Week 2

Question: A box contains 12 balls that consist of 5 black, 4 white, and 3 red. In how many ways
could 6 balls be chosen with a constraint that at least one ball for each color should be in. (Hint:
2 possible solutions exist)

Theorem (Pascal Rule): (𝑛+1

𝑟
𝑛
) = (𝑟−1) + (𝑛𝑟) 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛

Question: Given a set A={1,2,3,4,5}

a. How many subsets do A have (Hint: all possible subsets)
b. How many subsets do not contain both 1 and 2
c. How many subsets have at least 1 or 2.

Ex: There are 4 males and 2 females. A committee could be set up. In this committee consisting
of at least 1 female and the number of males being at least two times, the number of females is
required. How many committees could be set?

(21)(42) + (21)(43) + (21)(44)+(22)(44)

Ex: Given 2(𝑛4) = 3[(𝑛3) + (𝑛2)], Find n. Then, How many subsets composing of two elements
at most could be set up?
2𝑛! 3𝑛! 3𝑛!
= +
4! (𝑛 − 4)! 3! (𝑛 − 3)! 2! (𝑛 − 2)!

2𝑛! 2𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2(𝑛 − 3)(𝑛 − 4)! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)

= =
(𝑛 − 4)! 4! (𝑛 − 4)! 24 12
3𝑛! 3𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
= =
(𝑛 − 3)! 3! (𝑛 − 3)! 6 2
3𝑛! 3𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)! 3𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
= =
(𝑛 − 2)! 2! (𝑛 − 2)! 2 2

We deal with the left-hand side of the equation first

1
 𝑛3 − 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛 3𝑛2 − 3𝑛 𝑛3 − 𝑛
+ =
12 2 2
Then the right-hand side is treated
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3) 𝑛4 − 6𝑛3 + 11𝑛2 − 6𝑛
=
12 12
When equating both sides,
𝑛4 − 6𝑛3 + 11𝑛2 − 6𝑛 6𝑛3 − 6𝑛
=
12 12

Thus,
𝑛4 − 12𝑛3 + 11𝑛2 = 0
𝑛2 (𝑛2 − 12𝑛 + 11) = 0
𝑛2 = 0 or 𝑛2 − 12𝑛 + 11 = 0
n=0 or n=1 or n=11. Since n is defined for positive numbers n=0 is excluded n=1 could be but
is not suitable for the question since we deal with subsets composed of 2 elements. Thus, n=11.
11 11 11
( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 67
0 1 2

Ex: An instructor gives an exam consisting of 10 ten questions and asks them to answer 7 out
of 10.
a. How many ways could a student answer those questions?
b. Instructor asks students to answer one of the two questions when questions are grouped as 1-
2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8, and 9-10 consecutively. How many ways could a student answer those
questions?

a.(10
7
) = 120

b. (21)(21)(21)(21)(21)(52) = 320

Ex: Given (𝑛2) = 45 what is the value of n?

𝑛!
= 45
(𝑛 − 2)! 2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
= 45
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 90
n=10
2
 𝑃4𝑛
Ex: Given = 60, Find n.
(𝑛−1
3 )

𝑛!
(𝑛 − 4)!
= 60
(𝑛 − 1)!
(𝑛 − 4)! 3!

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)

= 60
(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)
6

6𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)

= 60
(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)

n=10

Remark 1: The order is taken into account in Permutation

Remark 2: The order is not taken into account in Combination

Combinations with Repetitions

Theorem: Suppose that n number of the objects that are all different and can be repeated without
any conditions and constraints by taking into account the order of objects. The number of k-
wise permutations is equal to 𝑛𝑘 .

Ex: Given A={1,2,3,4}, by using all the elements in A, how many permutations could be set up
using 2 wise, 3 wise, and 4 wise
2wise:{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4)
}
42 = 16
Similarly, 3-wise and 4-wise, respectively
43 = 81 𝑣𝑒 44 = 256

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Theorem: Suppose that n number of the objects that are all different and can be repeated without
any conditions and constraints by not taking into account the order of objects. The number of
k- wise combinations is denoted by

𝑛+𝑟−1 𝑛+𝑟−1
( )=( )
𝑟 𝑛−1

Permutations of objects that are not all different

Theorem: Given a set of n objects having r1 elements alike of one kind, and r2 elements alike
of the second kind and …, rk elements of the kth kind; then the number of permutations of the
n objects, taken all together, is denoted
𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , … , 𝑟𝑘 𝑟1 ! 𝑟2 ! 𝑟3 ! … 𝑟𝑘 !

Ex: Utilizing the letters of A-L-L-A, how many words either meaningful or meaningless could
be generated?
4!=4.3.2.1=24.
However, there are the same letters. So, repetitions should be disregarded from the total
permutations. To show repetitions, one A and L are denoted by bold cases., 24 different
permutations are presented in Table 1:
Table 1: 24 different permutations of A-L-L-A
AALL AALL LLAA LLAA
AALL AALL LLAA LLAA
ALAL ALAL LALA LAAL
ALLA ALLA LAAL LALA
ALAL ALLA LALA LALA
ALLA ALAL LAAL LAAL
3 0 3 0

4!
=6
2! 2!

Ex: 2 red, 3 black, and 5 white beads are used to be ordered in a row. The same color beads are
in the same magnitude and shape. How many different ways could this arrangement occur?
10 10!
( )=
2,3,5 2! 3! 5!
Ex: 4 red, 3 white, and 1 blue flag are used to arrange an arrow. How many different ways could
this arrangement occur?

4
 8!
= 280
4! 3! 1!

Ex: By using the word called KARAKAYA, How many different ways could words be
generated?
𝑛 = 8, 𝑟𝐾 = 2, 𝑟𝐴 = 4, 𝑟𝑅 = 1, 𝑟𝑌 = 1
8!
= 840
4! 2! 1! 1!
Ordered and Unordered Partitions
Ordered Partitions
Theorem: let A be a set consisting of n different objects denoted by (A1, A2, …, Ak), and the
number of elements in each partition is denoted by (r1, r2,…,rk) where n= r1+r2+…,+rk.
The number of ordered partitions is computed by

𝑛!
𝑟1 ! 𝑟2 ! 𝑟3 ! … 𝑟𝑘 !

Ex: 9 different toys are shared among 4 siblings. While the youngest one will have 3 out of 9,
the rest will have an equal number of toys. How many different ways could this arrangement
occur?

9!
= 7560
3! 2! 2! 2!

Unordered Partitions
In an unordered partition, the total number of objects is split into subsets and the order does not
count.
Ex: 12 students are distributed into 3 activity clubs. Each club must have 4 students. Let clubs
be denoted by A, B, and C. How many different ways could this arrangement be occurred?
12 8 4 1
( ) ( ) ( ) = 5775
4 4 4 3!
Ex: 10 persons are used to set up two groups. Each group must have at least one person. How
many different ways could this arrangement occur?
10 9 10 8 10 7 10 1
( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ⋯+ ( )( )
1 9 2 8 3 7 9 1

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 10 10 10 10 10 10
( ) . 1 + ( ) . 1 + ( ) . 1 + ⋯ + ( ) . 1 = 210 − ( ) − ( ) = 210 − 2
1 2 3 9 0 10

Since it is an unordered partition, repetitions should be disregarded.

210 − 2
2!
Ex:8 friends took a short trip and they planned to stay at a hotel one night. The hotel has 3
vacancies whose 2 beds, 3 beds, and 3 beds in 3 rooms respectively, 2 out of 8 persons could
not share the same room. How many different ways could this arrangement occur?
For these two persons, the arrangements should be as follows:
One of the two persons chooses one room then the second one is assigned to one of the other
two rooms.
Suppose that the first person decides to stay in a room having two beds. Then, another person
is assigned to one of the other rooms:
1 6 6 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = 1.6.20.1 = 120
1 1 3 3
Suppose that the first person decides to choose the first room that has 3 beds. Then the second
person should choose to stay in either a room having 2 beds or a room having 3 beds:

(11)(62)(52)(33) + (11)(62)(53)(22)=150

Suppose that the first person decides to choose the second room that has 3 beds. Then the second
person should choose to stay in either a room having 2 beds or a room having 3 beds:

(11)(62)(52)(33) + (11)(62)(53)(22)=150

Then the total number of arrangements will be

120+150+150=420
Alternative solution
If no constraints,
8 6 3
( ) ( ) ( ) = 560
2 3 3

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Assuming that these two persons stay in the same room. Then 3 alternatives would be
constructed as follows:
The room has 2 beds
2 6 3
( ) ( ) ( ) = 20
2 3 3
The room has 3 beds
2 6 5 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = 60
2 1 3 2
The room has 3 beds
2 6 5 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = 60
2 1 3 2

560-(20+60+60)=420

Binomial Theorem

Theorem: n positive integer

(𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = (𝑛0)𝑎𝑛 𝑥 0 + (𝑛1)𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥1 + (𝑛2)𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑟)𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 + ⋯ + (𝑛𝑛)𝑥 𝑛 =

∑𝑛𝑟=0(𝑛𝑘)𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑥 𝑟

(𝑛𝑟) is called binomial coefficients

Ex:(2𝑥 + 3)20 is given. What is the coefficient of the 12th element in the binomial expansion?
20 20
( ) (2𝑥)11 (3)9 = ( ) (2)11 (3)9
11 11

The probability of an Event and Axioms of probability

Definition: If an experiment results in N different outcomes and M out of N is related to an

event called A. then the probability of A denoted by P(A) is defined by

𝑀
𝑃(𝐴) =
𝑁

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Ex: Toss a die. Event A is defined as being an even number.
𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and A={2,4,6}. To compute the probability of A denoted by P(A),
3
𝑃(𝐴) =
6

Ex: By using the numbers 1-2-3-4-5, three digits numbers would be generated without
repetitions.
a. What is the probability of generating an even number?
b. What is the probability of generating a number that is a multiple of 5?

a. The total number of 3 digits numbers=N=5.4.3=60

a. The total number of 3-digit even numbers=M=4.3.2=24

24
𝑃(𝐴) =
60

b. Event B: the total number of numbers that is multiple of t 5=K=4.3.1=12

12
𝑃(𝐵) =
60

Ex: A sack contains 10 balls numbered from 1 to 10. 2 balls are drawn randomly. What is the
probability of drawing the balls numbered 3 and 7?

The total number of drawing 2 balls =N=(10

2
)=45

A: the total number of drawing both 3 and 7 at the same time=M=1

1
𝑃(3 𝑣𝑒 7) = 𝑃(3 ∩ 7) =
45

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Axioms of Probability
Let D be an experiment and S be a sample space. The probability of any event A in S is denoted
by P(A). The axioms are stated as follows:
a.𝑃(𝐴) ≥ 0
b.𝑃(𝑆) = 1
c. the Either finite or infinite number of events belong to S. Suppose that those events are
pairwise disjoint. Then,
𝑃(𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐴𝑛 ) = 𝑃(𝐴1 ) + 𝑃(𝐴2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑃(𝐴𝑛 ) for finite cases
𝑃(𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … ) = 𝑃(𝐴1 ) + 𝑃(𝐴2 ) + ⋯. for infinite cases
Ex: Toss a pair of dice. What is the probability of getting a summation of 8?
A=(2,6),(6,2),(3,5),(5,3),(4,4)}, the total number of sample points satisfy the summation of 8,
which is M=5
S={(1,1),…,(6,6)}=62, N=36=62.
5
𝑃(𝐴) =
36

Some rules
Theorem: Let A1 and A2 be in S with 𝐴1 ⊂ 𝐴2 then, 𝑃(𝐴1 ) ≤ 𝑃(𝐴2 )