observable traces in the CMB. Observatories such as the South Pole
Telescope (SPT) are looking for these effects.
Cosmic Dark Ages and First Light

When the CMB formed, the ordinary matter in the universe transitioned
from a hot opaque plasma to incandescent hydrogen and helium gas.
Astronomers call this the “dark age” of the universe, since no stars had formed
yet.

Researchers are using the best observatories in the world both to study the
dark age and to find evidence for the first stars in the universe. As the first stars
and black holes formed, they turned much of the hydrogen gas in the universe
into plasma again, a process astronomers call “reionization”. The environment
producing the earliest stars was radically different than star-forming regions
today. The raw ingredients were almost exclusively hydrogen and helium, since
stars themselves produce heavier elements through nuclear fusion.

Astronomers think the first stars may have been very massive compared
with modern stars, and may have formed the first black holes in the cosmos.
Individual stars are too small to be seen from so great a distance, so researchers
look for indirect evidence about the nature of these objects, through how they
influenced their surroundings.

Studying the dark ages and first stars is a way to understand the
genealogy of all stars, including our own Sun. These original stars began the
process of making most of the elements heavier than helium, which includes the
atoms like oxygen and carbon necessary for life. The earliest stars, galaxies, and
black holes changed the cloudy universe of the dark ages into the vast
cosmic structures we see today.
2.2 Early History of Universe

STEP 1: HOW IT ALL STARTED

The Big Bang was not an explosion in space, as the theory's name might
suggest. Instead, it was the appearance of space everywhere in the universe,
researchers have said. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was born
as a very hot, very dense, single point in space.
A key part of this comes from observations of the cosmic microwave
background, which contains the afterglow of light and radiation left over from
the Big Bang

STEP 2: THE UNIVERSE'S FIRST GROWTH SPURT

When the universe was very young — something like a hundredth of a billionth
of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second (whew!) — it underwent an incredible
growth spurt. During this burst of expansion, which is known as inflation, the
universe grew exponentially and doubled in size at least 90 times.
The universe was expanding, and as it expanded, it got cooler and less dense,"
David Spergel, a theoretical astrophysicist at Princeton University in Princeton,
N.J., told SPACE.com. After inflation, the universe continued to grow, but at a
slower rate.

As space expanded, the universe cooled and matter formed.

STEP 3: TOO HOT TO SHINE

Light chemical elements were created within the first three minutes of the
universe's formation. As the universe expanded, temperatures cooled and
protons and neutrons collided to make deuterium, which is an isotope of
hydrogen. Much of this deuterium combined to make helium.
For the first 380,000 years after the Big Bang, however, the intense heat
from the universe's creation made it essentially too hot for light to shine

STEP 4: LET THERE BE LIGHT

About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, matter cooled enough for
electrons to combine with nuclei to form neutral atoms. This phase is known as
"recombination," and the absorption of free electrons caused the universe to
become transparent. The light that was unleashed at this time is detectable today
in the form of radiation from the cosmic microwave background.

Yet, the era of recombination was followed by a period of darkness

before stars and other bright objects were formed.

STEP 5: EMERGING FROM THE COSMIC DARK AGES

Roughly 400 million years after the Big Bang, the universe began to come out
of its dark ages. This period in the universe's evolution is called the age of re-
ionization.

During this time, clumps of gas collapsed enough to form the very first
stars and galaxies. The emitted ultraviolet light from these energetic events
cleared out and destroyed most of the surrounding neutral hydrogen gas. The
process of re-ionization, plus the clearing of foggy hydrogen gas, caused the
universe to become transparent to ultraviolet light for the first time.

STEP 6: MORE STARS AND MORE GALAXIES

Astronomers comb the universe looking for the most far-flung and oldest
galaxies to help them understand the properties of the early universe. Similarly,
by studying the cosmic microwave background, astronomers can work
backwards to piece together the events that came before.

Data from older missions like WMAP and the Cosmic Background
Explorer (COBE), which launched in 1989, and missions still in operation, like
the Hubble Space Telescope, which launched in 1990, all help scientists try to
solve the most enduring mysteries and answer the most debated questions in
cosmology.
STEP 7: BIRTH OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Our solar system is estimated to have been born a little after 9 billion
years after the Big Bang, making it about 4.6 billion years old. According to
current estimates, the sun is one of more than 100 billion stars in our Milky
Way galaxy alone, and orbits roughly 25,000 light-years from the galactic core.
 STEP 8: THE INVISIBLE STUFF IN THE UNIVERSE

In the 1960s and 1970s, astronomers began thinking that there might be
more mass in the universe than what is visible. Vera Rubin, an astronomer at the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, observed the speeds of stars at various
locations in galaxies.
Basic Newtonian physics implies that stars on the outskirts of a galaxy
would orbit more slowly than stars at the center, she found that all stars in a
galaxy seem to circle the center at more or less the same speed.

This mysterious and invisible mass became known as dark matter. Dark
matter is inferred because of the gravitational pull it exerts on regular matter.

STEP 9: THE EXPANDING AND ACCELERATING UNIVERSE

In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble made a revolutionary discovery

about the universe. Using a newly constructed telescope at the Mount Wilson
Observatory in Los Angeles, Hubble observed that the universe is not static,
but rather is expanding.

Decades later, in 1998, the prolific space telescope named after the
famous astronomer, the Hubble Space Telescope, studied very
distant supernovas and found that, a long time ago, the universe was expanding
more slowly than it is today. This discovery was surprising because it was long
thought that the gravity of matter in the universe would slow its expansion, or
even cause it to contract

TEP 10: WE STILL NEED TO KNOW MORE

While much has been discovered about the creation and evolution of the
universe, there are enduring questions that remain unanswered. Dark matter and
dark energy remain two of the biggest mysteries, but cosmologists continue to
probe the universe in hopes of better understanding how it all began.

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched in 2021, will

continue the hunt for the elusive dark matter, as well as peering back to the
beginning of time and the evolution of the universe using its infrared
instruments.
2.3 The Big Bang Theory:

The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation for how the
universe began. It says the universe as we know it started with an infinitely hot
and dense single point that inflated and stretched first at unimaginable speeds,
and then at a more measurable rate over the next 13.7 billion years to the
stillexpanding cosmos that we know today.
Existing technology doesn't yet allow astronomers to literally peer back at
the universe's birth, much of what we understand about the Big Bang comes
from mathematical formulas and models. Astronomers can, however, see the
"echo" of the expansion through a phenomenon known as the cosmic
microwave background.
While the majority of the astronomical community accepts the theory,
there are some theorists who have alternative explanations besides the Big
Bang such as eternal inflation or an oscillating universe.
In theyear 1931, a Belgian priest by the name Georges Lemaitre
proposed the Big Bang Theory. According to this theory, the Universe started
from an unimaginably tiny dot, which began expanding due to its immense heat
and density, following a massive blast known as the “big bang”. It is believed
that the Universe cooled down after this blast, and the stars and the galaxies of
today’s Universe were gradually formed.
According to most astrophysicists, all the matter found in the universe
today including the matter in people, plants, animals, the earth, stars, and
galaxies was created at the very first moment of time, thought to be about 13
billion years ago.

The universe began, scientists believe, with every speck of its energy
jammed into a very tiny point. This extremely dense point exploded with
unimaginable force, creating matter and propelling it outward to make the
billions of galaxies of our vast universe. Astrophysicists dubbed this titanic
explosion the Big Bang.

The Big Bang was like no explosion you might witness on earth today.
For instance, a hydrogen bomb explosion, whose centre registers approximately
100 million degrees Celsius, moves through the air at about 300 meters per
second. In contrast, cosmologists believe the Big Bang flung energy in all
directions at the speed of light (300,000,000 meters per second, a million times
faster than the H-bomb) and estimate that the temperature of the entire universe
was 1000 trillion degrees Celsius at just a tiny fraction of a second after the
explosion. Even the cores of the hottest stars in today's universe are much cooler
than that.
 There's another important quality of the Big Bang that makes it unique.
While an explosion of a man-made bomb expands through air, the Big Bang did
not expand through anything. That's because there was no space to expand
through at the beginning of time. Rather, physicists believe the Big Bang
created and stretched space itself, expanding the universe.

A Cooling, Expanding Universe

For a brief moment after the Big Bang, the immense heat created
conditions unlike any conditions astrophysicists see in the universe today.
While planets and stars today are composed of atoms of elements like hydrogen
and silicon, scientists believe the universe back then was too hot for anything
other than the most fundamental particles -- such as quarks and photons.

But as the universe quickly expanded, the energy of the Big Bang became
more and more "diluted" in space, causing the universe to cool. Popping open a
beer bottle results in a roughly similar cooling, expanding effect: gas, once
confined in the bottle, spreads into the air, and the temperature of the beer
drops.

Rapid cooling allowed for matter as we know it to form in the universe,

although physicists are still trying to figure out exactly how this happened.
About one ten-thousandth of a second after the Big Bang, protons and neutrons
formed, and within a few minutes these particles stuck together to form atomic
nuclei, mostly hydrogen and helium. Hundreds of thousands of years later,
electrons stuck to the nuclei to make complete atoms.

About a billion years after the Big Bang, gravity caused these atoms to
gather in huge clouds of gas, forming collections of stars known as galaxies.
Gravity is the force that pulls any objects with mass towards one another -- the
same force, for example, that causes a ball thrown in the air to fall to the earth.

Where do planets like earth come from? Over billions of years, stars
"cook" hydrogen and helium atoms in their hot cores to make heavier elements
like carbon and oxygen. Large stars explode over time, blasting these elements
into space. This matter then condenses into the stars, planets, and satellites that
make up solar systems like our own

Astrophysicists have uncovered a great deal of compelling evidence over

the past hundred years to support the Big Bang theory. Among this evidence is
the observation that the universe is expanding. By looking at light emitted by
distant galaxies, scientists have found that these galaxies are rapidly moving
away from our galaxy, the Milky Way. An explosion like the Big Bang, which
sent matter flying outward from a point, explains this observation.
 Another critical discovery was the observation of low levels of
microwaves throughout space. Astronomers believe these microwaves, whose
temperature is about -270 degrees Celsius, are the remnants of the extremely
high-temperature radiation produced by the Big Bang.

Interestingly, astronomers can get an idea of how hot the universe used to
be by looking at very distant clouds of gas through high-power telescopes.
Because light from these clouds can take billions of years to reach our
telescopes, we see such bodies as they appeared eons ago. Lo and behold, these
ancient clouds of gas seem to be hotter than younger clouds.

Scientists have also been able to uphold the Big Bang theory by
measuring the relative amounts of different elements in the universe. They've
found that the universe contains about 74 percent hydrogen and 26 percent
helium by mass, the two lightest elements. All the other heavier elements
including elements common on earth, such as carbon and oxygen make up just a
tiny trace of all matter.

So how does this prove anything about the Big Bang? Scientists have
shown, using theoretical calculations, that these abundances could only have
been made in a universe that began in a very hot, dense state, and then quickly
cooled and expanded. This is exactly the kind of universe that the Big Bang
theory predicts.

All of the observational evidence that we've gathered is consistent with

the predictions of the Big Bang Theory. The three most important observations
are:

1) The Hubble Law shows that distant objects are receding from us at a
rate proportional to their distance — which occurs when there is uniform
expansion in all directions. This implies a history where everything was closer
together.
2) The properties of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).
This shows that the universe went through a transition from an ionized gas (a
plasma) and a neutral gas. Such a transition implies a hot, dense early universe
that cooled as it expanded. This transition happened after about 400,000 years
following the Big Bang.
3) The relative abundances of light elements (He-4, He-3, Li-7, and
Deuterium). These were formed during the era of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
(BBN) in the first few minutes after the Big Bang. Their abundances show that
the universe was really hot and really dense in the past (as opposed to the
conditions when the CMB was formed, which was just regular hot and dense —
there's about a factor of a million difference in temperature between when BBN
occurred and when the CMB occurred)
2.4 Hubble Expansion Model of the Universe

During the 1920's and 30's, Edwin Hubble discovered that the Universe is
expanding, with galaxies moving away from each other at a velocity given by
an expression known as Hubble's Law: v = H*r. Here v represents the galaxy's
recessional velocity, r is its distance away from Earth, and H is a constant of
proportionality called Hubble's constant.

The exact value of the Hubble constant is somewhat uncertain, but is

generally believed to be around 70 kilometres per second for every megaparsec
in distance, km/sec/Mpc. (See e.g. the online proceedings of How Far Can You
Go?. A megaparsec is given by 1 Mpc = 3 x 10^6 light-years). This means that
a galaxy 1 megaparsec away will be moving away from us at a speed of about
70 km/sec, while another galaxy 100 megaparsecs away will be receding at 100
times this speed. So essentially, the Hubble constant sets the rate at which the
Universe is expanding.

Additionally, the present age of the Universe can be assessed vis-a-vis the
Hubble constant: the inverse of the Hubble constant has units of time. By
substituting in kilometres for Mpc in the Hubble constant, we find that upon
inverting H we get a quantity with units of seconds (kilometrescancelling out in
the denominator and numerator). For a Hubble constant of 100 kilometres per
second per Mpc, we get 3 x 10^17 seconds, or about 10 billion years.

The standard picture of cosmology, based on Einstein's general theory of

relativity explains how to picture this expanding universe. As an example,
consider a loaf of bread, with raisins sprinkled evenly throughout it. As the
bread expands during cooking all the raisins are moved further and further apart
from each other. Seen from any raisin all the other raisins in the bread appear to
be receding with some velocity.

This model also explains the linearity of the Hubble law, by which we
mean the fact that the recession velocity is proportional to distance. If all the
lengths in the universe double in 10 million years, then something that was
initially 1 megaparsec away from us will end up a further megaparsec away.
Something that was 2 megaparsecs away from us will end up a further 2
megaparsecs away. In terms of the speed at which the objects appear to be
receding from us, the object twice as distant has receded twice as fast!

On very large scales Einstein's theory predicts departures from a strictly

linear Hubble law. The amount of departure, and the type, depends on the
amount and types of mass and energy of the universe. In this way a plot of
recession velocity (or redshift) vs. distance (a Hubble plot), which is a straight
line at small distances, can tell us about the amount of matter in the universe
and provide crucial information about dark matter.

2.5 cosmic microwave background radiation

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is leftover radiation from

the Big Bang or the time when the universe began. As the theory goes, when the
universe was born it underwent rapid inflation, expansion and cooling. (The
universe is still expanding today, and the expansion rate appears different
depending on where you look). The CMB represents the heat leftover from the
Big Bang.
You can't see the CMB with your naked eye, but it is everywhere in the
universe. It is invisible to humans because it is so cold, just 2.725 degrees above
absolute zero (minus 459.67 degrees Fahrenheit, or minus 273.15 degrees
Celsius.) This means its radiation is most visible in the microwave part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
According to NASA, CMB fills the universe and in the days before cable TV
every household with television could see the afterglow of the Big Bang. By
turning the television to an "in-between" channel, you could see the CMB as a
static signal on the screen.

Formation of CMB:

The universe began 13.8 billion years ago, and the CMB dates back to
about 400,000 years after the Big Bang. That's because in the early stages of the
universe when it was just one-hundred-millionth the size it is today, its
temperature was extreme: 273 million degrees above absolute zero, according to
NASA.
Any atoms present at that time were quickly broken apart into small particles
(protons and electrons). The radiation from the CMB in photons (particles
representing quantums of light, or other radiation) was scattered off the
electrons. "Thus, photons wandered through the early universe, just as optical
light wanders through a dense fog," NASA wrote.

About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe was cool enough that
hydrogen could form. Because the CMB photons are barely affected by hitting
hydrogen, the photons travel in straight lines. Cosmologists refer to a "surface
of last scattering" when the CMB photons last hit matter; after that, the universe
was too big. So when we map the CMB, we are looking back in time to 380,000
years after the Big Bang, just after the universe was opaque to radiation
Discovery of CMB:
American cosmologist Ralph Apher first predicted the CMB in 1948,
when he was doing work with Robert Herman and George Gamow, according
to NASA. The team was doing research related to Big Bang nucleosynthesis, or
the production of elements in the universe besides the lightest isotope (type) of
hydrogen. This type of hydrogen was created very early in the universe's
history.

But the CMB was first found by accident. In 1965, two researchers with Bell
Telephone Laboratories (Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson) were creating a
radio receiver and were puzzled by the noise it was picking up. They soon
realized the noise came uniformly from all over the sky. At the same time, a
team at Princeton University (led by Robert Dicke) was trying to find the CMB.
Dicke's team got wind of the Bell experiment and realized the CMB had been
found.

Both teams quickly published papers in the Astrophysical Journal in 1965, with
Penzias and Wilson talking about what they saw, and Dicke's team explaining
what it means in the context of the universe. (Later, Penzias and Wilson both
received the 1978 Nobel Prize in physics).

Aspects of CMB

The CMB is useful to scientists because it helps us learn how the early
universe was formed. It is at a uniform temperature with only small fluctuations
visible with precise telescopes. "By studying these fluctuations, cosmologists
can learn about the origin of galaxies and large-scale structures of galaxies and
they can measure the basic parameters of the Big Bang theory," NASA wrote.

While portions of the CMB were mapped in the ensuing decades after its
discovery, the first space-based full-sky map came from NASA's Cosmic
Background Explorer (COBE) mission, which launched in 1989 and ceased
science operations in 1993. This "baby picture" of the universe, as NASA calls
it, confirmed Big Bang theory predictions and also showed hints of cosmic
structure that were not seen before. In 2006, the Nobel Prize in physics was
awarded to COBE scientists John Mather at the NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center, and George Smoot at the University of California, Berkeley.
A more detailed map came in 2003 courtesy of the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), which launched in June 2001 and stopped
collecting science data in 2010. The first picture pegged the universe's age at
13.7 billion years (a measurement since refined to 13.8 billion years) and also
revealed a surprise: the oldest stars started shining about 200 million years after
the Big Bang, far earlier than predicted.

Scientists followed up those results by studying the very early inflation

stages of the universe (in the trillionth second after formation) and by giving
more precise parameters on atom density, the universe's lumpiness and other
properties of the universe shortly after it was formed. They also saw a strange
asymmetry in averageemperatures in both hemispheres of the sky, and a "cold
spot" that was bigger than expected. The WMAP team received the 2018
Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for their work.
In 2013, data from the European Space Agency's Planck space telescope
was released, showing the highest precision picture of the CMB yet. Scientists
uncovered another mystery with this information: Fluctuations in the CMB at
large angular scales did not match predictions. Planck also confirmed what
WMAP saw in terms of the asymmetry and the cold spot. Planck's final data
release in 2018 (the mission operated between 2009 and 2013) showed more
proof that dark matter and dark energy — mysterious forces that are likely
behind the acceleration of the universe — do seem to exist.
Other research efforts have attempted to look at different aspects of the CMB.
One is determining types of polarization called E-modes (discovered by the
Antarctica-based Degree Angular Scale Interferometer in 2002) and B-modes.
B-modes can be produced from gravitational lensing of E-modes (this lensing
was first seen by the South Pole Telescope in 2013) and gravitational
waves (which were first observed in 2016 using the Advanced Laser
Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, or LIGO). In 2014, the
Antarctic-based BICEP2 instrument was said to have found gravitational wave
B-modes, but a further observation (including work from Planck) showed these
results were due to cosmic dust.
As of mid-2018, scientists are still looking for the signal that showed a
brief period of fast universe expansion shortly after the Big Bang. At that time,
the universe was getting bigger at a rate faster than the speed of light. If this
happened, researchers suspect this should be visible in the CMB through a form
of polarization. A study that year suggested that a glow from
nanodiamonds creates a faint, but discernible, light that interferes with cosmic
observations. Now that this glow is accounted for, future investigations could
remove it to better look for the faint polarization in the CMB, study authors said
at the time
2.6 Dark matter and dark energy.

Dark Energy:

More is unknown than is known. We know how much dark energy there
is because we know how it affects the universe's expansion. Other than that, it is
a complete mystery. But it is an important mystery. It turns out that roughly
68% of the universe is dark energy. Dark matter makes up about 27%. The rest -
everything on Earth, everything ever observed with all of our instruments, all
normal matter - ads up to less than 5% of the universe. Come to think of it,
maybe it shouldn't be called "normal" matter at all, since it is such a small
fraction of the universe.

About 25 years ago, it was established that the Universe is expanding,

and such expansion is speeding up with time. This process has been occurring
for the last 5,000 million years, and it causes galaxies to recede from others.
Although all our cosmological observations back up this phenomenon, we still
don't have an explanation for this trend in the expansion. However, we do know
the properties of the ingredient that causes this effect: it has to be a substance or
fluid that overcomes the attractive nature of gravity, and it has to be diluted and
spread in all space-time.
In 1999, the physicist Michael Turner named that hypothetical ingredient
of the cosmological budget: dark energy. The latter is necessary to provide a
plausible explanation for the current trend in the Universe's expansion. Without
it, the expansion would slow down, and eventually, the Universe would have
imploded, shrinking the distance between observed galaxies in the large-scale
structure.
Well, our cosmological model predicts an expanding universe, and as a
consequence, the existence of an event that we call Hot Big Bang. Yet, the
current state of the expansion is not constant in time, instead is increasing; thus
this growing rate in the expansion has to be driven by a different factor,
something that wasn't predominantly acting during the early stages of the
Universe or at times where galaxies formed.
Dark energy is so mysterious. Because we can't measure it directly, we
don't even know what it is made of, then formulating experiments to detect it
and study its very nature is really challenging. Also, current observations
disagree with the value of the Hubble rate at the present time, therefore, we are
uncertain if dark energy is changing in time, and if so, how it is affecting the
dynamics of the expansion. We have clues, but there is still a long path to go
before "unveiling" dark energy's nature and traits.
According to the vast majority of observations, the most likely candidate
for dark energy is the cosmological constant, often related to the fluctuations of
the quantum vacuum. It is the preferred (and most simple) explanation for dark
energy, to the point that is included in the standard cosmological model. But
there are other proposals, such as scalar fields, galileons, axions, tachyonic
fields, or even dynamical dark energy models, among many other ideas.

Dark energy only seems to act on the largest scales of the universe, with
the expansion of the universe a phenomenon that can only be measured by
observing galaxies and other cosmic objects that are separated by massive gulfs
of space in the order of millions, billions, and even tens of billions of light-
years apart and away from us. And the greater the distance that separates these
cosmic objects, the more rapidly they race away from each other.
As a simple analogy for this, imagine drawing three spots on a deflated
balloon, two close together and the other further apart. In this analogy, dark
energy is the breath blowing into the balloon overcoming gravity which is
represented by the tension of the balloon's rubber skin. As the balloon is inflated
all three points will move away from each other, but the furthest point will
move away more rapidly.
This is like three galaxies, two close together and the other further apart,
the latter of which is moving away faster because the space between it and the
other galaxies, like the rubber of the balloon, is stretching, and more space
means more expansion.
 Currently, scientists estimate that galaxies are getting 0.007% further
away from each other every million years. American theoretical astrophysicist
Ethan Siegel explained in a column for Big Think that in "real terms" for a
cosmic object 100 million light-years away astronomers infer it is receding at
1,336 miles per second (2,150 kilometers per second). Meanwhile, a galaxy 1
billion light-years away is receding 10 times faster at around 13,360 miles per
second (21,500 km/s).

Dark Matter :

First, it is dark, meaning that it is not in the form of stars and planets that
we see. Observations show that there is far too little visible matter in the
universe to make up the 27% required by the observations. Second, it is not in
the form of dark clouds of normal matter, matter made up of particles called
baryons. We know this because we would be able to detect baryonic clouds by
their absorption of radiation passing through them. Third, dark matter is not
antimatter, because we do not see the unique gamma rays that are produced
when antimatter annihilates with matter. Finally, we can rule out large galaxy-
sized black holes on the basis of how many gravitational lenses we see. High
concentrations of matter bend light passing near them from objects further
away, but we do not see enough lensing events to suggest that such objects to
make up the required 25% dark matter contribution.
Dark matter doesn't interact with light as does matter composed
of atoms made of protons and neutrons, part of the baryon family of particles
that surrounds us every day and is known as "baryonic matter."
Dark matter is, therefore literally "'dark" and thus the prefix in "dark
matter" is used more literally than used in "dark energy" rather than just
alluding to a mysterious nature alone.
The main way we know dark matter exists is from its gravitational effect
of holding galaxies together. Without the gravitational influence of dark matter,
galaxies are swirling so rapidly that the gravitational influence of their visible
matter stars, planets, gas, and dust would be insufficient to prevent them from
flying apart.
 In terms of energy and matter content of the universe, we've seen dark
energy accounts for around an estimated 68% to 72%. That leaves around 32%
to 28% of the universe's matter and energy budget left for everything else
mainly dark matter and baryonic matter.

The first detection of dark energy through the discovery that the
expansion of the universe is accelerating was made by two teams of scientists
working independently in the late 1990s. These teams were conducting surveys
of Type Ia supernovas, cosmic explosions that occur when massive stars die
and that produce light emissions so uniformly that they are excellent for
measuring cosmic distances.
This is because as the universe expands light from distant sources that
takes a long time to travel to Earth has its wavelength "stretched out." As red is
a color associated with longwave light, this results in a reddening of light that
astronomers call "redshift."
The further away a light source is, the more its light is red shifted, with
sources from extremely distant sources that existed when the universe was
young shifted into the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
astronomers were observing these so-called "standard candle" supernovas to
attempt to measure the rate of universal expansion called the Hubble constant.
The discovery of the red shift of light from distant sources and thus the
expansion of the universe by famous astronomer Edwin Hubble in the 1930s
forced Albert Einstein to drop a factor from his equations called the
cosmological constant, represented by the greek letter lambda (λ).
When Einstein formulated general relativity in 1915 he had been
surprised that it indicated the universe should be expanding or contracting. To
combat this Einstein introduced λ a self-admitted "fudge factor" he is later said
to have described as his "greatest blunder" as a form of "anti-gravity" to balance
gravity and ensure the universe he modelled was a steady-state one and was not
expanding or contracting.
If the matter/energy density of the universe is equal to the critical density
then in terms of geometry the universe is flat like a sheet of paper. In a matter-
dominated universe, the critical density is between the density required by a
collapsing "heavy universe" and the density of a "light universe" that expands
forever.
 The total content of the universe without dark energy is only around 30%
of what is needed for a flat universe, which is the type of geometry the universe
should have if created by the Big Bang. This is because early inflation should
have "smoothed out" the universe geometrically like a sheet of paper.

Difference between dark energy and dark matter:

Property Dark Energy Dark Matter

Unknown subatomic
Composistion Unknown form of energy
particels

Very low density, much less About 5 times the density of

Density
than density of dark matter normal matter

Gravity Oppose the force of gravity Attracts other objects

Effect on the Accelerates the expansion Slows the expansion of the

universe of the universe universe

Total Amount 68% 27%

Uniform throuhout the Concentrated in galaxies and
Distribution
space galaxy clusters
Gravitataional lensing,
Evidence for Accelerated expansion of
galaxy rotation curves and
existence the universe
CMB