Subject Code : OEE351

Subject Name : Renewable Energy System

UNIT - 2

7
SOLAR ENERGY

2.1. SOLAR RADIATION

The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of electromagnetic waves.
When a body absorbs this radiation, the temperature of the body is increased. It provides the
energy needed to sustain the life in our solar system. Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap
and abundantly available renewable energy. It is produced and radiated by the sun, more
specifically, it refers to the sun's energy that reaches the earth. Solar energy received in the
form of radiation can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat
and electricity which can be utilized by us. Since the sun is expected to radiate at essentially
constant rate for a few billion years, it may be regarded as an in-exhaustible source of useful
energy.

The major drawback of solar energy is that it is a dilute form of energy with very low
power density from O to 1 kW/m2 which is available intermittently, uncertainly and
continuously but not steadily. The solar rays coming fromthe sun changes its direction during
 [ 2.2 Renewable Energy System

the day and with the season. Solar energy received on the ground level is affected by
atmospheric clarity, degree of latitude, etc.

2.1.1. Physics of the Sun

It is still mysterious to know how the energy generation happens in the sun. The sun
contains nearly all the known elements in the world which is confirmed by the spectral
measurements but it contains mostly two elements i.e. 80% hydrogen and 19% helium.
Remaining 1% consists of more than 100 elements with very tiny fractions ofthe composition.
Therefore, it is generally accepted that the source of the sun's energy is due to hydrogen-to-
helium thermonuclear reaction. Till date it is not possible to simulate this reaction in any
scientific laboratory. Hence, it is impossible to understand the basics of this reaction
mechanism as well as how solar prominences and sunspots are created. However, the nature of
energy creation is not of much important to the terrestrial users of the sun's radiation but it is
important to know the amount ofenergy, its spectral and temporal distribution, and its variation
with time of day and year.

The sun is a large sphere comprised ofmany layers of gases which are increasingly hotter
toward its center. Its diameter is 1.39 x 106 km. The outermost layer from which energy is
radiated is approximately at a temperature of5485°C. But the center ofthe sun may be predicted
to have 20 x 10°°C. The rate of energy transmission from the sun is 3.8 x 10°kW. Out ofthis,
only tiny fraction i.e. 1. 7 10"kW is intercepted by the earth. The mean distance between the
sun and earth is 150 million km. Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship between the sun and
earth. •
Sun

l
o
o
0
0 +
'

5-
$

'

1 1.7%

Figure 2.1 Relationship between the sun and the earth

Solar energy is the world's most abundant permanent source of energy. The amount of
energy received by the earth is 5000 times greater than the sum of all other energies i.e.
terrestrial nuclear, geothermal and gravitational energies, and lunar gravitational energy. Out
ofgreat amount ofenergy, 30% is reflected to space, 47% is converted to low-temperature heat

•
Solar Energy [ 2.3

and related to space, and 23% powers the evaporation. Less than 0.5% is represented in the
kinetic energy of the wind and waves in photosynthetic storage in plants.

Total terrestrial radiation is only one-third ofthe extraterrestrial radiation total during the
year and 70% of it falls on the oceans. The remaining 1.5 x 1017 kW-h of energy falls on the
land. However, this amount of energy is enormous i.e. approximately 6000 times the total
energy usage of the United States but only small fraction of this total can be used because of
physical and socioeconomic constrains.

2.1.2. Solar Constant

The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top ofthe atmosphere is called solar constant,
Ia. It is defined as the amount of energy received in unit time for unit area perpendicular to the
sun's direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The solar constant is expressed
in three common units as per the World Radiation Centre. They are:

1. 1.367 kImn" or 1367 WIm ,

2. 1165 kcallm2 /per hour,
3. 432 Btu per sq.ft per hour.

This value has been accepted and adopted universally as a standard value ofsolar constant.

2.1.3. Solar Radiation

The energy produced and radiated by the sun is called solar energy. Energy is radiated by
the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wavelength in the range of 0.2 to 4.0
micrometers. The energy from the sun reaching the top of the earth's atmosphere consists of
about 8% ultraviolet radiation (short wavelength, less than 0.39 micrometer), 46% visible light
(0.39 to 0.78 micrometer) and 46% infrared radiation (long wavelength more than 0.78
micrometer).

The term irradiance is defined as the measure ofpower density of sunlight and measured
in WIm'. It is the amount of solar radiant ene rgy falling on a surface per unit area and per unit
time. Irradiation is the measure of energy density of sunlight and it is measured in kWhlm2 •
Irradiance and irradiation apply to all components of solar radiation.

Solar radiation which is not absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called "direct radiation" or "beam radiation". Diffuse radiation is the solar radiation
received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the
atmosphere. The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the sum of
 Renewable Energy System

the direct and diffuse radiations. These three direct, diffuse and total radiations are shown in
Figure 2.2.
Solar radiation
(Short wave length)
Reflected from
atmosphere

1'9
· · · ·
e,
H2'), CO,
dust, etc.

Beam radiation
Diffuse radiation
8en
a, "e
11222137%%3%
• 19
Figure 2.2 Direct or beam, diffuse and total radiations

2.1.4. Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Solar Radiation

The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from the surface
of the sun though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar radiation incident on the outer
atmosphere of the earth is known as extraterrestrial solar radiation. Solar radiation received
at the surface of the earth is entirely different due to various reasons. The extraterrestrial
radiation deviates from the solar constant value due to two reasons. The first is the variation in
the radiation emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than ±1.5% with
different periodicities. The second is the variation of earth-sun distance arising from earth's
'
slight elliptical path. The variation due to this reason is ±3%. The extraterrestrial radiation is
not affected by the change in atmospheric conditions as it is outside the atmosphere. While
passing through the atmosphere, it is subjected to mechanisms of atmospheric absorption and
scattering depending on atmospheric conditions and depleting its density. The solar radiation
that reaches the earth surface after passing through the earth's atmosphere is known as
terrestrial solar radiation. The positions of extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions are indicated
in Figure 2.2.
 Solar Energy [ 2.5 ·]

2.1.5. Solar Radiation Geometry

The variation in seasonal solar radiation availability at the surface of the earth can be
understood from the geometry of the relative movement of the earth around the sun. The
distance between the .e arth and sun changes throughout the year, minimum being 1.4 71 x 10% km
at winter solstice (December 21) and maximum being 1.521xl08 km at summer solstice (June
21 ). The year-round average earth sun distance is 1.496x 108 km. Therefore, the amount ofsolar
radiation intercepted by the earth varies throughout the year, the maximum being on December
21 and the minimum on June 21. The axis of the earth's daily rotation around itself is at an
. .

angle of 23.45 ° to the axis of its ecliptic orbital plane around the sun. This tilt is the major
cause ofthe seasonal variation ofthe solar radiation available at any location on the earth.

In the solar radiation analysis, the following angles are useful:

(i) Latitude of location ():

The latitude of a place is the angle subtended by the radial line joining the place to the
center of the earth with the projection ofthe line on the equatorial plane. The latitude is taken
as positive for any location towards the northern hemisphere and negative towards the southern
hemisphere. For example, the latitude at equator is 0° while at north and south poles are +90°
and-90° respectively.

(ii) Declination (6):

Declination (6) is the angular distance ofthe sun rays north (or south) ofthe equator. It is
'
the angle made by the line joining the centers ofthe sun and the earth with its projection on the
equatorial plane. The value of this angle varies from a maximum of +23.45° on June 21 to
minimum of-23.45° on Decembe r21.

The declination for any day can be calculated from Cooper equation given by

8 360 (284 +n) ·]

= 23.45 sin [ 365 degrees (2.1)

where n= Day ofthe year.

(iii) Hour angle ():

It is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian ofthe plane directly
in line with the sun rays. The hour angle (0) is equivalent to 15° per hour. This angle can also
be defined as the angular displacement of the sun, east or west of the local meridian due to
[2s Renewable Energy System

rotation of the earth on its axis at an angle of 15° per hour. The latitude, hour angle and sun's
declination angle are shown in Figure 2.3.

N f
Meridian of observer at P
(0 Meridian parallel to sun rays

Sun rays

Equator

Figure 2.3 Latitude,, hour angle co, and sun's declination 6

(iv) Solar Azimuth angle (ys):

Sun

Figure 2.4 Sun's zenith, altitude and azimuth angles

The solar azimuth angle is the angle of the sun's rays measured in the horizontal plane
from due south (true south) for· the Northern Hemisphere or due north for the Southern
 Solar Energy [a7

Hemisphere. In other words, it is a horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal
projection ofthe sun rays. This angle is positive when measured from west.

The mathematical expression for the solar azimuth angle is given by

SH]Vg - -sin@x cos

cosa

where 8= Declination angle

co = Hour angle
a = Altitude angle

(y) Surface Azimuth angle (y):

It is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local meridian, the zero
point being south, east positive and west negative.

(vi) Slope or Tilt angle (B):

It is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It is taken to be positive for
surfaces sloping towards the south and negative for surface sloping towards the north.

(vii) Altitude angle (a):

It is a vertical angle between the projection of sun rays on the horizontal plane and the
direction of sun rays passing through the point.

(viii) Zenitlt Angle (0z):

It is complimentary angle of sun's altitude angle. It is a vertical angle between the sun
rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point.

7t
9 z =-
2
-a= 90-0

(ix) Incidence angle (0):

It is the angle at which the Sun's rays strike the Earth's surface. It is the angle between the
sun's rays and normal on a surface. If O is the angle between an incident beam radiation I and
normal to the plane surface, then the equivalent flux or radiation intensity falling normal to the
'
surface is given by I cos 0. Here, 0 is known as incidence angle. For a horizontal plane, the·
incidence angle and zenith angle are same:

The intensity of solar radiation is largely a function of the angle of incidence. If the Sun
is positioned directly overhead or 90° from the horizon, the incoming insolation strikes the
8 surface ofthe Earth at right angle and is most intense. If the Sun is 45° above the horizon, the
[2s Renewable Energy System

incoming insolation strikes the Earth's surface at an angle. It causes the rays to be spread out
over a larger surface area reducing the intensity of the radiation.

For the spherical geometry, the relation between 0 and other angles is given by

cos 0 = o cos 13 + cos o cos y cos rosin 13) + cos q>

sin q> (sin (cos o cos ro
cos B- sin o cos y sin B) + cos 8 sin y sin o sin .... (2.2)

where q> = Latitude

6 ·- Declination angle

13 Slope or tilt angle

0 = Hour angle

y = Surface azimuth angle

For vertical surfaces, B= 90°

cos 0= sin q> cos o cos y cos ro - cos q> sin o cos y + cos o sin y sin
For horizontal surface, B = 0°, 0 = 0z
cos 02= sin
.
o sin b + cos
'
o cos cos . ... (2.3)

Surface facing south, y = 0

cos 0 = sin q> (sin o cos 13 + cos o cos co sin ) +

cos b (cos o cos ro cos 13 - sin 8 sin 13) •

cos 0= sin o sin (-B)+ cos o cos o cos (b- B) .... (2.4)

For vertical surfaces facing south (B= 90°,y= 0)

cos 0 = sin cos o cos - cos b sin o .... (2.5)

2.1.6. Sum at Zenith and Air Mass (m)

Sum at zenith is defined as the position ofthe sun directly overhead.

Air mass is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere considering the vertical
path at sea level as unity. The air mass m is the ratio of the path of the sun rays through the
atmosphere to the length of path when the sun is at the zenith.

m = l, when the sun is at Zenith, i.e., directly overhead.

m = 2, when Zenith angle is 60°.

Solar Energy [ 2.9

m = sec 8 z when m > 3

m = 0 just above the earth's atmosphere.
where 0 z = Zenith angle, in degrees.

The transmission coefficient or transmittance ofthe atmosphere for direct solar radiation
under clear sky condition at sea level is defined as the ratio between the intensity of solar
radiation received on the earth's surface and intensity ofextraterrestrial radiation.

2.1.7. Attenuation of Beam Radiation

Attenuation is the variation ofsolar radiation reaching the earth and received at the outside
ofthe atmosphere. It is due to absorption and scattering in atmosphere.

(a) Absorption:
As the solar radiation passes through the earth's atmosphere, the short-wave ultraviolet
rays are absorbed by the ozone in the atmosphere and the long wave infra-red waves are
absorbed by the carbon dioxide and moisture in the atmosphere.

(b) Scattering:
As the solar radiation passes through the earth's atmosphere, the components of the
atmosphere such as water vapour and dust scatter a portion ofthe radiation. Apart from this, a
portion ofthis scattered radiation always reaches the earth's surface as diffuse radiation. The
particulate matter absorbs as well as scatters electromagnetic radiation.

In general, scattering is much greater than absorption. Since the attenuation by scattering
and absorption by dust particles are difficult to separate. Angstrom suggested a single formula
known as Angstrom's Turbidity Formula which is given by

where K= Aerosol optical depth in vertical direction,

t= Angstrom's Turbidity coefficient,
p= Wave length exponent, and
2.= Wave length in microns.

The value of t varies between O-0.5 depends on the amount of aerosols present in the
atmosphere and the value of p varies between 4-O depends on the ratio of small particles to
large particles.
[2.10 Renewable Energy System

2.1.8. Clarity Index and Concentration Ratio

Clarity index is defined as the ratio ofradiation received on earth's horizontal surface over
a given period to radiation on equal surface area beyond the earth's atmosphere in direction
perpendicular to the beam. It depends upon the clarity of atmosphere for the passage of solar
beam radiation. Clarity index can be between 0.1 and 0.7.

Concentrating collectors are the potential applications in both thermal and power
generation (electrical power) at high delivery temperature. These collectors are typically used
where temperatures above 100°C are needed, i.e. process heat or electricity generation.

Concentration ratio (CR) is the ratio of solar power per unit area of the concentrator
surface (kW/m') to solar power per unit area on the line focus or point focus (kW/m'). It is also
defined as the ratio ofthe area ofaperture ofthe system to the area ofthe receiver. The aperture
ofthe system is the projected area ofthe collector facing (normal) the beam.

For-flat plate collectors, CR= 1. Using heliostats with sun-tracking in two planes: CR of
the order of 1000 can be obtained. CR up to 100 can be achieved by using parabolic trough
collectors with sun tracking in one plane.

2.1.9. Solar lnsolation

The term solar insolation (incident solar radiation) is defined as the solar radiation
received on a flat horizontal surface on earth at a particular instant of time. It depends on the
following parameters.

1. Daily variation (Hour angle).

2. Seasonal variation and geographic location ofthe particular surface.

3. Atmospheric clarity.
4. Shadows of trees, tall structures, adjacent solar panels, etc.
5. Degree oflatitude ofthe location.
6. Area of exposed surface, m2
7. Angle of tilt of solar panel.

21.10. Day Length, Sunrise and Sunset

It is evident from our day-to-day life that during summer, sun rises early and sets later and
during winter, the sun rises late and sets early. Therefore, the day is longer during summer and
shorter during winter. It is due to the fact that the angle of latitude (from equator to North Pole)
Solar Energy 1 2.11

increases during summer and decreases during winter. Hence, the sunrise hour, sunset hour and
day-length depends upon the latitude oflocation and season and day in the year.

Let us consi<;ler, the hourangle for sunset and sunrise is o, the horizontal surface equation
(2.3) given above may be rewritten by considering that the sun light is exactly parallel to the
ground surface and hence substituting 0 = 90°.

o, = cos' (- tan b tan o) .... (2.6)

Total day-length = ffis + ffis = 20,

=2cos' (- tan tan 0)
Since 15° of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, 2 cos-1(- tan~ tan 8)" corresponds to
1
2 cos- (- tan <j> t~n o) ] h
[ 15 1ours.

: ... (2.7)

Thus, the length ofthe day (td) is a function oflatitude (~) and solar declination (o).

2.1.11. Local Solar Time or Local Apparent Time

The time used for calculating the hour angle is the local solar time (or) local apparent time.
The solar time can be obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two
corrections. The first correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in
longitude. The second correction called equation of time correction.

20
15 # N
s
E 10 I/ \
.E
5
) \
Q)
E ...- I\. I \
0
C
-
:;:::

. _g 1 -5
0
V
/
\~ / '
U
::,
-10
\ I ,,

"K
CT
w
- 15
- 20
J FM AM J J ASON 0

Month ---
Figure 2.5 Graph ofequation oftime (E) correction
[ 2.12 Renewable Energy System
i

It is due to the fact that the earth's orbit and rate of rotation are subject to small
perturbations. This correction is based on experimental observations. Figure 2.5 shows the
equation oftime correction for different month in a year.

Local Solar Time (LST)

-,le.[3"}4sz; longitude. location correction

The positive sign is used for western hemisphere and the negative sign is applicable for
the eastern hemisphere.

2.1.12. Apparent Motion of Sun

The rotation of the earth about its axis causes the apparent motion of sun. It changes the
angle at which the direct component of light strikes the earth. The sun appears to move
throughout the sky from a fixed location of the earth surface. The position of the sun depends
on the location of a point on earth, time of day and time of a year. Hence, the apparent motion
of sun has a major impact on the amount of power received by a solar collector. The power
density ofthe solar collector surface is equal to the inside power density when the sun rays are
perpendicular to the collector surface. Intensity of solar radiation on the surface is reduced as
the angle between the sun and collector surface changes.
The angle between the fixed location on earth and the sun depends on the particular
location i.e. the longitude of the location, the time of year and the time of day. Also, it is the
time at which the sun rises and the sun sets which depends on the latitude of the location.
Hence, the complete analysis ofthe sun's angle to a fixed position on earth requires the latitude,
longitude, day ofthe year and time of day.

2.2. ESTIMATION OF SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation data are available in terms kJ/m'. day or kWh/m'. day for various days /
months / an year are used for calculating the:

(a) available solar energy at particular location,

(b) calculating the surface area of the solar collectors,
(c) determining rating of solar plant.

India is in the northern hemisphere within latitudes of 7° and 37.5° N. In India, solar
radiation data (globa l, diffuse and direct) are measured at 16 locations and computed for about
145 locations using modified Angstrom correlation. The average solar radiation values for
Solar Energy 1 2.13

India are between 12.5 and 22. 7 MJ/m2 • day. The peak solar radiation in India occurs in some
parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat in the month of April and May and is equal to 25 MJ/m2 • day.
The solar radiation reduces to about 60% during monsoon and winter months which is in the
range of 12.5 and 16.7 MJ/m2 • day. The country on a yearly average basis receives about 7.3
MJIm. day diffuse radiation. In summer and monsoon months, the actual diffuse radiation
received is much higher compared to winter months. Moreover, the percentage of diffuse
radiation to the total radiation in winter months is much lower than in summer months
indicating that winter months are much clearer.

2.2.1. Estimation of Average Solar Radiation

The monthly average of the daily global solar radiation on a horizontal surface Hav at the
location is given by Angstrom equation as follows:

••-[a+w,] a.a»
where a' and b' are arbitrary constants. In general,
a' 0.35 and b' = 0.61

30,000

t
>,
25000
20,000
s
-,
E2 15,000
10,000

5,000

J A s O N D J F M A M J
Month

Figure 2. 6 Solar radiation on a horizontalplanefor a clear day at various latitudes

Ho = Monthly average of the daily global solar radiation on horizontal surface

for a clear sky day in k.Jlm2 • day.

7 = Average daily hours of bright sunshine i.e. day-length for same period.

N = Maximum daily hours of bright sunshine i.e. longest day-length for the
same period.
[ 2.14 Renewable Energy System

The values of H~ can be obtained from the chart shown in Figure 2.6. The day length of
the solar radiation can be calculated from the equation,
2
N =a = ;cos'(-tan ¢ tan o)

The value of declination (o) can be obtained from the cooper equation.

The monthly average of the daily global solar radiation on a horizontal surface Ha can
also be calculated by modifiedAngstrom equation as follows:

.-a.)
where

Ho = Monthly average of the daily global solar radiation on horizontal surface at

the location in k/m. day. ·

a and b are the modified constants depending upon the location.

Constants a and b for various locations and climate conditions can be obtained from
standard tables.

Ho can be obtained from charts or it can be calculated by the equation:

• - %{ 1-oos» (%%) }(s»ass,+## ss)

where I Solar constant per hour
6 = Declination
n = Day of the year and
cos = Sunrise hour angle = - tan b+ tan o

2.2.2. Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface

Generally, solar radiation (global as well as diffuse) is measured on a horizontal surface.

But, for solar energy applications and for thermal environmental designs, the knowledge of
radiation on inclined surfaces is required. The solar radiation at which the solar energy received
on a given surface depends on the orientation of the surface with reference to the sun. A fully
sun-tracking surface.that always faces the sun receives the maximum possible solar energy at
a particular location.

A surface of the saine area oriented in any other direction will receive a smaller amount
of solar radiation. Because most of the solar collectors or solar radiation collecting devices are
Solar Energy I 2.15
tilted at an angle to horizontal, it is, therefore, necessary to convert data for an hourly radiation
on a horizontal surface of radiation on a tilted surface.

There are three types of solar radiation such as beam radiation (H), diffuse radiation (Ha)
and reflection radiation (H,) constitute the total solar radiation. Usually H and Ha on a
horizontal surface is recorded.

(a) Beam radiation:

The tilted surface faces due to south i.e., y= 0 for this case,

cos 0 = sin (<l>- f3) sin 8 + cos (<l>- f3) cos o cos ro

For horizontal -surface (0 =0.),

cos 0.- = sin p sin o + cos p cos o cos

The tilt factor for beam radiation Rb is given by

R = Hourly beam radiation incident upon the tilted surface

Hourly beam radiation. incident upon a horizontal surface

_ cos 0 _ sin_(@- B)sin + cos (g> - j3) cos o cos ro

cos0, sin sin 8 +cos b cos 8 cos

(b) Diffuse radiation:

For cloudy or hazy days, diffuse radiation can be assumed as uniformly distributed over
the sky. Conversion factor for diffuse radiation (Rd) is given by equation

R,= Hourly diffuse radiation incident upon the tilted surface

, d Hourly diffuse radiation incident upon a horizontal surface

(c) Reflected radiation:

The reflected component comes mainly from the ground and other. surrounding objects.
The reflected radiation from the surrounding on the surface from total solar radiation is given
by

e.-('gee)
Both the beam and diffuse components of radiation undergo reflection from the ground
and the surroundings.
[ 2.16 ) Renewable Energy System

(d) Total radiation:

The total radiation on a surface of arbitrary orientation is given by the formula suggested
by Li and Jordon in 1962:

1 + cos 13 ) ( 1 - cos 13 ) .
=HR,+Hal ( 2 + 2 (H+ H)

where Hi= Beam radiation

Ha= Diffuse radiation and
p= Diffuse reflectance
The values of diffuse reflectance is given by

p = 0.2 when there is no snow

= 0. 7 when there is snow cover.

2.2.3. Solved Problems on Estimation of Solar Radiation

Problem 2.1

Determine the sunset hour angle and day-length at a latitude location· of 30" on 20
April
@ Solution: ·

(i) Sunset hour angle:

Sunset hour angle can be calculated by the equation (3.6)
-
o, =cos' (- tan b tan o)
The value of 6 can be calculated by the equation (2.1),

·-a.s.] ?au.]
where n = Number of days from 1January to 20" April
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 20 = 110 days

8 =· 23.45 sin [ 360 (284

. + 110) ] = 11.23°
365

co, = cos (- tan 30° tan 11.23°) = 96.58° Ans.

Solar Energy I 2.11
(ii) Day-length:
Day-length can be calculated by the equation (3.7)
20, 2
td = =
15 15 x 96.58° = 12.88 hours Ans.

Problem 2.2

Calculate the day-length in hours at Chennai (latitude = 13°) on 15"May.

@ Solution:
Day-length can be calculated by the equation (3.7)

t5;2 [cos' (-tan tan o)] hours

The value of 8 can be calculated by the equation (3. l)

·-s[%#cs+»]
where n = Number of days from 1 Jan. to 15 May
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 15 = 135 days

·-ass».]as+so]-1s.7»
2
Hence, td = [cos-1 (-~n 13° tan 18.79°)] = 12.6 hours Ans.
15

Problem 2.3

Calculate local solar time and declination at a location latitude 22° 15' N, longitude 77
45' E at 12.40 IST on 28March. Take equation of time correction as-1° 08'. Also calculate
the day-length on the date given.

@ Solution:
(i) Local solar time (LST):

Local Solar Time (LST)

.pg;zg4re; longitude location correction

 Renewable Energy System
[ 2.18 )

IST is the local civil time corresponding to 82°30' E longitude. Hence, standard time
longitude is normally taken as 82°30'.
LST = 12% 40' - 4 (82°30' - 77° 45') + (-1 ° 08') = 121' 19' 51" Ans.

(ii) Declination (6):

·- s
The value of can be calculated by the equation (3.1)

»[ es»]
where n= Number of days from l" January to 28"March =31 +28 +28= 87 days

· sin [ 360 (284 + 87) ] =2.4°

8 = 23.45 Ans.
365

(iii) Day-length(t):
2
Hence, t,jg [cos'(-tan 2.4° tan 22%15')] = 12.13 hours Ans.

Problem 2.4

Determine the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to aflat plate collector,
pointing the south location in Chennai (13°N, 80.27E) at 11. 00 hour solar time on 17April.
The collector is tilted at an angle of 32° with the horizontal

@ Solution:
Since the surface is facing south, y= 0, hence, equation (2.4) is used to calculate incident
angle
cos 0 = sin 8 sin (¢-B) + cos 8 cos cos (b- [)

where (j> =Latitude== 13°

8 == Declination angle
B = Slope or tilt angle== 32°
o = Hour angle
The value of 6 can be calculated by the equation (2.1),

·-[ as»]
where n= Number of days from 1Jan. to 17 April
Solar Energy [ 2.19

=31+28+31+17= 107 days

·[e,
o = 23.45 sin 1
365 (284 + 107)J = 10.15°

Hour angle, o= 15 (12-LST) = 15 (12-11) = 15°

Substituting these values in the above equation (2.4),

cos e = sin 10.15° sin (13° -32°) + cos 10.15° cos 15° cos (13°-32°) = 0.84
0=32.8° Ans.

Problem 2.5

A surface tilted 45°from the· horizontal and pointed 10° west of due south is located at
35 latitude. Calculate the incident angle at2 hour after local noon on 16" June.
Solution:
Since the surface is facing south, y = 0, hence, equation (2.4) is used to calculate incident
angle.
cos e = sin O sin ($-13) + cos o cos 0) cos (-B)

where b= Latitude = 35°

o = Declination angle
13 = Slope or tilt angle = 45°
y = Surface azimuth angle = 10°
ro = Hout angle

The value of6 can be calculated by the equation (2.1),

·-ass[ ?h »] es+ +
where n = Nuinber ofdays from 1st January to 16" June
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 16 = 167 days

·-ass/#au +1so[-ss°
Hour angle, o = 15 (AST- 12)
where AST= Apparent solar time= 12 + Local time
) = 15(14-12) = 30°
 Renewable Energy System.
f 2.20
Substituting these values in the above equation (3.2),
cos 0 =sin$ (sin 8 cos 13 + cos 8 cosy cos co sin B)
+ cos b (cos o cos o cos B- sin 8 cos y sin p)
+ cos 8 sin y sin co sin 13
= sin 35° (sin 23.35° cos 45° + cos 23.35° cos 10° cos 30° sin 45°)
+
cos 35° (cos 23.35° cos 30° cos 45,0 - sin 23.35° cos 10°·sin 45°)
+ cos 23.35° sin 10° sin 30° sin 45°

cos 0 = 0.769
e = 39.73° Ans.

2.2.4. Solved Anna University Problems onEstimation of Solar Radiation

AU Problem 2.1
Calculate Sunrise and Sunset Solar (LAI) as well as (IST) time, and Daylength at Pune
(18.53°N, 73.85° E) on 15th October. Estimate monthly mean-hourly Direct, Diffuse and Global
Radiation at 10, 12 and 14 (LAT) hours at Pune in the month ofOctober Oil Horizontal surface
taking the constants A = 1136 Wlm2, B=0.155 and C = 0.113for these calculations. [Nov'2I]

Given data:
Standard time, LAT= 10 hr, 12 hr & 14 hr-
Latitude, $ = 18.53°
Longitude of location, yr = 73.85°
n = Number of days from 1January to October 15
= 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 +31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 15 = 288 days'

@ Solution:
Declination angle, 8 can be calculated by the equation,

·-ass[% cans+o]
-ass/ % asu+ass»]--9s9»r
Sunset hour angle can be calculated by the equation,
o, = cos' (- tan b tan 8)
ffiss = cos (- tan 18.53° tan (-9.5994)) = 86. 75°
Solar Energy [ 2.21

Sunrise hour angle, rosr = - ross =- 86.75°

_:_ OJsr _ (-86.75°)

Sunrise time, IST= 12+ 15 - 12+ 15

= 6.23 hr= 374 min

=6 hr 13 min 48 sec= 6:13:48 am Ans.

Sunset time, ST.,=12 Pe_+, 86.75°

Rs 'is " 1s
= 17.783 hr =1067 min
= 17:46:59 = 5 hr 46 min 59 sec = 5:46:59 pm Ans.
Day-length can be calculated by the equation,
20, 2
fd = l5 = l5 X 86.75° = 11.567 hr Ans.

Equation oftime correction,

=or-s1)?9
365
-(ass-s)?%-04.16
365
Longitude of location,
E =9.87sin2B- 7.530sB-1.5sinB

E = 9.87sin(2x 204.16)-7.53cos204.16-l.5sin204.16 = 14.86

Local Apparent Time (LAT),

..lg;y./g,2.longitude location correction

Local Apparent Time (LAT) for sunset,

=IST,- 4 (\)/STD - \)IL)+ E

\)/STD is taken as OJss::::: 86. 75°

=IST,- 4 (o,- i) +E
LAT=I067 min-4 (86.75 - 73.85) min+ 14.86 min
= 1030.26 min
= 17 hr 10 min 16 sec= 5:10:16 pm Ans.
Local Apparent Time (AT) for sunrise,

= IST,,- 4 (\jlsTD - \jh) + E

 Renewable Energy System
[ 2.22

LAT =374 min-4 (86.75 -73.85) min+ 14.86 min= 337.26 min

= 5 hr 37 min 16 sec= 5:37:16 am Ans.

We know that
Local Apparent Time (LAD at 10 hr = 600 min,
LAT= !ST- 4 (\jJSTD - \jJL) +E
600 = IST-- 4 (86.75 - 73.85) + 14.86
IST = 636.74 min= 10.6123 hr

Hour angle 10.6123 hr,

(J) = 15 (12 -JST10 hr)= 15 (12 - 10.6123) = 20.816
Zenith angle, 0, can be calculated by

0_=cos'(sinsino +cos4cos6cos)

0. =cos'(sin18.53sin(-9.5994) +cos18.53cos(-9.5994)cos 20.816)

= 34.83°
Direct beam radiation, lb = C lbN (As per parametric model)

(-B} (-0.155)
Iv= Ae• = 1136ecos34.83" = 940.53 WIm
where
.< Direct beam radiation, lb= C lbN = 0.113x940.53 = 106.28 W/11(' Ans.

Diffuse radiation,
= 940.53 x cos 34.83° = 772.03 WIm Ans.

Global radiation, I = I+Ia

. = 106.28 + 772.03 = 878.31 WIm Ans.

Similarly,
Local Apparent Time (LAD at 12 hr= 720 min,
LAT = IST - 4 (sr-) +E
720 = IST-4 (86.75- 73.85) + 14.86
IST = 756.74 min= 12.612 hr

Hour angle 12.612 hr, o= 15 (12-JST12h,) = 15(12-12.612) = -9.18

Solar Energy [_2z3
Zenith angle. 0z can be calculated by

0.=cos'(sin¢sin8 +cosbcosocosco)
1
,0z = cos- ( sin18.53sin(-9.5994) +cos18.53cos (-9.5994)cos(-9.18))

= 28°
Direct beam radiation, I,= C I(As per parametric model)

where l= [±] (9
AO, u= 1136xeos28" = 953.1 WIm'

:. Directbeamradiation,h=ChN=0.113x953.1 =107.7 W/m2 Ans.

Diffuse radiation, Ia = L, cos_
= 953.1 x cos 28° = 841.54 W/m2 Ans.
Global radiation, Ir= h +Id= 107.7+ 841.54 = 949.24 Wlm2 Ans.
Also,
Local Apparent Time (LAT) at 14 hr= 840 min,
LAT= IST- 4 (\jJSTD - \jJL) +E
•. 840=IST-4(86.75- 73.85) + 14.86
IST = 876.74 min= 14.123 hr
Hour angle 14.123 hr, = 15 (12 -IST14 hr)= 15 (12 - 14.123) = - 31.8

Zenith angle, 0, can be calculated by

0_=cos'(sin@sin + cos4cos8cos)

0.= cos-' (sin18.53sin(-9.5994) + cos18.53cos(-9.5994 )cos(-31.8))

= 42.136°
Direct beam radiation, I= C Iv (As per parametric model)
-B ) ( -0.155 )
(
where l = A o 0%.. = 1136xeos42 136° = 921.73 WIm

:. Direct beam radiation, I = C IbN = O. 113x921.73

= 104.16WIm'= 374.98 kJIm-day Ans.
Diffuse radiation, Ia= IbN cose= = 921. 73 X cos 42.136°

= 683.52 W/m2 = 2460.67 kJ/m2 -day Ans.

[ 2.24 Renewable Energy System

Global radiation, I= I +Ir= 104.16+ 683.52

= 787.68 W/m2 = 2835.65 kJ!m2 •day Ans.

Also, direct, diffuse and global radiation at 10, 12 and 14 (LAT) hours for all days of
October month can be mathematically modelled by calculating all variables related to the value
of n using a suitable software package.

AU Problem 2.2

What is solar Thermal Radiation? Explain the Spectral distribution ofextraterrestrial

solar radiation with the help ofgraph. h at is Plank's Law usedforfinding spectral emissive
power and Stefan Boltzmann Law usedforfinding Emissive power ofa black surface? What
is Local Apparent Time (LAT) and Indian Standard Time (IST)? Determine the Local
. ,
Apparent Time (LAT) corresponding to 1430 h (IST) at Mumbai (19°07' N, 72°51' E) on
July 1. In India; Standard Time is based on 82930 E. Take time correction as -3.5 minutes.

[Nov'21]

Refer chapter 2.1.3 on Page 2.3 for solar thermal radiation, refer chapter 2.1.4 on Page
2.4 for extraterrestrial solar radiation & refer chapter 2.1.12 on Page 2.12 for Local
Apparent Time (LAT).

(i) Plank's Law:

Planck's law describes the spectral density ofelectromagnetic radiation emitted by a black
body in thermal equilibrium at a given temperature T when there is no net flow of matter or
energy between the body and its environment.

(ii). Stefan Boltzmann Law:

Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black
body in unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power ofthe black body's thermodynamic
temperature T.

Emissive power, E =oT

o- Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67 x 1 Q-8 W!m2 °C

(iii) Indian Standard Time (1ST):

India Standard Time is a half-hour time zone. Its local time changes by 30 minutes instead
ofthe normal whole hour.
Solar Energy [_2.2s

Given data:
Standard time, IST= 14:30 hr= 14 hr 30 min
Standard time longi11:Ide, \jlsm = 82°30' = 82.5°

Longitude of location, \jlL = 72°51' = %- 72.85°

n = Number of days from 1January to July 1=31 + 28 + 31 + 30 +31 + 30 + 1 = 182 days

@ Solution:
(i) Local Apparent time (LAT) or Local Solar Time (LST):
Local Apparent Time (LAT),

-..±y42\4,s. longitude
Local Apparent Time (LAT) = IST- 4 (\jlsrD - \jfL) + E
location correction

LAT = 870-4 (82. 5- 72.85) + (-3.5)

= 870-42.1 = 827.9 min
= 13 hr 47 min 35 sec
= 13:47: 35 = 01:47: 35 PM Ans.

AU Problem 2.3

With the help of neat sketch, explain and give equations for declination angle, hour
angle, zenith angle, solar azimuth angle and angle of incidence. Determine the monthly
average value of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location (latitude 22° 13'
N, Longitude 73° 13' E) during the month ofMarch. If constants a and bare given equal to
0.28 and 0.48 respectively and average sunshine hours per day is 10.15. [Nov'21]

Given data:
Average sunshine time, S = 10.15 hour per day
n= Number of days from 1 January to March 16=31 +28+16=75<lays
i ·

13
Latitude angle,$= 22°13' = 22+ = 22.217°
60
Solar constant, Isc = 1367 Im? (It is taken)
S = 10.15 hours per day

@ Solution:
-
The value of 6 can be calculated by the equation, 6. = 23.45 sin [ ~ :~ (284 + n) ]
 Renewable Energy System
[ 2.26 1

6=23 45 sin [ ;:~ (284+ 75) ] = - 2.4177°

Sunset hour angle can be calculated by the equation,

, = cos (- tan ~ tan 8)
1
cos= cos- (-ta~ 22.217° tan (-2.4177°)) = 89.011 °
Day-length can be calculated by the equation,
20, 2
4,j5= z89.o11°= 11.868 hr

•-a[i
Monthly average value of daily global radiation at the top of the atmosphere,

ron«» ?h; sos.or+sirs.)]

2X 7tX 89·011 .
24 36075 - xsin22. 217 sm
. ( - 2 . 417 7 )]
=x1367x [( 1+0.033cos)( 360
1t .
365. +cos22.217cos(-2.4177)sin(89.011)

= 9484.612 W/m2 = 9.485 kW/m2 = 9.485 x3600 = 34146 kJlm- day

Monthly average value of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface,

"...»%?]as.on"P,loco
H, 11.868

Hg= H, x0.691 = 34146 x 0.691 = 23594.89 kJIm-day Ans.

AU Problem 2.4

Esti
mate monthly-mean-daily Total Radiation falling on a FPC facing South with a
slope of 20° with horizontal surface at Pune (18.53° N, 73.85' E) in October at 2.00 pm
taking surrounding reflectivity of 0.2. Take constants a = 0.31 and b = 0.43 for Pune to
estimate monthly-mean daily Global and Diffuse Radiation. Assume average sunshine hours
as 9 hrs. [Nov'21]

Given data:
Surface slope, ~ = 20°
Latitude,~= 18.53°
LAT= 2.00 PM=(12+2)60 = 840 min
Solar Energy [_2z7
Reflectivity, p = 0.2
a= 0.31 and b = 0.43
Sa = 9 hours per day
October I (It is assumed)
n = Number of days from 1" January to October I
=31 +28+31 +30+31 +30+31 +31+30+1 =284days,
@ Solution:

Declination angle, o can be calculated by the equation,

·
6=23.45 sin1 [ 3g
360 284+n) ]

6=23.45 sin [ !:~ (284 + 284)] = - 8.105°

Hour angle at sunset,

lo.,/ =min[[cos(-tan » tan o).[cos'(-tan(@-)tan 6)

=min[[cos'(-tan18.53an(-8.105)).[os'(-tan(18.53-20)an (-8.105))]

COss = min[87.264,90.209]= 87.264°

Day-length can be calculated by the equation,
2COss 2 · •
td = =
15 15 x 87.264 = 11.64 hr
Equation of time correction,
360 360
B=(n-81) =(284-81) = 200.22
365 365

Longitude of location,
E =9.87sin2B-7.53cosB-1.5sin B

E = 9.87sin(2><'2 00.22)-7.53cos200.22-l .5sin200.22 = 13.99

Monthly average value of daily global radiation at the top of the atmosphere,

• -?
T
a\[1+oo.,2]2so.sss
365 360
rs»sos»,]]
 Renewable Energy System
[ 2.28 )

2 87 264
24 [( 360x 284)( 1tx · x sin18.53sin(-8.105) ]]
=- x1367x I+0.033cos- - - 360
1t · · 365 +cosl8.53cos ( -8.105 ) sm
. ( 87.264 )

[·:1.. =1367 Im? tis assumed)]

= 9131.57 W/m2
Monthly average value of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface,

,-.%]-ss.cf,"Joss
H, tu 11.64

Hg= Ho x0.643 = 9131.57 x 0.643 = 5871.6 ·w1m2

This radiation, Hg will be reflected from ground to solar collector. So, it is taken as H,-.
H, = H,= 5871.6 Im"
Local Apparent Time (LAD at 14 hr= 840 niin,
LAT= !ST- 4 (\jlsm _: \jJL) + E
840 = IST --4 (87.264 - 73.85) + 13.99
IST = 879.67 min = 14.66 hr
Hour angle 14.66 hr, co= 15 (12-IST14hr) = 15 (12-14.66) =-39.9
Zenith angle, 0z can be calculated by
0_=cos'(sin$sin8 +coscos0cos)

0, =cos'( sin 18.53sin (-8.105)+ cos I 8.53cos (-8.105)cos(-39.9))

= 47.52°

cos0 = (sin( <J>-f3)sin8 + cos( <J>- f3)cos8cosro)

. .
1
0 = cos- [(sin( <J>-f3)sin8 +cos( q>- f3)cos8cosro)]

0 =cos(sin(18.53-20)sin(-8.105)+ cos(l 8.53-20)cos (-8.105)cos(-39.9

= 40.28°
A, B and C values are assumed as AU Problem 2.1 on Page 2.20.
For horizontal surface,
Direct beam radiation, lb = C hN (As per parametric model)
 Solar Energy [_2zs ]
-B ) . ( -0. 155 )
(
where hN = Ae case, = 1136 Xe cos 47-52" = 903.03 WIm?

. ·. Direct beam radiation, I =CI=0.113x903.03 = 102.04 WIm?

Diffuse radiation, lc1 = I, cos0_= 903.03 x cos 47.52° = 609.85 Wlm2

Tilt factor for beam radiation, R= cosO) = (40.28) = ),848

( cos0. 47.52

200
Tilt factor for diffuse radiation, Rt= 1 +cos~ _ 1 + cos = 0.97
2 2

Tilt factor for reflected radiation, R,= pc- ~OS~) = 0.2 x ( j = 0. 006

For inclined surface,

:. Diffuse radiation for inclined surface, Hc1 = Rc1 x lc1 = 0.97 x 609.85 = 591.56 Im
= 2129.62 kJmm-day Ans.

:. Global radiation or total radiation,

Hr= H+Hr+H,
= IR + IRa +I,R,
= 102.04 x 0.848 + 609.85 x 0,97 + 5871.6 x 0.006
= 713.31 W/m2
= 2567.92 kJIn-day . Ans.

Also, monthly-mean-daily Total Radiation falling on a FPC for all days of October
month at 2.00 pm can be mathematically modelled by calculating all variables related to
the value of n using a suitable software package.

AU Problem 2.5

) An inclined surfacefacing due south is tilted at 60 deg with horizontal. Its location is at
Aligarh (latitude 25°54'N, longitude 78%04' E) on March 2022 at 1 PM (IST). The reflection
coefficient of the ground is 0.2. Calculate the total radiation recevied at the surface. Also
calculate the values ofRs, Ra and R,.. [Apr'23]

Similar to AU Problem 2.4 on Page 2.26.

[ 2.30 Renewable Energy System

[Note:-Assume all missing data suitably similar to above AU Problem 2.4 on Page 2.26]

[Ans:- R, = 0.854, R = 0.75, R, = 0.05 & Total radiation = 21858.73 kJImt-day]

2.3. SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT

Solar radiation measurements are important because of the increasing number of solar
heating and cooling applications, and the need for accurate solar irradiation data to predict the
performance. Solar radiation requires instruments which will measure the heating effect of
direct solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation.

There are two basic types of instruments used for measuring solar radiation. They are as
follows:

1. Pyrl,eliometer:
It is an instrument for the measurement of direct solar radiation flux at normal incidence.
This instrument is usually attached to an electrically driven equatorial mount which tracks the
sun.

2. Pyranometer:
It is an instrument for the measurement of the direct and diffuse solar radiations arriving
from the whole hemisphere. This hemisphere is usually the complete sky dome. A pyranometer
can be used in a tilted position as well, in which case it will also receive the ground reflected
radiation. Pyrheliometer and pyranometer are basically a radiometer which absorbs the solar
radiation at its sensor, transforms it into heat and measures the resulting amount of heat to
ascertain the level of solar radiation.

Sunshine recorder is used for measuring the sunshine.

2.3.1. Measurement of Direct Radiation using Pyrheliometer

A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures the direct beam solar radiation. It is an

instrument which collimates the radiation to determine the beam intensity as a function of
incident angle. To measure the direct solar radiation correctly, its receiving surface must be
arranged to be normal to the solar direction i.e., a line joining the sun and receiver. For this
reason, the instrument is usually mounted on a sun-tracking
r .
device called an equatorial mount.

In this device, a sensor disc is located at the base of a tube whose axis is aligned with the
direction of the sun rays. Thus, the diffuse radiation is essentially blocked from the sensor
surface. Most of the pyrheliometers operate on the principle of thermopile effect. The diffuse
Solar Energy [ 2.31

component is avoided by installing a collimator tube over the sensor with a circular cone angle
of about 5°.

Three types of pyrheliometers are used to measure the .normal incident beam radiation.
They are as follows:
1. Angstrom pyrheliometer
2. Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
3. Eppley pyrheliometer.

1. Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer

In this type, a thin blackened shaded manganin strip (size 20 x 2 x 0.1 mm) is heated
electrically until it is at the same temperature as a similar strip which is exposed to solar
radiation. Figure 2. 7 shows the electric circuit of this pyrheliometer. Under steady state
conditions (both strips at identical temperature), the energy used for heating is equal to the
absorbed solar energy. The thermocouples on the back of each strip is connected in opposition
through a sensitive galvanometer to test the equality of temperature.

Key

Heating ,
current

Thermo-junction
Heated strip
Shaded strip
Galvanometer

Exposed
strip

Key

Figure 2.7 Electric circuit ofAngstrom compensation pyrheliometer

The energy Hof direct radiation is calculated by using the formula.
Ho» = Direct radiation incident on the area normal to sun rays
Ho» =KI
 [232 Renewable Energy System

where
I= Heating current in amperes
R
K = Dimension and instrument constant = Wa

R- The resistance per unit length ofthe absorbing strip (Q/cm).

W-The mean width ofthe absorbing strip and

a.- The absorbing coefficient of the absorbing strip.

2. Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer

This instrument was designed by Abbot in 1902 for the radiation measurement. A
schematic diagram of this device is shown in Figure 2.8. In this pyrheliometer, a silver disk
painted black on its radiation-receiving side which is 3.8 cm in diameter and 0. 7 cm thick is
positioned at the lower end of a tube with diaphragms to limit the whole aperture to 5. 7°.

The disk is suspended by three fine steel wires inside a copper box which is enclosed in a
wooded box to protect the instrument from the temperature change ofthe surrounding. Mercury
in glass thermometer is used to measure the
temperature at the disk. A good contact
between silver disk and thermometer bulb is
maintained by using mercury. The
thermometer stem is bent at right angle to
make this instrument more compact and easier
to use. It is also supported in a metallic Blackened
protective tube. A cylinder with diaphragms
inside is fitted in the wooden container to let
the direct solar radiation falling onto the silver
disk. There is a metallic-plate shutter atthe top
end of the cylinder to block or allow the
passage of solar radiation to the disk. Wooden
container
During the measurement phase, the disk
case
is heated by solar radiation and its temperature
rises. The intensity of this radiation is
ascertained by measuring the temperature
change ofthe disk between measurement phase and Figure 2.8 Abbot silver diskpyrheliometer
Solar Energy [ 2.33

shading phase with the mercury- in-glass thermometer. This type is widely used for
calibrating pyranometers.

3. Eppley pyrheliometer
The Eppley normal incidence pyrheliometer has found a wide acceptance in many parts
of the world. It uses a thin silver disk of 9 mm in diameter as a receiver which is coated with
optical black paint. Fifteen junctions of fine bismuth-silver thermocouples are in thermal
contact with an electrical insulation from the lower surface of the disk. The cold junctions are
in contact with the copper tube of the instrument. The unit is mounted at the base of a double
walled brass tube which is chromed externally and blacke ned internally. A series of limiting
diaphragms limits the aperture to a circular cone of full angle of 5. 7°. The brass tube is filled
with dry air and sealed with a crystal quartz window which is removable. A manually rotatable
disk which can accommodate three filters and leave one aperture for total spectrum
measurement is provided. A diopter is used to determine the direction of the sun.
This instrument is supplied with an electrically driven equatorial mount for solar tracking.
The output of the pyrheliometer can be either directly recorded on a strip chart recorder or
integrated over an appropriate time period and registered. This instrument is found to be very
stable.
Filter
4. Linke-Feussner pyrheliometer
It is one of the most convenient
instruments used for measuring the direct
radiation at normal incident with and
without filters. A schematic diagram of this
device is shown in Figure 2.9.
The main body of the instrument Rotating disc
consists of six massive copper rings. These
rings are contoured on the inside of a tube Copper
diaphragm
to produce a set of radiation diaphragms for f
Moll
decreasing internal reflections, defining the thermopile
acceptance angle of the instrument and
limiting turbulent air currents inside the
instrument. Thus, it secures a high stability
and good sensitivity. A rotating disk with
filters is positioned in the upper end ofthe tube. Figure 2.9 Linke-Feussnerpyrheliometer
[z. ] Renewable Energy System

At the upper extremity of the tube is a special screening head which eliminates the
unwanted reflection in filter measurements. This pyrheliometer employs a specially designed
Moll thermopile receiver consisting of 40 manganese-constantan thermocouple arranged in a
circle of 1 cm diameter. The thermocouples are in two equal sectional arrays. One section is
exposed to the radiation being measured and the other is shaded. Thus, the sections tend to
compensate each other for short period temperature fluctuations of the environment. The
aperture angle is approximately 10°.

In this instrument, five filters are usually provided fitted in the rotating disk. The filter
mount is as well fitted with a double walled opaque disk for the use in zeroing the instrument.
This instrument is installed on a manually operated azimuth-elevation mount by which it can
be oriented in any direction.

2.3.2. Measurement of Global Radiation using Pyranometers

Pyranometer is an instrument which measures the total or global radiation over a

hemispherical field of view. If a shading ring is attached, the beam radiation will be prevented
from falling on the instrument sensor and then it measures the diffuse component of the
radiation. The sun's radiation is allowed to fall on a black surface to which the hot junctions of
a thermopile are attached in most ofthe pyranometers. The cold junctions ofthe thermopile are
located in such a way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an e.m.f proportional
to the solar radiation is generated. The following are the different types of pyranometers.

(i) Eppley pyranometer

(ii) Yellot solarimeter (Photovoltaic cell pyranometer)
(iii) Moll-Gorczynski pyranometer
(iv) Bimetallic Actionograph
(v) Yanishevsky pyranometer
(vi) Dirmhirn-Sauberer or Star pyranometer.

1. Eppley pyranometer:
It is based on the principle ofchange in temperature between black surface (which absorbs
most solar radiation) and white surface (which reflects most solar radiation). The receiver
surface of this pyranometer consists of two concentric silver rings. The inner ring is coated
with black colour and the outer one with white magnesium oxide. The detection oftemperature
difference is achieved by a thermopile with either 10 or 50 thermocouple junctions to detect
the temperature difference between coated rings.
 Solar Energy [_2.s
The whole assembly is hermetically sealed inside a specially blown sphetical Iamb bulb,
76 mm in diameter and made ofglass of about 0.6 mm thickness filled with dry air. Figure 2.10
shows the general arrangement ofa typical pyranometer and thermopile arrangement consisting
of a battery of thermocouples connected in series .
t

Sensing
clement
Quartz disc

Levelling screw

(a) Typical pyranometer

(b) Thermopile consisting ofa battery ofthermocouples connected in series

Figure 2.10 Pyranometer

2. Yellot Solarimeter (Photovoltaic cell pyranometer)

Pyranometers have been used in photovoltaic detectors. Silicon photovoltaic cells are the
most common solar cell for solar-energy calculations. Silicon photovoltaic cells are capable of
producing an electrical signal which is proportional to the intensity of the solar radiation. The
current output is· a linear function of the incident solar radiation. This instrument has an
- instantaneous response (about 10 µs), high current output, overall' stability with time and
exposure to weather and they are of simple design and low expense. The major disadvantage
is the high spectral dependence of the cell output.
[ 2.36 Renewable Energy System

3. Moll-Gorczynski Pyranometer
Moll-Gorczynski pyranometers is more often called Moll-Gorczynski solarimeter. It uses
the specially designed Moll thermopile receiver consisting of 14 very thin (0.005 mm)
blackened strips of manganese-constantan junctions. Half of the thermopile is exposed to the
sun whereas the other half is completely shaded. The narrow metallic ribbons which form the
thermopile are arranged in the form of a rectangle approximately 12 mm x 11 mm in extent.
The exposed junctions are coated with dull black colour paint and protected from the weather
by hemisphere glass domes. 30 cm diameter radiation shield surrounding the outer dome and
coplanar with this sensitive element and it prevents the direct solar radiation from heating the
base of the instrument. The domes have uniformly high transmission characteristics throughout
the spectral range.

4. Bi
me tallic Actionograph
It uses bimetallic strips as sensors. It is not recommended for the general use because of
its large temperature coefficient and equally large azimuth and cosine errors and long response
time. It is suitable only for daily total radiation in which accuracies of ±10% are adequate.
However, it is used for observing the daily total irradiance because it is a simple and sturdy
instrument and it requires no electric power supply for its operation. Hence, it is particularly
suitable for remote areas. The receiver is blackened bimetallic strip (nickel-iron),« of dimensions
of about 85 mm x 115 mm which is simply a bimetallic thermometer. One end is free to move
as the change of temperature causes a distortion of the strip. The change which is a function of
solar irradiance is recorded on a recorder chart mounted on a clock-driven drum. The main
sensor is covered by a hemispherical glass dome and the other mechanism is enclosed in a
sealed metal case because of the relatively large mass of the bimetallic strip and large response
time of the instrument.

5. Yanishevsky Pyranometer
The sensor is constructed either in a square chess board pattern of alternate black and
white squares and rectangles or in a radial pattern of alternate black and white segments. The
thermocouple is composed of alternate strips of manganese and constantan. The hot junctions
are painted black in colour and cold junctions are coated with white magnesia. The
hemispherical glass cover prevents wind effects. This pyranometer is used as a relative
instrument and therefore, it requires calibration against a standard. Deviation of the response
with solar angle from the
.
ideal cosine law is considerable
.
and a correction is applied for this
cosine effect. An additional correction is also applied for the wavelength selectivity of the
instrument when it is used for measuring only the diffuse radiation.
Solar Energy [_2.37

6. Dirmhirn-Sauberer or Star Pyranometer

This pyranometer is used all over the world and it is recommended as a suitable instrument
for the measurement of global and sky radiation by the Commission of the World
Meteorological Organisation. The receiver consists of32 small copper plates which are 0.05
mm thick, half of which are blackened and the remaining half of which are covered with a
highly reflecting white paint. The two sets of plates are mounted as alternate black and white
segments radiating as a star from a central point thus forming a flat circular disk of about 50
mm in diameter. The two types of plates are thermally insulated from each other by being
mounted on poorly conducting concentric rings which are themselves thermally isolated from
the main base plate of the instrument. The thermopile consists of manganese-constantan or
copper-constantanjunctions which are soldered to a plate. The receiver is covered by a polished
glass hemisphere which is 2 to 3 mm thick and 70 mm in diameter.

2.3.3. Measurement of Diffuse Radiation

The same instrument Dirmhirn-Sauberer or Star pyranometer which is used for the
measurement oftotal or global radiation can be used for the measurement of diffuse radiation,
provided that a suitable device is used to prevent the direct solar radiation from reaching the
receiver. Shading ofthe pyranometer from direct solar radiation is done either by a disk which
is made to move with the sun so as to cast its shadow ring or by means of a shadow ring. The
shadow ring is more popular oftwo devices because a shading disk needs constant supervision
and maintenance and equatorial mount is expensive. In the latter case, a small correction factor
is applied to the part of the diffuse radiation which is cut off from the sensor by the shadow
ring. This correction can either be computed or determined experimentally. The correction
factor can be determined experimentally by successive measurements with a ring and disk of
suitable diameter. The amount of diffuse radiation which is cut off is added to the results
obtained with above ring.

2.3.4. Measurement of Sunshine

Knowledge of the daily and hourly records of the amount of sunshine is necessary for
estimating solar radiation values. It is also used for optimising the design of a particular solar
collector. This measurement is simple and far less expensive than solar radiation measuring
devices. The duration ofbright sunshine in a day is measured by means ofa sunshine recorder.
The campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder is shown in Figure 2.11 and it is extensively used all
over the world. It consists of a glass sphere of about 10 cm in diameter mounted in a section of
[ 2.38 Renewable Energy System

spherical metal bowl having three partially overlapping grooves for holding a recorder card
strip and the glass sphere.
Glass sphere Spherical bowl with
grooves

Marble base
Platform

Figure 2.11 Sunshine recorder

The recording cards for use in summer, winter or spring and autumn are set in these
grooves. Three different recording cards as shown in Figure 2.12 are used depending on the
season. The important requirements of the glass sphere are that it should be uniform, well-
annealed and made of colourless glass.

Recording card for winter

Recording card for

libebbbbbbbbbobob#oboe
spring and autumn

Recording card
for summer

Figure 2.12 Recording cards

The sun rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a groove
provided in spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright
sunshine, the image formed is intense enough to bum a spot on the cord strip. A bum trace at
a particular point indicates the presence of sunshine at that time. Measuring the overall length
of burn traces reveals the sunshine duration for that day. Though the day, as the sun moves
 Solar Energy [ 2.39 ]

across the sky, the image is moved along with the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is
on
proportional to the durationof sunshine is obtained the strip.

2.4. SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

Solar thermal collector is a device used for collecting the solar radiation and it transfers
energy to fluid passing in contact with it. The collectors receive heat from solar rays and give
it to the heat-transport fluid. Solar thermal collector surface is designed for high absorption and
low· emission. So, the utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These collectors are
classified into two types. They are as follows:

(i) Non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.

The solar energy collector with its associated absorber is the essential component of any
systems for the conversion of solar radiation into more usable form (e.g. heat or electricity).

In the non-concentration type, the collector area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar
radiation) is same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation).

In· concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater than flat
plate collectors and it provides higher temperature than a non-concentrating type. It is also used
, to produce medium pressure steam. They use many different arrangements of mirrors and
lenses to concentrate the sun rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the flat
plate type. For the best efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves
through the sky.

2.4.1. Types of Solar Collectors

.,
There are two types of solar thermal collectors such as

(i) Flat plate collector

(ii) Solar concentrating collector (focusing type).

2.5. FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

Flat plate collectors are of the non-concentrating type. They are particularly convenient
for space and service water heating applications where temperatures below 90°C are adequate.
They are made in rectangular panels from about I.7 to 2.9 m
in area and they are relatively
simple to corstruct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse solar
( 2.40 Renewable Energy System

radiation. They are consequently partially effective even on cloudy days when there is no direct
radiation.

Flat plate solar collectors are mainly divided into three types based on the type of heat
transfer fluid used. They are as follows:

1. Liquid heating collectors

2. Air heating or solar air heaters
3. Evacuated tubular collector.

The characteristic features of flat plate collector are as follows:

1. It absorbs both beam and diffuse radiation.

2. It can function without sun tracking.

3. It is simple in construction and it requires little maintenance.

2.5.1. Liquid Heating Collectors

It is used for heating the water and non-freezing aqueous solutions. The constructional
details of simple flat plate collector are shown in Figure 2.13(a). It is the plate and tube type
collector. The majority of the flat-plate collectors have five main components. They are as
follows:

1. Transparent cover (one or two sheets) of glass, Teflon, Marlex or Tedlar.

2. Blackened absorber plate usually ofcopper, aluminium or steel, typically 1-2 mm thick.
3. Tubes (typically 1-2 cm diameter), channels or passages in thermal contact with the
absorber plate. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom ofthe absorber
plate. In some designs, the tubes form the integral part of absorber plate.
4. Thermal insulation usually of foam, expanded polystyrene or glass wool typically 5-
10 cm in thickness.
5. Tight container is to enclose above components.

Working:
As the solar radiation strikes a specially treated absorber plate, it is absorbed and raises its
temperature. This raised heat is transferred to fluid which is circulated in the tube (or channels)
with the absorber plate as shown in Figure 2.13(b). Thermal insulation prevents the heat loss
from the rear surface ofthe collector. The upper glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation
as it is transparent for incoming short wavelength but it is largely opaque to longer infrared
Solar Energy [ 2.41

radiation reflected from the absorber. The glass cover also prevents the heat loss due to
convection by keeping the air stagnant. The glass cover may reflect around 15% of incoming
solar radiation which can be reduced by applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of
the glass. The usual practice is to have 2 glass covers with specific ranging from 1.5 cm to
3 cm.

Advantages of second glass are as follows.

+

(i) Losses due to air convection are further reduced. It is important in windy areas.

(ii) Radiation losses in the infra-red spectrum are reduced by a further 25% because half
ofthe 50% which is emitted outwards from the-first glass plate is back radiated.

Solar radiation Direct

Diffuse
rh'-
-'>' l
Glass cover
Absorber
-lTubes carrying heat
transfer fluid

Insulation
Fluid out al .,,.,. ""' as?r s y

l l l l l· l l l
( 8 '·:v. ,---~ pg%9%s { «Fluid in
I

(b)

Figure 2.13 Liquid heating collector

2.5.2. Modified Flat Plate Collectors

It has additional reflective side faces as shown in Figure 2.14. This arrangement provides
higher concentration ratio up to 10 and higher temperature of working fluids (up to 200°C) is
achieved. Such a design is aligned in East-West direction and it requires a periodic tilt
k

adjustment. The different optimum depth to base width ratios and cone angles are possible
depending on the frequency of seasonal tilt adjustment.
 [2.42 Renewable Energy System

Incident rays

---- Reflector

Figure 2.14Modifiedflat plate collector

2.5.3. Solar Air Heaters

Figure 2.15 shows a schematic diagram of solar air heaters where an air stream is heated
w

by the back side of the collector plate. Fins attached to the plate increase the contact surface.
Iri this, the back side of the collector is heavily insulated with mineral wool or some other
material. The favourable inclination angle to the horizontal is 15° for heating.
Solar radiation
Glass cover

Absorber plate

Fins

Insulation

Figure 2.15 Typical solar air heater

Basically, air heatersare classified into following two types.

1. Solar air heater with non-porous absorber.

2. Solar air heater with porous absorber.

In a non-porous type, the air stream does not flow through the absorber plate. Air may
flow above the. absorber plate. In a porous type, the absorber includes slit and expanded metal,
transpired honey comb and over-lapped glass plate absorber. The performance ofair heaters is
improved by the following ways.

1. Roughing the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the convective
heat transfer coefficient, (or)
2. Increasing the heat transfer surface by adding fins.
Solar Energy [ 2.43

Advantages ofsolar air heaters:

1. It is compact, simple in construction and it requires little maintenance.

2. The need to transfer thennal energy from the working fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is used dir ectly as the working fluid.
3. Corrosion is completely eliminated.
4. Leakage of air from the duct·is less severe.
5. Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also eliminated.
6. The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.
Disadvantages ofsolar ai
r heaters:

I. A large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the electrical
power required to blow the air through the system can be significant if the pressure
drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
2. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.
3. There is less storage of thennal energy due to low heat capacity.
4. In the absence of proper design, the cost of an air heater can be very high.

Applications ofsolar air heaters:

I. Heating greenhouse buildings

2. Drying agricultural products
3. Heat source for a heat engine
4. Air-conditioning buildings.

2.5.4. Evacuated Tubular Collector

In an evacuated tubular collector, the vacuum is created between absorber and transparent
glass cover. The cross-sectional view of a solar evacuated tubular collector is shown in Figure.
2.16.

In this type, the tube cover above the selective surface is evacuated and evacuated tubes
are arranged above the absorber surface so that there should not be any space left between
consecutive tubes. The evacuated tubes provide a vacuum layer above the absorber to reduce
the top loss· coefficient. The vacuum layer suppresses the convection heat loss from the
absorber to glass cover.
[2.44 Renewable Energy System

Similar to the flat plate collector, an incident solar radiation is absorbed by absorber
surface after transmission through the glass cover and transparent evacuated tubes. After
absorption, most of the available thermal energy at the absorber will be first conducted and
then it is convected to the working fluid below the absorber. Rest of the energy is lost by
radiative heat loss. Further, there will be convective and radiative heat losses from the upper
portion ofthe evacuated tubes to the glass cover. Since the temperature ofthe upper portion of
the evacuated tubes will be small, there will be less heat losses. The working fluid may be
either a liquid or air.

Sun rays
Glass cover

t Evacuated tubes

ll1f ]t9\pg led

Figure 2.16 Evacuated tubular collector

2.5.5. Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Flat-Plate Collectors

Advantages offlat-plate collectors:

1. It has the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar radiations.
2. It does not require orientation towards the sun.
3. It requires a little maintenance.
4. Flat plate collectors are simpler than concentrating reflectors.

Disadvantages offlat-plate collectors:

1. The temperature attained by the working fluid is low.
2. The construction is heavy in weight.
Solar Energy [_2.4s
3. Conduction heat loss is more as the area is large.
4. Initial installation cost of the collector is more.

Applications offlat-plate collectors:

1. It is used in solar water heating systems.
2. It is used in solar space heating and cooling systems.
3. It is used in low temperature power generation.
4. It is used in solar heating dryers.

2.6. CONCENTRATING SOLAR COLLECTORS

Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation
on the energy absorbing surface. It is a special form of flat-plate collector modified by
introducing a reflecting surface (concentrator) between solar radiation and absorber. It uses the
optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors for concentrating the incident solar
radiation. It results in an increased flux density on the absorber surface area. In these collectors,
the radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused onto
.. . .
a: receiver ofconsiderably smaller
area. In order to get a maximum concentration, an arrangement for tracking the sun's virtual
motion is required. An accurate focusing device is also required. Thus, a solar concentrator
consists ofa (i) focusing device, (ii) receiver system and (iii) tracking arrangement. As a result
of the energy concentration, fluid can be. heated to the temperature of 750°C or more. Hence,
they have the potential. applications in both thermal and power gene ration (electrical power) at.
high delivery temperature.

The main difference between flat plate collector and concentrating collector is that the flat
plate collector concentrates only the direct radiation coming from a specific direction whereas
the concentrating collector collects all types of radiation. It is due to the fact that the diffuse
radiation arrives from all directions and only a very small proportion is from the direction for
which the focusing occurs.

Types ofconcentrating collectors:

Solar concentrators may be classified on the basis of whether tracking system is installed
or not and type oftracking system installed.

(a) Tracking type: Continuous or intermittent

(i) One-axis design
(ii) Two-axis design
[ 2.46 ) Renewable Energy System

(b) Non-tracking type

Solar concentrators may also be classified on the basis of optical components.

(a) Reflecting or refracting type collector

(b) Imaging or non-imaging type collector
(c) Line focusing or point focusing type collector

Based on the number of concentrating collector geometrics, the solar concentrators may
be classified.

(a) Parabolic trough collector

(b) Minor strip reflector
(c) Fresnel lens collector
(d) Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
(e) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC).

2.6.1. Parabolic Trough Collector

It is the most preferable type of a concentrating collector. The cross section of parabolic
collector is shown in Figure 2.17(a). The solar radiation coming from the particular direction
is collected over the area of the reflecting surface and concentrated at the focus of the parabola.
The solar radiation is focused along a line. It consists of a cylindrical parabolic reflector and a
metal tube receiver at a focal plane as shown in Figure 2.1 7(b).

The dimension of parabolic trough collector can be varied over a wide range. The length
of a reflector unit may be roughly 3 m to 5 m and the width about 1.5 m to2.4 m. Ten or more
such units are often connected end to end in a row. Several rows may also be connected in
parallel. A parabolic trough collector with line focusing reflecting surface provides the
concentration ratio from 5 to 30. Hence, higher temperature up to 300°C can be achieved.
Parabolic trough reflectors have been made of highly polished aluminium of silvered glass or
of a thin film of aluminized plastic on a firm base.
The reflected light is focused on a central line of the parabolic trough collector. The tube
located along the centre line absorbs the heat and the working fluid is circulated through the
pipe. The absorber tube may be made of mild steel/copper. A cylindrical parabolic trough may
be oriented in any of three directions: East-West, North-South or polar. Troughtype collectors
are generally oriented in the East-West or North-South directions. The North-South orientation
permits more solar energy to be collected than East-West arrangement.
Solar Energy [_2.47

Focus

Vertex- /4 Parabolic reflector

(a) Cross section ofparabolic collector

Focal line

Solar rays

Mirror

(b) Arrangement ofparabolic collector

Figure 2.17Parabolic trough collector

2.6.2. Paraboloidal Dish Collector

A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus at a point, actually a small
central volume as shown in Figure 2.18(a). A dish (concentrator) 6.6 m diameter, as shown in
+

Figure 2. l 8(b),has been made from about 200 curved mirror segments forming a paraboloidal
surface. The absorber (receiver) located at the focus is a cavity made of zirconium-copper alloy
with a black chrome selective coating. The heat-transport fluid· flows into and out of the
[ 2.48 Renewable Energy System

absorber cavity through pipes bonded to the interior. The dish can be turned automatically
about two axes so that the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the base of the
paraboloidal dish. Thus, the sun can be fully tracked as required all times.

Focal volume

Sun rays

(a) Cross section ofparaboloidal collector

8
±-
s s
Concentrator

----..
----..
----..
----..
----..

(b) Arrangement ofparaboloidal collector

Figure 2.18 Paraboloidal dish collector

2.6.3. Mirror Strip Reflector

In this collector, a number of plane or slightly curved (concave) mirror strips are mounted
on a flat base. The angle of the individual mirrors is arranged in such a way that they reflect
Solar Energy 2.49

solar radiation from a specific direction on to the same focal line as shown in Figure 2.19. The
angle of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow the change in the sun's elevation while the focal
line remains in a fixed position.

I
I
I Sun rays
I I I
I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I /

; ,' ,' / ,' / /

I
, I I I
Focus
I I
I I I

I
t» I
I

Mirror strips
' - -
Figure 2.19 Mirror strip solar collector

2.6.4. Fresnel Lens Collector

It has a refracting type focusing collector. It utilizes the focusing effect of a Fresnel lens
shown in Figure 2.20.
Solar radiation

t
I
I I
t t ·
I I
I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I f

I ,' /

I I
: : I
,'
i{
%1ii '
ii'

'
Receiver pipe
(line focus)

Figure 2.20 Cross-section ofFresnel lens through collector

[ 2.50 Renewable Energy System

To be fully effective, the Fresnel lens must be continuously aligned with the sun in two
directions both along and perpendicular to its length. In the Fresnel lens collector, the solar
radiation is focused into the absorber from top rather than from bottom as in a parabolic type.
For a trough type collector, the lens is rectangle about 4.7 m in overall length and 0.95 m in
width. It is made of acrylic plastic and it can be probably produced in quantity at low cost.

2.6.5. Flat Plate Collector with Booster Mirrors

It is the simplest type of concentrating collector. It consists of a flat plate facing south with
mirrors attached to its north and south edges as shown in Figure 2.21. Reflectors reflect the
total radiation in addition to beam radiation incidence on the receiver. Mirrors are also called
booster mirrors. It has a maximum concentration value less than four. The concentration ratio
of such solar concentrators is relatively low and. hence, it is not widely used. As the solar
incidence angle increases, the mirrors become less effective. For a single collector, booster
mirrors can be used on all the four sides: If the mirrors are set at the proper angle, they reflect
the solar radiation onto the absorber plate. The mirrors cut off part of the scattered radiation
have reached the absorber plate and only a part of the scattered radiation falling on mirrors will
be reflected onto the absorber.

Incident rays

Reflector/Mirror

Reflector/Mirror
Flat plate collector

Figure 2.21 Flat plate collector arrangement with reflector mirrors

When a number of collectors are combined in two or more rows, the rows must be set
further apart in the north south directions to allow for the additional sun shading. The efficiency
of a boosted flat plate system can be increased if the angle of the flat mirrors can be changed
several times during the year. The advantage of such a system is that it makes use of the diffuse
radiation in addition to the beam radiation.
 Solar Energy [_2.s1

2.6.6. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

It is a non-focusing type but the solar radiation from many directions is reflected towards
the bottom of the trough. Due to this characteristic, a large proportion of the solar radiation
including diffuse (scattered) radiation entering the trough opening is collected on a small area.
A CPC with two facing parabolic mirrors is shown in Figure 2.22. In addition to collecting both
direct and diffuse radiations, an advantage of this collector is that it provides moderately good
concentration although less than a focusing collector in an east-west direction without
adjustment for sun tracking.

j. xis
Figure 2.22 Compoundparabolic concentrator

2.6.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors

Advantages of concentrating collectors:

I. The reflecting surface of the concentrating collector requires less material and
structurally simpler than flat-plate collectors.
2. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than a flat-plate system.
3. The area from which the heat is lost to surroundings is less than flat-plate collectors.
4. It can be used for electric power generation.
5. The total useful operating time per year is large for a concentrator system than a flat-
plate collector.
6. Initial installation cost of the collector is less.
7. The amount of heat which can be stored per unit volume is large.
 Renewable Energy System
[2.s2

8. Heat storage costs are less for concentration systems than flat-plate collectors.

9. Higher temperature ofthe working fluid is attained with a conc entrating system.

10. No anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system.

Disadvantages of concentrating collectors:

1. In concentrating collectors, only the beam radiation is collected because the diffuse
component cannot reflect.
2. Costly orienting systems must be used to track the sun.
3. Additional maintenance is required to retain the quality of reflecting surface against
dirt, weather and oxidation.
4. It is non-uniform flux on the absorber whereas the flux in flat-plate collectors is
uniform.
5. Optical and interrupt losses are in energy balance.

2.6.8. Comparison of Concentrating and Flat-Plate Collectors

S.No. Concentrating collectors Flat-plate collectors

Concentrating collectors can absorb Flat-plate collectors can absorb both

1.
only direct solar radiation. direct and diffuse solar radiation.

2. They need continuous tracking These collectors do not require

mechanisms arid more expensive tracking mechanisms and mounting is
(pivoting) mounting structure. simple.

They can generate high temperature of They can generate low temperature of
3.
about 140°C. .
about 750°C.

4. The amount ofheat which can be The amount of heat which can be
stored per unit volume is more. stored per unit volume is less.

They can be used for electric power They can be used only for heating of
5.
generation. the domestic water, heating and
cooling of buildings.
'
6. The absorber area of a concentrator The absorber area of a flat-plate

system is less. system is big.

Solar Energy [ 2.53

7. They do not absorb more energy per They absorb more energy per unit
unit volume. volume.

8. The thermal efficiency is greater The thermal efficiency is less because

because of the small heat-loss area of the more heat-loss area relative to
relative to the receiver area. the receiver area.

9. The total useful operating time per The total useful operating time per
year is more. year is less.

10. No anti-freeze is required to protect the Anti-freeze solution is required to

absorber in a concentrator system. protect the absorber.
.

2.7. SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION FROM SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar thermal power generation employs power cycles which are broadly classified as
follows:
(1) Low temperature cycles
(2) Medium temperature cycles and (3) High temperature cycles.

Low temperature cycles generally use flat-plate collectors so that maximum temperatures
are limited to about 100°C.
.
Medium temperature
.
cycles work at maximum temperature ranging
from 150 to 300°C while high temperature cycles work at temperatures above 300°C.

For low and medium temperature ranges, the thermodynamic cycle preferred is Rankine
cycle. For high temperature range apart from Rankine cycle, Brayton and Stirling cycles are
also being considered.

2.7.1. Low Temperature Thermal Power Generation Using Flat Plate Collector

The flat plate collector system and solar pond are classified as low temperature collectors
because of its temperature range in the order of 60 to 100°C with collection efficiency of 30 to
50% maximum. In this system, it is not suitable to employ Rankine cycle solar thermal power
production system because the generation of steam using flat plate collector or solar pond is
not possible as the boiling temperature of the water is more than 100°G and so, it cannot be
used directly to run the prime mover. Therefore, some other organic fluid (commonly Freon
group) is used which evaporates at low temperature and high pressure by absorbing the heat
from the heated water. The vapour formed can be used to run a turbine or engine which may
[ 2.54 Renewable Energy System

generate power which will be sufficient to light the group of houses for rural areas and for
irrigation purposes.
A low temperature solar engine using heated water from flat-plate solar collector and
butane as the working fluid is shown in Figure 2.23. The system has array of flat-plate
collectors to heat water up to nearly 70°C. In the heat exchanger, the heat of water is transferred
to butane for boiling it. The high pressure butane vapour runs a butane turbine which operates
an electric generator. This generator produces electrical power output for further use. The
exhaust butane vapour from butane turbine is condensed in a condenser with the help of fresh
cold water circulated by a water pump. This condensate is fed to the heat exchanger or butane
boiler. The system is applied for small power plants of about 10 kW capacity. It has the
advantage of simplicity.

Water circuit

Butane turbine

Array of solar collectors

Cooling Cooling water out for

water in irrigation purposes

Figure 2.23 Lo temperatureflat-plate solar collector

2.7.2. Medium Temperature Thermal Power Generation Using Solar Distributed

Collector

Medium temperature thermal power generation systems employ solar distributed

collectors in which parabolic trough concentrator collectors with line focus. are most commonly
.

used for converting the solar energy into heat energy. These systems can also use paraboloid
dish type concentrating collectors. Cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors generate
Solar Energy [ass}
temperature in range of 250 to 700°C with efficiency of 50-70%. High temperature collectors
such as paraboloid type concentrators consist of many flat mirrors produce a temperature in
range of 600-2000°C with an efficiency of 60-75%.

This is a modular system consisting ofa dish shaped parabolic collector for focusing the
solar radiation on a receiver to heat a working fluid coupled with a power generation unit
(engine/alternator) for electricity generation. It may also be used for producing process heat.
When these modular systems are coupled together, they are in a position to supply required
power as a decentralised power system.

Following types of heat engines are commonly being used with parabolic dish/trough
systems.

(i) Rankine cycle engine

(ii) Organic-Rankine cycle engine
(iii) Stirling cycle engine
(iv) Air-Brayton cycle engine.

In each of these cycles, hot gas or vapour is expanded through an engine or turbine to
produce work and it is thereby cooled. The gas or vapour is further cooled to reject heat and it
is finally returned to its initial state for getting energised by solar radiation and thus, completing
the cycle. As noted earlier, distributed solar energy collectors may be preferred for thermal
power plants of moderately small capacity.

-
Hot oil
Hot steam

- Steam turbine

l4

Heat
exchanger Cooling water outlet
•
Cooling water inlet
g o

-
C old oil
-
Cold steam Condensate pump

Figure 2.24 Distributed collector solar thermal electric powerplant

[2.s6 Renewable Energy System

In a distributed collector system, the solar thermal energy is collected from a large number
of sun-tracking solar parabolic trough type or paraboloidal dish type cylindrical collectors.
Each collector transfers heat to a heat-transport fluid. This heat transporting fluid available at
high temperature from the collectors is pooled at some central power station. The heat transfer
fluid could be water/steam to be used directly in a steam turbine. A simple parabolic
concentrator solar power generation system using water as working fluid is shown in Figure
2.24. It consists of a parabolic cylinder reflector to concentrate sun light on to a collecting pipe
within Pyrex or glass envelop.

A proper sun-tracking arrangement is made so that the maximum sunlight is focused on

the reflector for producing optimum efficiency. They usually operate in the lower temperature
ranges of about 90 to 3 l 5°C. In this system, oil having boiling point higher than the boiling
point of water is used to circulate through the absorber tube ofthe concentrator collector.

The heated oil is then passed through the heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to
the water to produce steam. The hot steam can then be directly used to power a turbine for
mechanical work which is coupled to an electric generator to generate electricity. The exhaust
low temperature steam from the turbine is condensed in a condenser with the help offresh cold
water circulated by a watet pump. This condensate is fed to the heat exchanger again using a
condensate pump.

2.7.3. High Temperature Thermal Power Generation Using Central Receiver System

A larger solar thermal power plant in the range of 50 M to 200MW comes under Central
Receiver System (CRS). Such systems are economical in MW range for network connected
plants. The high capacity' is possible due to high temperature steam in the central receiver
resulting high efficiency of plants.

In the central receiver scheme, several heliostats are located on the ground level. A
heliostat is a nearly flat mirror with the provision to track the sun in two planes. The reflected
rays are pointed towards a central receiver mounted on a tall tower as shown in Figure 2.25. A
large central receiver plant is usually built up based on modular concepts. Each plant may have
2 modules to 10 modules and rated at 10 MW to 100 MW.

2.7.4. Components of Central Receiver Power Plant

This system can be subdivided into the following subsystems. They are as follows:

1. The tower with the central receiver on top of it

 g
..,
iii
Insulation
BT
Cl)

Spherical central g
receiver unit for
steam generation

Solar beam radiation

I
I
\
\ I I
I I I
\ I
t I
I ;
I I co""9,,__
\ I-
I I /yj tricp
\ I
I I output
I I
I I
I

Individually controlled sink Recuperator Individually controlled

sun-tracking heliostates sun-tracking heliostates
Figure 2.25 Solar central receiver.power generation system
t
en.....
[ 2.58 Renewable Energy System

2. The heat conversion sub system

3. The heat storage device
4. The field of oriented mirrors.

1. Central receiver:
The central receiver at the top of the tower has a heat absorbing surface by which the heat-
transportfluid is heated. There are two basic receiver configurations as follows:

a) Cavity receiver type

b) External receiver type.

In the cavity receiver type, the solar radiation reflected by heliostats enters through an
aperture at the bottom of the cavity whereas the absorber surfaces are on the exterior of a
roughly cylindrical structure in the external receiver type. Figure 2.26 shows the cavity receiver
type central receiver.
Central receiver

[ye f

Heat exchanger

Heat transport Support

fluid piping
Thermal insulation
pa and structure

Aperture for
dll
reflected rays

7gz
structure

From heliostats From heliostats

Tower

Figure 2.26 Central receiver

2. Heat conversion sub system:

Liquid water under pressure enters the receiver. Then, the heat energy is absorbed by the
water and it leaves as superheated steam. Typical steam conditions might be a temperature of
500°C and pressure of 100 atm. The steam is piped to a ground level where it drives a
conventional turbine generator system.
 Solar Energy [_2.ss

3. Heat storage device:

Short term storage of heat can be provided by fire bricks, ceramic oxides, fused salts and
sulphur. The choice of a conventional storage material is determined by its energy density,
thermal conductivity, corrosion characteristic, cost and convenience of use as well as by the
operating temperature of working fluid.

4. Mirrors:
The flat mirror surface can be manufactured by metallization of float glass or flexible
plastic sheets. The mirror must be steerable. The glass mirrors would not be. capable of
withstanding the wind load which often occurs in arid lands without any supporting structure.

2.7.5. Working of Central Receiver System

The incoming solar radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a tall
tower using thousands of plane reflectors which are steerable about two axes called heliostats.

Figure 2.28 shows a schematic view of an electric power generation using a gas turbine
or gas turbine power plant working on Brayton cycle. The mirrors (heliostats) installed on the
ground are oriented so as to reflect the direct beam radiation into an absorber or receiver (as
shown in Figure 2.27) which is. mounted at the top of a tower located near the center in the field
of mirrors to produce high temperature.

Figure 2.27Arrangement of central receiver heliostat array

[ 2.60 Renewable Energy System

Beam radiation incident in the boiler is absorbed by black pipes in which the working fluid
is circulated and heated. The working fluid is allowed to drive a turbine thereby producing
mechanical energy. The turbine which is coupled to an alternator produces electrical energy. A
suitable heat storage is also provided to supply the heat energy during the period ofcloudiness.
Figure 2.28 shows the layout ofelectric power generator using thermal storage.
Steam (or oil) Electric Electrical
from central receiver Steam

Cooling water

-----Thermal storage

Condensate

Feed water
(or oil) to central
receiver

Figure 2.28 Electric power generation using thermal storage

2.7 .6. Thermal Analysis of a· Central Receiver System

The mirror field in a central receiver system is to be laid in such a way to suit for both in
winter and summer seasons. There is no shade ofone mirror on the other mirror. Therefore, the
heliostats are put apart and a fraction ofthe ground () is only covered.

The value of b is calculated by "A»

4,

where N= Number ofmirrors (Heliostats)

An = Area ofeach mirror
Ag = Total ground area used around the tower.
 Solar Energy [ 2.61

4H2
Total ground area, Ag=---
tan2 0r

where H = Tower height and

0,= Rim half angle
Receiver

Figure 2.29

4,=I, A,n
Energy absorbed by the receiver is = qa
a

I= beam radiation incident on Ag

where
= Mirror utilization factor
= 0. 78 in mid-summer
= 2.0 in winter afternoon
no= Fraction of solar radiation
a. = Absorbance of the receiver.
a in
The concentration ratio is calculated by the following equation
the
c_ A._e4,
A, A,
where Ar = Receiver surface area
Now, the expression for the useful energy is given as
q uqa- ql
where qi=A,, o (T'-T')
q,=IA,n,a-A,e, a(@-T)
where Er = Emittance ofthe receiver surface at the radiating temperature.
[2.62 Renewable Energy System

2.7.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Central Receiv er System

Advantages:
1. Very high temperature is obtained. High temperature is suitable for electricity
generation using conventional methods such as a steam turbine.
2. It provides good efficiency. By concentrating the sunlight, this system can get better
efficient than simple solar cells.
3. A larger area can be covered byusing relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using
expensive solar cells.
4. Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via, optical fiber cable. For
example, illuminating buildings similar to hybrid solar lighting.

Disadvantages:
I. Concentrated collector systems require dual axis sun tracking to maintain the sunlight
focus at the collector.
2. Inability to provide power in diffused light conditions. Solar cells are able to provide
some output even if the sky becomes cloudy but power output from concentrating
systems drop drastically in cloudy conditions as the diffused light cannot be
concentrated passively.

2.8. EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

The main parameters affecting the performance of solar collector are area, absorber
absorptivity and emissivity, emissivity of glass cover, temperature of absorber plate, collector tilt
angle and number of glass covers. The solar collector efficiency specifies the fraction of solar
energy which can be transferred to the thermal fluid in the receiver. The parabolic solar
collector efficiency varies much on the fluid temperature.

2.8.1. Terms and Definitions for Thermal Analysis of Solar Flat Plate Collectors

Thermal efficiency of the solar collector is always based on the many factors such as
collector surface area, Incidence Angle Modifier (1AM) or sun angle, overall heat transfer
coefficient (U), mean temperature ofthe plate and mean temperature ofthe fluid.

1. Collector surface area:

Solar collector performance variables are used to enhance the performance of a solar
collector in terms of peak efficiency value. The efficiency of 60-80% is common for most of
the thermal solar collectors. There are three different surface areas used to define the size ofa
thennal solar collector such as gross, aperture and absorber.
 Solar Energy [_263

(a) Gross area:

It is calculated by
Gross area = Total width x Height
This measure includes the frame and manifold casing even in the case of evacuated tube
collectors.

(b) Aperture area:

For flat plate collectors, it is calculated as the area of the glazing (glass) exposed to
sunlight arid it is calculated as the inner diameter of the clear glass tube for evacuated tube
collectors.

(c) Absorber area:

For flat plate collectors, it is calculated as the exposed area of the solar absorber but it is
calculated as the diameter of the round absorber or flat area of the absorber for evacuated tubes
with absorber fins inside for evacuated tube collector.

2. Incidence Angle Modifier (1AM) or Sun angle:

Depending on the design of the collector, the output may change as the angle between the
collector and sun changes. It is called Incidence Angle Modifier (1AM). Generally, flat plate
I .

collectors have the same curves but evacuated tube· collectors and collectors with reflectors
have very different curves throughout the day. So, it is important to consider the sun angle
:r factor for collectors for comparison.
I
The two types of IAMs are as follows:
If
l. Transversal 1AM measures the change in performance as the angle of the sun
II
related to the collector changes throughout the DAY.

2. Longitudinal 1AM measures the change in performance as the angle of the sun
related to the collector changes throughout the YEAR.
as 3. Energy interaction on an absorber plate:
er
The mechanism of heat transfer from absorber plate to the fluid is illustrated in Figure
230. First, solar energy is absorbed by an absorber plate. Then it is transferred to bottom of the
~s cover by combined convection and radiation process; After the heat reaches the glass
lar cover, it is transferred to the top of plate by conduction process. Finally, it is transferred to the
of m
edium to which medium the heat is required by convection and radiation modes. So, the
fa erall heat transfer coefficient is used to calculate the heat energy received by the final
.
medium. Various coefficients of heat transfer related to overall heat is discussed below.
[2.64 Renewable Energy System

Glass cover

0.

Risers
Figure 2.30 Energy interactions on an absorber plate
(i) Absorptance coefficient (a):
It is the ratio of the solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate to the solar radiation
reaching the plate. The value of a is less than 1 and it depends on the nature of the absorber
plate surface. Generally, the surface will be painted in black to enhance the absorption rate and
reduce the emissivity.

(ii) Transmittance coefficient ( r):

It is the ratio of the solar radiation penetrating the glass cover to the radiation incident of
the glass cover. The value of t is also less than 1 and it depends on the purity of the glass and
incident angle.
The coefficients of a and 't are generally combined as a single factor called transmittance-
absorptance product (ar). '
(iii) Overall heat loss coefficient (U):
It is a heat transfer coefficient which combines all thermal losses from the collector by
considering the mean plate temperature.

(iv) Mean plate temperature (T»):

It is the mathematical average of the whole temperature distribution of the absorber plate
generated when the fluid flows in the riser.

() Meanfluid temperature (Th):

It is the mathematical average of the temperature distribution of the working fluidinside
a single riser along the flow direction.
 Solar Energy ( 2.65

2.8.2. Thermal Efficiency of Flat Plate Solar Collector

Ther_mal analysis ofany solar collector involves the estimation ofthe useful heat gain from'
the collector. It is referred to Q.
In flat plate collectors, the following energy balance is made as
Useful heat gain = Irradiance reaching absorber - Thermal losses from absorber
Mathematically, it can be written as

Useful heat gain, Q= athA - Ui,A(Tpm-:- Ta)

Q=A(ah- UL T- T))
where
A = Absorber plate area (m)
a = Absorptance coefficient
t = Transmittance coefficient

Ir= Irradiance incident normal to the absorber plate (Im)

U = Overall heat loss coefficient (W/m 2 0C)
T= Mean temperature ofthe absorber plate ("C) and
Ta = Ambient temperature ("C)

(G) Collector efficiency (nc):

It is the ratio of useful heat gain carried by the working fluid to the irradiance incident on
the solar collector.
0
nc= =i
I,A

We know that Q= A(ath- U (T-TO). By substituting Quin above efficiency formula

- 4(au, -U,(T,. -T.))

. .

Also, useful heat gain can be represented in terms of mass flow rate of working fluid and
e me
t and outlet temperatures of working fluid.
[ 2.66 Renewable Energy System

So, useful heat gain, Q= mC,( T,-T,)

where
Tfi = Inlet temperature of fluid (QC) and
Tia = Outlet temperature of fluid (QC)

Outlet temperature of the fluid from the collector, Tio= Tfi + _ik_
mC,

(ii) Collector stagnation temperature (T):

It is the maximum temperature attained by the solar collector when the mass flow rate
becomes zero. It means, the thermal losses at stagnation temperature is equal to the incident
solar radiation and useful heat gain is zero.
So, it can be written as
Qu = 0 = a:thA - UIA(Tpm -Ta)
aA = UA(T -- T) since T = Ts1

Tst =T + a'tlr
U,
(iii) Calculation ofoverall heat loss coefficient:
Overall heat loss coefficient combines all thermal losses mainly by both convection and
radiation modes. So, the overall heat loss coefficient is the sum of three loss coefficients.
U= U,+ U+U,
where
U,= Top heat loss coefficient (through the glass cover)
Uh= Back heat loss coefficient (through the back insulation) and
Us= Side heat loss coefficient (through the sidewise insulation).

Among these three heat loss coefficients, the top loss coefficient is more important than
other two because these two coefficients can be minimized by increasing the insulation
thickness on both back and side layers. Also, the top loss coefficient can also be reduced by
heat insulation methods but the collector efficiency will also reduce thereby reducing
absorption of solar radiation considerably. Figure 2.31 shows the different .convection and
radiation heat transfer coefficients of the absorber plate and glass cover.
.I .
 Solar Energy [_2.67

Glass cover
hw Absorber plate her
I

Risers

· h
Figure 2.31 A typicalflat-plate collector of various heat transfer coefficients
So, the quantity of heat loss by convection of the absorber plate per unit area is given by

where
he= Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 QC) of the air gap between
absorber plate and glass cover
Tc= Glass cover temperature (QC)

Then quantity of heat loss by radiation of the absorber plate per unit area can be written
as

where
O = Stefan-Boltzman coefficient= 5.67 x 10 -s Wl(m2K4)
Ee= Emissivity of glass cover and
Ep = Absorber plate.
II

ll
:. Total heat loss of absorber plate to the glass cover, q = qpc +qr
cr( T 4
-F
4
)

g
a,-=-(T.-T)- - +- -1-
d €, e.
Above equation can be expanded into
 Renewable Energy System
[ 2.68

.· . cr(r + T )(T -T
2 2 2 2
)
= h,pc (T,pm -Tc+
) pm
l l
C pm C

. - +- -1.
6, €.

where Rpc = Thermal resistance between absorber plate and glass cover
l
R, = G
(T.2 +T2 )( T.+T. )
h,+ 1 i
- +- -1
, %
The same procedure is repeated for the glass cover. So, the convection heat transfer
per unit area ofthe glass cover is given by
• =h.(T,-T)
where·
h= Convection heat transfer coefficient (WIm" "C) of wind
Ta= Ambient temperature ("C)
Also, the convective heat transfer coefficient of wind can be calculated by
h =2.8 +3
where
V= Wind velocity (mis)
So, the quantity of heat loss by radiation of the absorber plate per unit area can be written
as

where
Ts= Effective sky temperature ("C)
Solar Energy [_26s
Effective sky temperature can be estimated by
3
T,= 0.0559T}
:. Total heat loss ofglass cover, q = qcc + qr

a.=.(T,-T)+e.e(T"-T')

=(T.-T)[.+°n-T • ±j
(T.-T)
4,= R
ca

where Rea= Thermal resistance between glass cover and surroundings.

We know that
Heat loss by the collector from the top side,
qqq

qr=
(T,--
.
T.) r; -
( Ta)
+ ...;..__----"-
, R.

.(7.-I.)
R, +R
Also, qr =U, (rpm -Ta)
where Ur= Top heat loss coefficient (Im"C)
I
u =----
' R,+R

2.8.3. Solved Problems on Flat Plate Solar Collectors

\ '
Problem 2.6

A flat Plate solar thermal collector of 5 m area is subjected to a normal irradiance of

900 Wlm2 with an overall heat loss coefficient of 5.2 Wl(m2 °C). The transmittance-
absorptance product of the collector is 0.8 which makes the collector efficiency as 65%. If
 [2.7o Renewable Energy System

the ambient temperature is 15°C, find(i) useful heat gain, (ii) mean plate temperature and
(iii) stagnation temperature.

Given data:
Collector surface area, A = 5m'
Solar irradiance, Ir= 900 W/m2
Overall heat loss coefficient, UL= 5.2 W/(m20 C)
t= 0.8
nc= 65%
Ambient temperature, Ta= I 5°C

@ Solution:

Collector efficiency, 11c = Qu

I,A
Useful gain, g, = n.I,A =0.65x9005 = 2925 W Ans.

Useful heat gain, Q= a.thA - UIA(Tpm - Ta)

2925 = 0.8x900x5 - 5.2x5x(Tpm - 15)

:. Mean plate temperature, T = 40.96 "C Ans.

T
· .
S tagnation temperature, st = Ta + --
a:tlr 0.8x 900
= 15 + --- .
= 153.46 "C Ans.
U, 5.2

Problem 2.7

Aflat Plate solar thermal collector operates with a mean plate temperature of 55°C when
the ambient temperature is 15C. Find the top heat loss coefficient if the convection heat
transfer coefficient in the air gap is 4 Wl(m2 °C) and the speed of the wind is 5 mis. Take the
absorberplate andglass cover emissivities to be 0.82 and 0.33 respectively.

Given data:
T= 55°C = 55+273 = 328 K
T,=15°C= 15+273 = 288 K
h. = 4 WImn?"C)
V= 5 mis
c,= 0.82
Ee= 0.33
Solar Energy [ 2.71

@ Solution:

Temperature ofthe glass cover, Tc= 30°C = 30+273 = 303 K (It is assumed)
Effective sky temperature can be estimated by
3 3

T,= 0.0559T/ = 0.0559x 288 = 273.21 K

2

Convective heat transfer coefficient of wind can be calculated by

h =2.8 +3 =2.8+3x5 = 17.8 Wmn""C)
Thermal resistance between absorber plate and glass cover,

1
R =------------- = 0.161
- 5.6710(328° +303)(328 +303)
4+ [ ]
-. - +- --1
0.82 0.33
Thermal resistance between glass cover and surroundings,

1
. pl J
. . -8 (303'- 273.21 4)
17.8+0.33x5.67x10 x € 3)
303-288

1
Top heat loss coefficient, U, = --- = l = 4.81 Wlm1'°C Ans. "ti
R, +R 0.161+0.047

2.8.4. Solved Anna University Problem on Solar Flat Plate Collectors

AU Problem 2.6
¥
A flat Plate solar thermal collector is installed on the roof of a hotel in New Delhi
(latitude = 28.58"N). The collector surface of 10 m2 area is pointing towards south with
angle of30% ith horizontal.
[ 2.72 Renewable Energy System

a) The angle ofincidence ofsunlight (8) is to be calculatedfor First December at Local

Apparent Time of9 AM. (Corresponding hour angle o= 45")

b) With power density o/0.6 kWlm1, what is the power collection at the said time?

c) The water tank of tile thermal system contains 1000 kg of water, initially at 30C.
What will be the temperature of water after 1 hour assuming constant power
collection of (b)? [Nov'19]
Given data:
Latitude, b/= 28.58°N
Collector surface area, A = IO m2
Collector tilt, B= 30°
Day = December I
Solar hour angle, = 45°
Power density, I», = 0.6 kW/ni 3
Angle of incidence, 0 = 60°
Mass of water, m= 1000 kg
Initial temperature of water, Tei= 30°C

@ Solution:
(a) Tlte angle of incidence of sunlight (8):
Since the surface is facing south, y= 0, hence, equation (2.4) is used to calculate incident
angle
cos e = sin O sin ($1- 13) + cos o cos 0) cos($,- 13)
where pr = Latitude= 28.58°
6 = Declination angle

13 = Slope or tilt angle= 30°

0) = Hour angle = 45°
The value of o can be calculated by the equation (2.1 ),

·-ass]cs.o]
where n= Number of days from 1 January to 1D ecembe r
= 31+28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30+31 + 31 + 30 +31+ 30 + 1 = 335 days
n Solar Energy [ 2.73

l
3=23.45sin 360 (284+335)
· ] =-22.1°
[ 365

Substituting these values in the above equation (2.4),

tc. cos e = sin (- 22.1 °) sin (28.58° - 30°) + cos (-22.1 °) cos 45° cos (28.58° - 30%)
- 0.6643
'l
e = 48.37° Ans.

(b) Power collection:

p = I xA
where I = Ix cos 0
p 0.6 x10 x cos 48.37 x 10 = 3985.9 W= 3.986 kW Ans.
"
(c) The exit temperature of water:
O. = m C, To-Ta) = P
where t co· = Exit temperature ofwater
tei = Initial temperature ofwater
C, = Specific heat capacity ofwater= 4.184 Jlkg °C
p
Teo = n.+ 5.
m P
3985.9
ent
= 30 + 1000 X 4.184 .. . ' .

T = 30.95°C Ans. €

2.9. EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS

In concentrating collectors, useful heat gain,

. where

FR (tat = Absorbed energy coefficient

Aa = Unshaded aperture area (m2 )

Ibc = Intensity of beam radiatio~ (W!m2)

T]opt = Optimum efficiency

 Renewable Energy System
[a7w]
C = Concentration ratio of the collector
U.= Overall heat loss coefficient (Im" "C)
T, = Inlet temperature ("C) and
T = Ambient temperature ("C)
So, the efficiency of the concentrating collector is calculated by

ne =F(ca), n

2.10. DIRECT THERMAL APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR COLLECTORS

There are many uses of solar energy. Direct thermal applications involve the direct use of
heat thereby resulting the absorption of solar radiation for space heating and cooling of
residences, and other buildings, to provide hot-water for such buildings, and to provide heat
for agricultural, industrial and other processes that require only moderate temperatures. The
use of solar energy for these types of applications is unlimited.

Various solar direct thermal application systems are discussed briefly here.

2.10.1.Solar Water Heater

It is a device to heat water using solar energy. Solar water heaters are one of the best
options to be adapted in the developing country. Solar water heating systems are commercially
produced in the country. Most of the systems available in India are designed to give water
temperature from 60 to 90°C. These are suitable for preheating of feed water to boiler and
processing industries and hot water application in hotels, bakeries, industries etc.

The term solar water heater includes conventional flat plate collector with either
thermosyphon or forced circulation flow system. A solar water heater normally consists of the
following components.
(a) A flat plate collector to absorb solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.
(b) Storage tank to hold water for use and cold water feeding the flat plate collector.
(c) Connecting pipes inlet and outlet for feeding cold water from the storage tank and
'taking hot water to the storage tank or point of use.
Solar Energy [ 2.75

(i) Thermosyphon or natural circulation system:

The schematic diagram of a solar water heater with natural circulation mode is shown in
Figure 2.32. In this system, the circulation of heated water is accomplished by the natural
convection. A simple small capacity natural circulation system is suitable for domestic purpose.
Hot water
outlet

Storage
tank
Cold water
inlet

Ooowncomer
I

Figure 2.32 Thermosyphon or natural circulation water heater

The storage tank is an insulated and contains two inlets. One is for the hot water from the
collector and other one is to allow the cold water from the main to reach the bottom of the tank
without mixing with hot water. There are two outlets. One is for the withdrawal of hot water
and other one is used to feed cold water to the collector inlet. The tank is located above the
level of the collector. The entire length of the connecting pipes is covered with glass-wool
insulation to reduce the heat loss.
As water in the flat plate collector is heated by solar energy, it flows automatically to the
top of the water tank due to low density. The vacuum created by this flow is filled up by the
cold water from top of the storage tank. Whenever this is done, cold water automatically enters
at the bottom. An auxiliary heating system is provided for use on cloudy or rainy days.

Typically, such systems have capacities ranging from l 00 to 200 liters and adequately
supply the needs of a family of four or five persons.

(ii) Forced circulation system:

The schematic diagram of a solar water heater with forced circulation mode is shown in
Figure 2.33. In this system, a small water pump is required for the flow of water between flat
plate collector and storage tank. The collectors can also be connected in series for higher water
temperature if required.
[ 2.76 Renewable Energy System

,-------,
Hot water to
load

Storage
tank
Inlet water to
collector

________ .JI

Inlet line to
collector
Pump

Figure 2.33 Forced circulation water heating system

2.10.2. Solar Cooker

In developing countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc. energy consumed for
cooking shares a major portion ofthe total energy consumed in a year. Varieties offuel such
as coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and agricultural waste are used for
cooking. There is a rapid deterioration in the supply ofthese fossil fuels. The solution for the
above problem is the harnessing ofsolar energy for cooking purpose. The department ofnew
conventional energy source has calculated that a family using a solar cooker 275 days a year
would save 800kgs offire wood or 65 liters ofkerosene. Similarly, an industrial canteen or a
hostel mess using the larger community solar cooker which can cook for 20 to 25 people could
save 400kgs offire wood or 335 liters ofkerosene per year.

Types of solar cooker:

Basically, there are three designs ofsolar cooker.

(i) Flat plate box type solar cooker with or without reflector,
(ii) Multi reflector type solar cooker,
(iii) Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker.

Flat plate box type design is the simplest of all the designs. This cooker allows solar
radiation to enter through a double walled glass cover placed inside a blackened box which is
well insulated and made airtight. Maximum no load temperature with a single reflector reaches
up to l 60°C. Flat plate box type cooker is shown in Figure 2.34.
Solar Energy [2.m

Solar radiation
Glass cover
Rubber packing

Insulation Cooking Blackened

utensils metal tray
Figure 2.34 Flat plate box type solar cooker

Solar radiation

,,
a

Blackened
metal tray

Figure 2.35 Multi reflector type solar cooker

In multi reflector type, as shown in Figure 2.35, four square or triangular or rectangular
reflectors are mounted on the oven body. They all reflect the solar radiation into the cooking
[ 2.78 . ) Renewable Energy System

zone in which cooking utensils are placed. Temperature obtained is the order of 200°C. The
maximum temperature can reach to 250°C if the compound cone reflector system is used.

In parabolic type cooker, parallel sun rays are made to reflect on a parabolic surface and
concentrated on a focus on which the Utensils for cooking are placed. The temperature of the
order of 450°C can be obtained in which solar radiation are concentrated on to a focal point.
The scheinatic diagram of parabolic disc solar cookers is shown. in Figure 2.36.

Cooking pot
Lta+»/

Figure 2.36 Parabolic disc type solar cooker

Construction and Working Principles ofbox type solar cooker:

a
The solar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by blackened metal tray
kept inside the solar box. The solar radiations entering the box are of short wave length. Two
glass covers are provided to minimize the heat loss. The loss due to convection is minimized
by making the box air tight by providing a rubber strip all around between upper lid and box.
Insulating materials such as glass-wool, saw dust or any other material is filled in the space
between blackened tray and outer cover of the box. It minimizes the heat loss due to conduction.
The top cover contains 3 mm thick two plain glasses fixed on wooden or metal frame, keeping
-
about 25 mm distance between these two. Neoprene rubber sealing is provided around the
contact surfaces of the glass cover and hinged on one side of the glass frame.

When the cooker is placed in the sun the blackened surface starts absorbing sun rays and
temperature inside the box starts rising. The cooking pots which are also blackened are placed
inside with food material get heat energy arid food will be cooked in a certain period of time
depending upon the intensity of solar radiation and material of insulation provided. The amount
of solar radiation intensity can be increased by provided mirror or mirrors. The solar cooker is
made up of inner and outer metal or wooden box with double glass sheet on it.
Solar Energy

Advantages ofsolar cooker:

(1) No attention is needed during cooking as in other devices.

(2) No fuel-is required.
(3) Negligible maintenance cost.
(4) There is no pollution.
(5) Vitamins ofthe food are not destroyed and food cooked is nutrition and delicious with
natural taste.
(6) There is no problem of over flowing of food.

Disadvantages ofsolar cooker:

(l) Cook depends on sunshine, the menu has to preplanned according to the same.
(2) It is not possible to cook at short notice and food cannot be cooked night or during
cloudy days.
(3) More time is required for cooking.
(4) Chapaties cannot be cooked as it requires high temperature for baking.

2.10.3. Solar Crop Dryer

The drying of food is necessary to store it for long time i.e. between harvesting and
consumption. High moisture content in the food spoils it due to fungus formation during the
storage time of harvesting. This problem can be solved by drying of a crop with optimum
moisture content. Dried crops can be used for long period after storage.

The following methods are used for solar energy drying.

(i) Open sun drying:

The working principle ofopen sun drying system is shown in Figure 2.3 7. It is the simplest
system still widely used in rural parts ofour nation. In this system, the crops are spread on the
open surface area where there is direct sun light. The short-wavelength solar radiation falls on
the uneven crop surface. A part ofthis energy is reflected back. The remaining part is absorbed
by the crop surface depending upon the colour ofthe crops. The absorbed radiation is converted
into thermal energy. Due to this the temperature ofthe crop starts increasing. It results the long
wavelength radiation and convective heat loss due to the blowing wind losses from the surface
of crop to ambient air. The crop is dried due to ev.aporation of moisture takes place in the form
ofevaporative losses: Further, a part of the absorbed thermal energy is conducted into the
interior ofthe product. It causes a rise in the temperature ofthe crop and further drying.
[ 2.80 Renewable Energy System

Long-wavelength
Short-wavelength solar radiation
solar radiation loss to ambient
Reflected ray
.-· High convective
+evaporative heat loss
Crop

Convective
losses
Figure 2.37 Open sun crop drying
In this type ofdrying, there is a considerable loss due to various reasons such as rodents,
birds, insects and micro-organisms. The unexpected rain or storm further worsens the situation.
Further, there may be a possibility ofoverdrying, insufficient drying, contamination offoreign
materials such as dust, dirt, and insects.

(ii) Direct solar drying:

The working principle ofdirect solar drying system is· shown in Figure 2.38. It is referred
to as a cabinet dryer.

Short-wavelength Low convective Transparent

.+co
solar radiation heat losses cover

Reflected rays - I f
g ........... ~--

Air in
Figure 2.38 Direct solar crop drying
Solar Energy [ 2.81
. ~ .

In this system, the crops are spread inside the chamber base having metallic net frame
which is covered by a transparent glass cover. An air vent is provided on side of the chamber
to facilitate escape of hot air and moisture. A part of the incident solat radiation on the glass
cover is reflected back to the atmosphere. Remaining part of solar radiation is transmitted
through the glass cover inside the cabinet dryer. Further, a part. of transmitted radiation is
reflected back from the surface of the crop. The rest part is absorbed by the surface of the crop.
Due to the absorption of solar radiation, the crop temperature increases and the crop starts
emitting long-wavelength radiation that is not allowed to escape to atmosphere due to the
presence of the glass cover, unlike open sun drying. Thus, the temperature above the crop inside
chamber becomes higher.

(ii) Indirect solar drying:

The working principle of indirect solar drying system is shown in Figure 2.39. In this
system, the crop is not directly exposed to solar radiation to minimise the discolouration and
cracking oil the surface of the crop. A separate unit termed a solar air heater is used for crop
heating by allowing hot air into the drying chamber. The hot air is allowed to flow through the
wet crop. The drying is basically achieved by the difference in moisture concentration between
drying air and air at the vicinity of crop surface.

Short-wavelength
solar radiation
Air out

Reflected ray Crop

~

Dryer
Conductive/convective
losses

Figure 2.39 Indirect solar crop dry ing

2.10.4.Solar Distillation or Solar Still

Solar still is a device used to convert saline water into pure drinkable water by using solar
energy. This process of converting saline water into pure water is called distillation. The
[2.s2 Renewable Energy System

conventional distillation processes such as thin-film distillation, reverse osmosis and

electrodialysis are energy intensive techniques. Therefore, solar distillation is an attractive
alternative due to its simple technology and non-requirement of highly skilled labour for
maintenance work and low energy consumption. The simplest solar still is generally known as
"basin type solar still' shown in Figure 2.40.

Transparent
cover

Filler (Impure
water inlet)

Basin liner
(Blackened surface)

Figure 2.40 Solar distillation

It consists of a blackened basin containing saline water at a shallow depth. A transparent

air tight cover encloses the space above the basin completely. It has a roof-like shape. The
cover which is usually glass may be of plastic is sloped towards a collection through solar
I

radiation passes through the cover and it is absorbed and converted into heat in the black
surface;

Impure saline water in the basin or tray is heated by the solar radiation and the vapor
produced is condensed to purified water on the cooler interior ofthe roof. The transparent roof
material transmits nearly all radiation falling on it and absorbs very little. Hence, it remain cool
enough to condense the water vapor. The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and
there is a provision to collect the distillate at lower end ofthe glass cover. Saline water can be
replaced in the operation by either continuous operations or by batches'. Solar still may provide
about 15 to 50 litres/day/10 m.

Advantages of solar distillation:

(1) Low energy consumption.
 Solar Energy [_2.s3
(2) No fuel is required.
(3) Low maintenance cost.
(4) No pollution.
(5) Simple design.
(6) Less skilled labour may be sufficient to operate the plant.

2.10.5.Solar Pumping
I
Solar pumping uses the solar energy for water pumping which is useful for irrigation.
Solar pumping offers the following features that make its utilization for irrigation pumping
quite attractive.

(1) The greatest need for pumping occurs during summer months when the solar radiation
is maximum.
(2) The solar pumping can be intermittent to an extent during period oflow solar radiation
when pumping decreases and the evaporation losses from crops are also low.
(3) Relatively inexpensive pumped storage can be provided in the forms of solar ponds.

The major obstacle to increase use of solar irrigation system is relatively high capital cost.
.•

In this system, water pump is driven directly by water heated by solar energy which
t operates either a heat engine or turbine. Flat plate collectors are used for low head pumping
and for high head pumping parabolic trough collector is used.
r
The basic system consists of the' following components.

(1) Solar collector

If
(2) Heat transport system
f (3) Boiler or Heat exchanges
»l (4) Heat engine
id
(5) Condenser
Ye
(6) Pump.
le
The solar pump is not much different from a solar heat engine working in a low
temperature cycle. The source of heat is the solar collector and sink is the water to be pumped.
A typical solar powered water pumping system is shown in Figure 2.41. The primary
components of the system are an array of flat-plate collectors and a Rankine heat engine with
[ 2.84 Renewable Energy System

an organic fluid as the working substance. During the flow of heat transfer fluid (Pressurized
water) through the solarcollector arrays is heated to high temperature and thus, the solar energy
is converted to the thermal energy. The fluid (water) flows into a heat exchanger (boiler) and
it transfers its heat to an intermediate organic fluid in the boiler. This fluid evaporates and
expands in the engine before reaching the condenser where it is condensed at low pressure. The
condenser is called by the water to be pumped. The fluid is then reinjected in the boiler to close
the cycle. The Rankine heat engine is coupled to the pump and it could of course be coupled to·
an electric generation.

Organic Water
turbine pump
Hot water Fresh water
/

Circulating
pump pump Wel~---
--- ---i
--- ---
--- ---
---
--------
--------
--------
--------
.

Figure 2.41 Solarpumping system

2.10.6.Solar Chimney or Ventilator

A solar chimney employs convective currents to draw air out of a building. By creating a
warm or hot zone with an exterior exhaust outlet, air can be drawn into the house ventilating
the structure. Figure 2.42 illustrates the principle of operation of a solar chimney used in the
house. The solar chimney consists of a heated black metal absorber on the inside behind a
glazed front that it can reach high temperature and be insulated from the house. A rotating
metal scoop at the top which opens opposite the wind will allow heated air to exhaust without
being overcome by the prevailing wind.
 Solar Energy [ 2.ss }

, High
Rotating turbine

i temperature
i
e
e g. § -------

D ..,8a
8 a
-------
-------
-------
------- Damper
------- al absorber
et 1.
Replacement air
drawn from cool
with black side of house
selective
coating
Figure 2.42 Solar chimney

2.10.7.Solar Furnace
A solar furnace is a structure that captures sunlight to produce very high temperatures
which· is used for industrial purposes. It is done with a curved mirror (or an array of mirrors)
that acts as a parabolic reflector for concentrating light onto a focal point. The temperature at
the focal point may reach 3,500°C and this heat can be used to generate electricity, melt steel
and make hydrogen fuel or nano-materials. The term "solar furnace" has also expanded in its
scope to refer to solar concentrator heating systems using parabolic mirrors or heliostats where
} ·>

538°C is now commonly achieved. The largest solar furnace producing 1000 kW output is at
Odeillo in France, opened in 1970.

ng a Figure 2.43 shows the typical paraboloidal collector solar furnace with heliostats. Solar
furnace primarily consists of solar concentrator, heliostat and sun tracking device. A
ling
paraboloidal dish type concentrator collector or a spherical reflector concentrator collector is
I the
commonly used for receiving the solar energy and converting it into useful heat energy.
nd a
Heliostats are used to orient solar radiation parallel to the optical axis of the concentrator. If
ting the size ofthe aperture of the concentrator is taken as x, then the size ofthe heliostat should be
hout 1.4 x x 1.4 x. Sun tracking system is used to continuously position the heliostat in the direction
ofsun as it moves from morning to evening so that the optimum output can be produced by the
concentrator.
[2.86 Renewable Energy System

Sun rays

Figure 2.43 Solarfurnace

Advantages ofsolarfurnace system:

(1) Simple in design and working principle.
(2) It uses no fossil fuels and hence, no polluted greenhouse gases are formed.
(3) It requires less operational cost.
(4) It has no moving part except the motor sun tracking system and hence, it produces
less wear.
(5) High heat flex is obtained.
(6) Controlling of temperature is easy.
(7) Less maintenance is required.

2.11. SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE

Although the sun provides an abundant, clean and safe source of energy, the supply of this
energy is periodic following yearly and diurnal cycles. It is intermittent, often unpredictable
and diffused. Its density is low compared with the energy flux densities found in conventional
fossil energy devices such as coal or oil-fired furnaces. The demand for energy, on the other
hand, is also unsteady following yearly and diurnal cycles for both industrial and personal
needs. Therefore, it is necessary to store solar energy in some forms. Otherwise, solar energy
Solar Energy [_2.s7
has to be used as soon as it is received. The technical use of solar energy presently poses
problems primarily because of inefficient collection and storage.

One of the important characteristics of a storage system is the length of time during which
energy can be kept stored with acceptable losses. If solar energy is converted into a fuel such
as hydrogen, there will be no such a time limit.

Storage in the form of thermal energy may last for very short time because of losses by
radiation, convection and conduction. Another important characteristic of a storage system· is
its volumetric energy capacity or the amount of energy stored per unit volume. It the smaller is
the volume, the better will be the storage system. Therefore, a good system should have a long
storage time and a small volume per unit of stored energy.

2.11.1. Methods of Solar Energy Storage

Solar energy is stored in a thermal reservoir for later usage. Solar energy storage is
classified according to the usage. Thermal energy obtained from a solar source can be stored
through thermal physical reactions. It means that the temperature difference of materials (or
phase changes) is used to store the thermal energy. It can also be stored through chemical
reactions by creating new chemical species (solar fuels).

I. Thermal energy storage:

Thermal energy can be directly stored. In sensible heat storage, such as steam or hot water
by changing the temperature of materials (liquid or solid) during peak hour energy, the energy
is stored in the form of sensible heat. In latent heat storage, such as phase change materials by
changing the phase of materials (liquid or solid) during peak hour energy, the energy is stored
in the form of latent heat.

2. Sorption storage:
In sorption storage, two chemicals are bonded together under standard conditions which
are separated using peak hour energy. Energy is released when the two chemicals are mixed
and exposed to standard conditions. The choice of materials has a great impact on the
performance of the storage system.

3. Chemical energy storage:

Heat generated from concentrated solar power is used to carry out the endothermic
chemical transformation and produces storable and transportable fuel.
Example s: Solar hydrogen, solar metal and solar chemical heat pipe.
[ 2.88 Renewable Energy System

2.12. THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) can be defined as the temporary storage of thermal energy
at high or low temperatures. TES is not a new concept and it has been used for centuries. Energy
storage can reduce the time or rate mismatch between energy supply andenergy demand, and
it plays an important role in energy conservation. Energy storage improves the performance of
energy systems by smoothing supply and increasing reliability. The higher efficiency would
lead to energy conservation and improve the cost effectiveness.

There are three basic methods for storing thermal energy:

(i) Sensible heat storage
(ii) Latent heat storage
(iii) Stratified storage.

2.10.1. Sensible Heat Storage (SHS)

In Sensible Heat Storage (SHS), thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of
solid or liquid by using its heat capacity. SHS system utilizes the heat capacity and change in
temperature of the material during the process of charging and discharging. The amount of heat
stored depends on the specific heat of the medium, temperature change and amount of storage
material.

A variety of substanceshave been used as storage materials in such systems. These include
liquids like water, heat transfer oils and certain inorganic molten salts, and solid like rocks,
pebbles and refractory. In the case of solids, the material is invariably in porous form and heat
is stored or extracted by the flow of a gas or a liquid through the pores or voids.

The choice of the substance used depends largely on the temperature level of the
application, water being used for temperature below 100°C and refractory bricks being used
for temperatures around 1000°C. Sensible heat storage systems are simpler in design than latent
heat or bond storage systems. Further, the properties looked at when selecting a suitable
material are density, specific heat, thermal conductivity and diffusivity, vapour pressure,
compatibility with container materials and chemical stability. Importantly, the materials rieed
to have high thermal capacity and be abundant and cheap.

Figure 2.44 shows the schematic arrangement of liquid sensible heat storage system. The
system consists of a large liquid bath of mass m and specific heat C, placed in an insulated
vessel. The system also includes a solar collector to give heat gain to the collector fluid and a
room in which this heat gain is discharged.
Solar Energy [_2.ss
Pump

I,,,1Heat exchanger 2

Valve

Room· Insulated
storage tank

Heat exchanger 1 Pump

Figure 2.44 Liquid sensible heat storage system

The operation ofsystem takes place in three steps such as charging, storage and removal
processes. The fluid entering the collector takes the heat from the sun and its temperature
increases. This process is charging process. Hot fluid from the solar collector is passed through
the heat exchanger 1 which is immersed in the bath ofthe storage tank and leaves at the bottom
ofthe system at low temperature. While the hot gas flowing through the heat exchanger l, the
bath temperature approaches the hot fluid inlet temperature. This process completes the storage
cycle. The heating process is allowed to continue up to the desired storage material (water)
temperature. After the storage period, the removal process begins. Cold fluid with constant
mass flow rate flows through the heat exchanger 2 and it receives energy from the liquid bath
and then leaves the system. This heated fluid is then pumped to the radiator to give heat to the
room and the removal cycle is completed.
SHS suffers from the disadvantage ofbeing bigger in size. For this reason, an important
criterion in selecting a material for sensible heat storage is its (pC,) value. A second
disadvantage associated with sensible heat systems is that they cannot store or deliver energy
at a constant temperature.

2.10.2. Latent Heat Storage or Phase Change Material (PCM) Storage

Latent heat storage uses the latent heat ofthe material to store thermal energy. latent heat
is the amount ofheat absorbed or released during the change ofthe material from one phase to
another phase.
 [ 2.90 Renewable Energy System

Two types of latent heat are known such as latent heat of fusion and latent heat of
vaporization. Latent heat offusion is the amount ofheat absorbed or released when the material
changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase or vice versa. The latent heat of vaporization
is the amount ofthermal energy absorbed or released when the material changes from the liquid
phase to the vapour phase or vice versa. Indeed, latent heat of vaporization is not paid attention
for latent thermal energy storage applications because of the large change in the volume
accompanied by this type of phase change.

The amount of thermal energy stored in the form of latent heat in a material is calculated
by the following equation:

E= m Ah

where E = Amount of heat stored in the material ()

m = Mass of storage material (kg)
Ah = Latent heat associated with the phase change (J/kg).

When the stored heat is extracted by the load, the material will again change its phase
from liquid to solid or from vapor to liquid. The solid-liquid transformations involve relatively
small changes in volume. Such materials are available in a range oftransition temperatures.

Any latent heat thermal energy storage system should have at least the following three
components: (i) a suitable Phase Change Material (PCM) in the desired temperature range, (ii)
a containment for the storage substance, and (iii) a suitable heat carrying fluid for transferring
the heat effectively from the heat source to the heat storage. The latent heat materials store about
5 to 14 times more heat per unit volume than sensible heat storage materials. Materials used to
store thermal energy in form of latent heat are called Phase Change Materials (PCM).

Phase Change Materials (PCM) are classified into three categories:

(i) Organic PCM (paraffin, fatty acids)

(ii) Inorganic PCM (hydrates, molten salts, metal) and

(iii) Eutectic PCM (organic-organic, organic-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic
compounds).

The latent heat of organic PCM ranges from 10 kIlkg to 300 kJlkg. For inorganic PCM,
the latent heat ranges from 20 kJlkg to 250 kIlkg. Eutectic is a mixture of two or more
components which minimizes the melting temperature of mixture. The latent heat of eutectic
material ranges from 100 kJlkg to 200 kJIkg.
Solar Energy I 2.91
Many developments in latent heat storage are emerging in these days due to main
utilization of solar and industrial heat. It is a promising method to save energy and reduce CO
emission. In a typical PCM storage system, a heat exchanger is embedded in the storage
material. Figure 2.45 shows a system with direct generation of steam.

PCM

Figure 2.45 Schematic of PCMstorage system

Power block Turbines

,_
1/)

s
~
3,_
l\'I
6
Cl)

Figure 2.46Electricity generation using PCMstorage

Figure 2.46 illustrates the schematic arrangement of PCM storage system used for
electricity generation. The energy from the sun is collected by melting the PCM impregnated
intothe thermal storage block and then usage of the heat released from the phase change of the
material to produce steam and generate electric power. Electricity is produced by expanding
the steam in a turbine by coupling a turbo generator with it. The medium used to drive the
turbine is pumped back to the heat exchanger and recirculated within the loop.
Advantages of PCMstorage:
(i) It includes a large density of heat storage and constant temperature.
 Renewable Energy System.
[asa ]
(ii) The process is completely reversible and can be repeatedly utilized without
degradation.

Disadvantages ofPCM storage:

(i) The PCMs undergo solidification and therefore, it cannot generally be used as heat
transfer media in a solar collector or the load.
(ii) Many PCMs have poor thermal conductivity and therefore, they require large heat
exchange area.
(iii) Some PCMs are corrosive and require special containers.
(iv) Latent heat storage materials are more expensive than the sensible heat storage
media generally employed such as water and rocks. They increase the system cost.

Applications ofPCMstorage:
Due to its high cost, the latent heat storage is more likely to find the application when:
(i) High energy density or high volumetric energy capacity is desired, e.g., in habitat
where space is at a premium or in transportation where both volume and weight
must be kept to a minimum.
(ii) The load is such that the energy is required at a constant temperature or within a
small range oftemperatures.
(iii) The storage size is small. Smaller storage has higher surface area to volume ratio
and therefore, the cost of packing is high. Compactness is then very important in
order to limit the containment costs. Similarly, heat losses are also more or less
proportional to the surface area. Compactness is also an important factor to limit
the heat losses in storages ofsmall capacities.

2.10.3. Stratified Heat Storage

In sensible heat storage, the heat is loaded/unloaded in an axial direction. In an optimal
case, there is a rather sharp temperature front. But due to axial dispersion of heat and
+

convection, this front will be spread out. With the large amount of convection flows, it can
even completely disappear by resulting in a single mixed temperature. Due to the dispersion,
the average temperature in the storage at the end ofthe loading will reduce which lowers the
storage efficiency.
The principle of stratified TES tank operation is based on thermal stratification process.
Stratified Thermal Energy Storage (STES) systems give a massive boost to cost saving
 Solar Energy ( 2.93

measures. The thermal energy storage cylinder or tank is the most important part of the STES
system.
Stratification is defined as a natural process in which both warmth and density of water
are inversely proportional properties. The warm water-will always settle on the top of cold
water. The process takes place in a stratified thermal energy storage tank in terms of two
operations such as charging and discharging.
t
Charging operation:
Charging operation starts when the tank is full of warm water. The water is replaced by
chilled water slowly and regularly. The chilled water is supplied from a separate chiller unit.
e
t. This replacement is carried out for several hours upto a point where there is no longer warm
water in the tank and only the colder water is left.

Discharging:

lat This process is just opposite to the charging process. Cold water is removed from the tank
through diffusers located at the bottom for several hours. Warm water enters the tank through
ht
diffusers placed at the top of the tank to replace the cold water. Diffusers are critical in both
processes because they minimize the mixing of different layers of water. The thermal energy
t a
storage tank is always full but the interface between cold and warm water (thermocline) moves
up and down depending on whether the system is charging or discharging. The thermocline can
tio •
be as thick as 1 m during charging and discharging.
I in
Ss
mit Thin walled plastic tube - - - - ...,_ - - _ - _ - - Hot water from heater
-------
;=--= Hot water supply
Warm water from collector- - - - - - .:_ _ _ _ _·- - - - - Return to auxiliary heater

mal Coil for heating tap water

and
can
fion,
s the Tr
I
Cold water to collector --- - - '

cess. Figure 2.47 Thermally stratified hot liquid tank

ving
[ 2.94 Renewable Energy System

In practice, the perfect stratification is not possible since the water entering the tank will
cause a certain amount of agitation and mixing. Moreover, there would be a certain amount of
diffusion from the entering water (to the stored water) before it reaches the appropriate density
'
level. Having obtained good thermal stratification by eliminating mixing, it is equally
important to maintain the temperature layers. Due to the heat losses from the surface of the
storage tank, the temperature of water near the vertical walls is lower, leading to natural
convection currents that destroy the temperature layers. In order to maintain stratification over
long time intervals, the tank should be provided with extremely good thermal insulation.

An idea in assisting thermal stratification is, for example, the use of a thin plastic tube of
the same density as the water as illustrated in Figure 2.47. The tube moves up and down
according to the density of hot water, placing the warm water in the right part of the tank.

2.13. SOLAR PONDS

Solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Solar energy will warm
a body of water but the water loses its heat unless some method is used to trap it. Water warmed
by the sun expands and rises as it becomes less dense. Once it reaches the surface, the water
loses its heat to the air through convection or evaporation process. The cold water is heavier
which moves down to replace the warm water thereby creating a natural convective circulation.
It mixes the water and dissipates heat. So, the major attention is given in designing the solar
ponds to reduce either convection or evaporation for storing the heat collected by the pond. So,
it can be operated under any climate.

Solar pond, also called solar salt pond, is an artificially designed pond filled with salty
water maintaining a definite concentration gradient. It combines both solar energy radiation
and sensible heat storage and it is also utilized for collecting and storing solar energy.

A solar pond can store solar heat in a much more efficient way. Solar radiation entering
the pond penetrates through to the lower layer where the concentrated salt solution occurs.
Therefore, the temperature of this layer increases since the heat absorbed by water from the
sunlight is incompetent to move upwards to the surface by convection. Thus, solar heat is stored
in the lower layer of the pond.

A solar pond reduces both convective and evaporative heat losses by reversing the
temperature gradient with the help of non-uniform vertical concentration of salts.

The vertical configuration of salt gradient solar pond normally consists of the following
three zones as shown in Figure 2.48.
Solar Energy [ 2.95

I
1. Upper Convective Zone (UCZ):

.
It is also called Surface Convective Zone (SCZ). It is adjacent to the surface and acts as a
buffer zone between environmental fluctuations at the surface and conductive heat transport
from the layer below. It is nearly fresh water. It is about 10 cm to 20 cm thick with a low
uniform concentration at closely to the ambient air temperature.

- Upper conv ective zone (Fresh water)

.'. . Lower convective zone (Salt saturated)'.'.

Figure 2.48 Convective zones in solarpond

2. Lower Convective Zone (LCZ):

It is at the bottom of the pond and this is the layer with highest salt concentration where
high temperatures can be built up. In this zone, the heat transmitted. by surface water through
non-convective zone is accumulated and stored for further use.

3. Non-Convective Zone (NCZ) or Concentration/Intermediate Gradient Zone (CGZ):

This zone keeps the two convective zones (SCZ and LCZ) apart and gives the solar pond
its unique thermal performance. It provides excellent insulation for the storage layer while
transmitting the solar radiation. To maintain a solar pond in this non-equilibrium stationary
state, it is necessary to replace the amount of salt which is transported by molecular diffusion
from LCZ to SCZ. The salt must be added to LCZ and fresh water to SCZ whilst brine is
removed. The brine can be recycled, divided into water and salt (by solar distillation) and
returned to the pond.
»

The top layer remains at ambient temperature while the bottom layer attains a maximum
steady state temperature of about 60°C to 85°C.

The major heat loss occurs from the surface of the solar pond. This heat loss can be
prevented by spreading a plastic grid over the pond's surface to prevent interaction of wind
with surface water. If the wind disturbs water, it will tend to lose the heat transfer faster than
when calm.

Due to the excessively high salt concentration of LCZ, a plastic liner or impermeable soil
should be used to prevent the infiltration into nearby ground water or soil. A site, where the
t
 Renewable Energy System
[ass ]
soil is naturally impermeable such as the base of a natural pond or lake or it can be made
impermeable by compaction or other means, will allow considerably lower power costs.

The optical transmission properties and related collection efficiency vary and depend on
the following factors:

(i) Salt concentration

(ii) The quantity of suspended dust or other particles
(iii) Surface impurities such as leaves or debris, biological. material like bacteria and
algae
(iv) The type of salt.
Both higher efficiencies and storage can be achieved through the utilization of refined or
pure salt whenever possible which will maximize the optical transmission.

Sun rays

Condenser

Solar pond

Hot brine

Evaporator/Boiler Generator

Cold brine

Electrical output

Figure 2.49 Solar pond electric power plant

The solar pond is an effective collector of both diffuse and direct radiation. It will capture
useful heat even on cloudy or overcast days. Under ideal conditions, the pond's absorption
efficiency is around 50% of incoming solar radiation although the actual efficiencies average
about 20% due to heat losses. Once the lower layer of the pond reaches over 60°C, the heat
Solar Energy [ 2.97 j·
generated can be drawn off through a heat exchanger and used to drive a low temperature
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) turbine.

The pressure differentials created is harnessed when a low. boiling point organic is boiled
by heat from the pond through a heat exchanger and cooled by a condenser to drive a turbine
to generate electricity. Figure 2.49 illustrates the schematic arrangement of generating
electricity using a solar pond. The conversion efficiency of an ORC turbine driving an electric
generator is 5 to 8%. 4

2.13.1. Types of Solar Ponds

(a) Convective solar ponds

A convective pond is the shallow solar pond. It consists of pure water enclosed in a large
bag which allows convection but hinders evaporation. The bag has a blackened bottom, foam
insulation below and two types of glazing (sheets of plastic or glass) on top. The sun heats the
water in the bag during day time. At night, hot water is pumped into a large heat storage tank
to minimize the heat loss. Excessive heat loss when pumping the hot water to the storage tank
has limited the development of shallow solar ponds.

(b) Non-convective solar ponds

The main types of non-convective ponds are salt gradient ponds. A salt gradient pond has
three distinct layers of brine (a mixture of salt and water) of different concentrations as already
illustrated in Figure 2.48. The most concentrated layer forms at the bottom due to the increased
density of the brine with salt concentration. The least concentrated layer is at the surface. The
salts commonly used are sodium chloride and magnesium chloride. A dark-colored material
usually butyl rubber lines the portd. As sunlight enters the pond, the water and the lining absorb
the solar radiation. Due to this, the water near the bottom of the pond becomes warm up to
93.3°C. Even when it becomes warm, the bottom layer remains denser than the upper layers.
Thus, it inhibits convection. Pumping the brine through an external heat exchanger or an
evaporator removes the heat from this bottom layer. Another method of heat removal is to
extract heat with a heat transfer fluid as it is pumped through a heat exchanger placed at the
bottom of the pond.

2.13.2. Applications of Solar Ponds

1. Power generation

2. Space heating and cooling

 [ 2.98 Renewable Energy System

3. Crop drying
4. Desalination
5. Process heat.

Heat obtained from solar pond is excellent scope for process heat applications (i.e. water
heated to 80°C to 90°C.) when a large quantity of hot water is required such as textile
processing and dairy industries. Hot air for industrial uses such as drying agricultural produce,
timber, fish and chemicals and space heating are other possible applications.

2.13.3. Advantages and Limitations of Solar Ponds

Advantages ofsolarponds:
(i) It provides low investment costs per installed collection area.
(ii) Thermal storage is incorporated into the collector and it is of very low cost.
(iii) Diffuse radiation (cloudy days) is fully used.
(iv) Very large surfaces can be built, thus, large scale energy generation is possible.
(v) Expensive cleaning of large solar collector surfaces in dusty areas is avoided.
(vi) This technology is attractive for rural areas in developing countries.
(vii) The accumulated salt crystals which is a by-product from solar pond can be used
further.

(viii) Separate collector is not needed.

(ix) Environmental friendly.

Limitations ofsolarponds:

(i) Although solar ponds are simple to construct, they are costly in terms of energy
efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar pond is 17% when it is
operated between 80°C and 20°C.
(ii) Need for large land area to function properly.
(iii) The accumulated salt crystals have to be removed periodically and it adds
maintenance expenses.
(iv) It can be operated only in sunny days and if the site is shaded by tall trees or
building, it may not work properly.
(v) A proper algae and dust removal are needed as the thermal efficiency of a solar
pond sturdily dependents on the clarity of the pond.
Solar Energy

(vi) Large quantity of salt is required for operating the solar pond.
(vii) Relatively low-temperature operation means solar energy conversion is typically
less than 2%.
(viii) Due to evaporation, non-saline water is constantly required to maintain salinity
gradients.

2.14. DIRECT SOLAR ELECTRLCITY CONVERSION FROM PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

In solar energy conversion, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly
into electrical energy. The basic conversion device is known as solar photovoltaic cell or solar
cell. Solar PV systems have commercially become successful as stand-alone applications in
remote areas for few Watts to a few tens of kW. Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation
of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.

Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight into electricity by the use
-
of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells. A single converter cell is called a solar cell or
more generally a photovoltaic cell and combination of such cells are designed to increase the
electric power output called solar module or solar array.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of semiconductors which generate electricity when they
absorb light. Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by radiation that separate positive and
negative charge carriers in absorbing semiconductor material. In the presence of an electric
field, these charges can produce a current for use in an external circuit. Such fields exist
permanently at junctions in materials as "built-in" electric fields and provide the required EMF
for useful power production. Junction devices are usually known as photovoltaic cells or solar
cells. A majority of photovoltaic cells are silicon semiconductor junction devices. Thus, an
understanding of the basics of the semiconductors is necessary in order to study the
photovoltaic cells.

Commercial PV cells have efficiencies in the range of 10-20% and they can produce
electrical energy of 1-2 kWh/sq.mlday. A PV system has no moving parts. So, it gives almost
maintenance free service for long period and can be used unattended at inaccessible locations.

2.15. FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CONVERSION

2.15.1. Basics of Semiconductors

Solids can be divided into three categories on the basis of electrical conduction through
them. They are: conductors, semiconductors and insulators. The best conductors have one
[ 2.100 l Renewable Energy System

valence electron whereas the best insulators have eight valence electrons. A semiconductor is
an element with electrical properties between those of a conductor and an insulator. A best
semiconductor has four valence electrons. Silicon (Si) has four valence electrons. Therefore, it
is the best choice for semiconductor. An isolated silicon atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons.
The outermost orbit contains four electrons. When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they
arrange themselves into an orderly pattern called a crystal. Each silicon atom shares electrons
with four neighbouring atoms in such a way to have eight electrons in its valence orbit. Each
pair ofelectrons belongs to two neighbouring atoms and it is attached by them with equal and
opposite forces keeping them bonded together. This chemical bond is known as covalent bond.

The behaviour ofa semiconductor can be explained with the help ofquantum theory. Since,
an electron is attracted by the nucleus, extra energy is needed to lift an electron into a larger
orbit. Some ofthe external energy sources which can lift the electron to higher energy levels
are heat, light and voltage.

2.15.2. p-n Junction

The basic requirement for photovoltaic energy conversion is an electronic asymmetry in
the semiconductor structure known as a junction. When n-and p-type semiconductors are
brought into contact, then electrons from n-region near the junction would flow to p-type
semiconductor leaving behind a layer that is positively charged. Similarly, holes will flow in
the opposite direction leaving behind a negatively charged layer. A steady state is finally
reached in resulting ajunction which contains practically no mobile charges. Hence, it is named
as depletion region.
Energy

Conduction band

Valance band

Figure 2.50 Energy bands ofa step gradedpnjunction

A typical solar cell consists ofa p-n junction fanned in a semiconductor material similar
a
to diode. Figure 2.50 shows the energy bands ofa step graded pn junction where the material
changes suddenly fromp to n before diffusion process. p bands are slightly higher than n bands
because p type atoms have slightly bigger than n bands. Also, p type atoms have slightly larger
 Solar Energy [_21or]
orbits than n type atom due to a pentaval_e nt atom with a core charge of+5 attracting an electron
more than a trivalent atom with a core charge of +3.

When ajunction betweenp and n type materials is formed, the carriers (free electrons and
holes) diffuse· from higher concentration side to lower concentration side. Immediately, after
crossing, these carriers recombine with other types of carriers found in majority on the other
. . .
side. Similarly, electrons near the junction in n-type side have recombined with holes which
have crossed the junction from p-side.

The p-n junction may be connected to a battery in two ways as follows:

(vi) Forward bias in which the positive conventional circuit current passes from p to n
material across a reduced band potential difference.

(vii) Reverse bias in which the conventional positive current has an increased band
potential difference to overcome.

2.15.3. Photovoltaic Effect

When the _solar cell (p-n junction) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and it
is acted upon by the internal electric fields, thereby resulting in a photocurrent (h). The
generated photocurrent flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in the
absence of an external applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is measured
as the short-circuit current (l,c). This phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect. This short-
i circuit current depends· linearly on the light intensity because the absorption of more light
results in additional electrons to flow in the internal electr_ic field force. The overall cell current
(I) is determined by subtracting the light induced current (h) from the diode dark current ().

Overall PV cell current, I = I- IL

2.15.4. Photovoltaic Materials

The solar cells are made ofvarious materials and with different structure in order to reduce
the cost and achieve maximum efficiency. There are various types of solar cell material such
as single-crystal, polycrystalline and amorphous silicon, compo_und thin-film material, and
other semiconductor absorbing layers that give highly efficient cells for specialised
applications.
bar
ial Crystalline silicon cells are the most popular though they are expensive. Amorphous
silicon thin-film solar cells are less expensive. The amorphous silicon layer is used with both
ger hydrogen and fluorine incorporated in the structure.
[ 2.102 ) Renewable Energy System

The most common types of silicon (Si) semiconductor material used are:

(a) Single crystalline Si cells

(b) Polycrystalline Si cells
(c) Amorphous Si cells.

(a) Single crystal silicon solar cell:

It is the most efficient and most robust of the silicon PV family. The most common
commercially produced silicon cell has an n or p type structure where the base material is p
type and it has a thin diffused n layer. at the top of it. Since, the diffused layer is relatively
heavily doped, it is likely to have a large number of unwanted recombination centers. In this,
the minority carrier diffusion length for electron is twice the holes in silicon. Therefore, a p
type silicon base material which has electrons as its minority carriers are preferred for making
a single crystalline bulk silicon solar cell.

(b) Mulicrystalline silicon solar cell:

It is less costly as compared to a single crystal silicon cell. Commercial multicrystalline
solar cells have efficiencies in the range 10%-14%. Impurity segregation in grain boundaries
which act as recombination centers has limited the achievable maximum conversion efficiency.

(c) Amorphous silicon solar cell:

These materials are cheaper alternatives to single or multi-crystalline cells. It has less
efficiency in the range of 4-8%. It performs the best when indoors are used with diffused or
indoor lights. It is used in pocket calculators, electronic watches, radio receivers and low power
band-held electronic instruments.

Cadmium telluride is an efficient light-absorbing material for thin-film solar cells.

Compared to other thin-film materials, this material is easier to deposit and more suitable for
large-scale production.

Copper-Indium Selenide based materials are of interest for photovoltaic applications.

These semi-conductors are especially attractive for thin-film solar cell application because of

has a direct band gap of 1.0 e.

their high optical absorption coefficient and versatile optical and electrical characteristics. It
Incorporation of Ga into CIS mixture increases the band gap
beyond 1.1 eV. Its main attraction is inexpensive preparation. It is more stable as compared to
a Si cell in outdoor applications and it has the efficiency around 10%.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Multij unction based solar cells are high efficiency cells that
have been developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration. It has a
direct band gap of 1.43 e V which makes it an attractive PV material. Simple GaAs cells have
Solar Energy [ 2.103 ]

thin films of n type and p type GaAs grown on a suitable substate. These multijunction cells
consist of multiple thin films produced using molecular beam epitaxy. The semiconductors are
carefully chosen to absorb nearly the entire solar spectrum. Thus, it generates electricity from
as much of the solar energy as possible. The efficiency of GaAs cell is 30% but the high
production cost has limited their utilization.
Light-Absorbing Dyes Typically, a ruthenium metalorganic dye is used as a monolayer of
light-absorbing material. This type of cell allows a more flexible use of materials and it is
typically manufactured by screen printing with the potential for lower processing costs than
those used for bulk solar cells.
Organic solar cells and polymer solar cells are built from thin films (typically 100 nm) of
organic semiconductors such as polymers and small molecule, compounds such as
polyphenylene vinylene, copper phthalocyanine and carbon fullerenes.

Nanocrystalline Solar Cell structures make use of some of the same thin-film light
absorbing materials but these are overlain as an extremely thin absorber on a supporting matrix
of conductive polymer or mesoporous metal oxide having a very high surface area to increase
internal reflections and hence, the probability of light absorption is increased.

2.16. SOLAR CELLS

2.16.1. Solar CellPrinciples

When photons from the sun.are absorbed in semiconductor, they create free electrons with
higher energies than electrons which provide the bonding in the base crystal. Once these
electrons are created, there must be an electric field to higher energy electrons to flow out of
the semi-conductor to do useful work. The most normal configuration for. a solar cell to make
a p-n junction semiconductor is shown in Figure 2.51.
Sun light
I f I I I
t t t l
t t t # t
t t t t I

t t t t t -
N-ty pe
P-type
+
I I

..
Load

Figure 2.51 Solar cellprinciples

 [2.1o4] Renewable Energy System

The junction of 'p type' and 'n type' materials provide an inherent electric field which
separates the charge created by the absorption of sunlight. Each of the individual solar cells
produces a power output ofabout 0.5V with the current directly proportional to the cell area.

2.16.2. Structure and Mechanism of Solar Cell

Figure 2.52 shows the schematic of structure and mechanism of a silicon solar cell. It
consists of a 0.2-0.3 mm thick mono-crystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafer havirig two
layers with different electrical properties formed by "doping" it with other impurities (e.g.,
boron and phosphorus). An electric field is established at the junction between negatively
doped (using phosphorus atoms) and positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers. The
electric current generated in the semiconductor is extracted by contacts to the front and rear of
the cell. The cell is covered with a thin layer of dielectric material and antireflection coating
(ARC) to minimise the reflection loss from the top surface.

Aluminium

Figure 2.52 Structure ofa solar cell

2.16.3. Types of Solar Cells

Solar cells are classified on the basis ofthe following factors.

1. Thickness of active material

2. Type ofjunction structure and

3. The type of active material used in its fabrication.

Solar Energy [_210s]
1. Thickness ofactive material:
On the basis of thickness of active material, the solar cell is classified into two types.

1. Bulk material cell

2. Thin film cell.
In bulk material cells, the base material is itself an active material. In thin film cells, a thin
film deposition of active material is carried out on the sheet. Thin film solar cells have the
major advantage of significantly low active material consumption and continuous production
processes. At present, the bulk material single crystal and multi-crystalline cells are the most
successful for terrestrial applications.

2. 0n the basis ofjunction structure:

Solar cells are classified into five types based on junction structure.

(a) p-n homojunction cell

(b) Hetero-junction cell
(c) p-n multi junction cell
(d) metal-semiconductor Schottky junction
(e) p--i-n semiconductor junction

In' homogeneous p-n junction, the semiconductor material on both sides of the junction is
same but doping materials are different. In a heterogeneous p-n junction, two dissimilar
semiconductor materials such as Groups III-V or Groups II-VI are used. The compound
semiconductors with closely matching crystal lattice are used to form the junction.

A Schottkyjunction is a metal semiconductor junction formed by bringing metal in contact

with a moderately doped n type semiconductor material by either an ohmic contact or a
rectifying contact. Schottky barrier junction is relatively straight forward to fabricate but it is
not very efficient as a PV cell. It is a unilateral junction conducting currents in one direction
(Conventional current flow from metal to semiconductor) and restricting in the other.

Ap-i-n type (p type - intrinsic -n type) junction structure is the structure where intrinsic
silicon is interposed between n and p layers and it is used in tandem in amorphous-silicon solar
cells.

3. On the basis oftype ofactive material:

The solar cell depending on the type of material used for the fabrication of junction is
classified ino seven types.
[ 2.106] Renewable Energy System

(a) Single crystal silicon cell

(b) Multicrystalline silicon cell
(c) Amorphous silicon
(d) Gallium arsenide cell
(e) Copper indium diselenide cell
(f) Cadmium telluride cell and
g) Organic PV cell
For the commercial purpose, a single crystal multicrystalline or Si-cells are commercially
produced.

2.17. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL CONCEPTS

2.17.1. Cell, Module, Panel and Array of Solar Cell

A single converter cell is called a solar cell. It is an energy conversion device which are
used to convert sunlight into electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect.

A photovoltaic module is made of multiple interconnected solar cells. A solar PVpanel is

a collection of modules physically and electrically grouped together on a support structure.
These modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the voltage/current ratings. When
modules are connected in series, it is desirable to have each module's maximum power
production occurring with the same current.

A PVarray is a collection of panels. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected
in series to obtain the desired voltage. The individual strings are then connected in parallel to
allow the system to produce more current. Solar arrays are typically measured by the electrical
power they produce, in watts, kilowatts or even megawatts. Figure 2.53 shows the difference
between cell module, panel and array.
Most solar PV panels have 30 to 36 cells connected in series. Each cell produces about
0.5 Vin sunlight. So, a panel produces 15 V to 18 V. These panels are designed to charge 12 V
batteries. The current depends on the size of each cell and the solar radiation intensity.

Most cells produce a current of2 A to 3 A in bright sunlight. The current is same in every
cell because cells are connected in series. The power which one module can produce is not
enough to meet requirements of a home or a business. So, the modules are linked together to
t

form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the
Solar Energy [ 2.107.)

modules into alternating current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights,
motors and other loads.

Lr1
□. DOD
,n
ODO
DO □
ODO
DOD
Cell
Ir
--1+-<...

(a) Module (b) Panel

1111111#
11111111
EE A
RT
11111111 (c) PV array
Figure 2.53 Dife
f rence between solar cell, module, panel and array

2.17.2. Series and Parallel Connections of Solar Cells

In the manufacturing process, each solar cell is tabbed to provide connectors. Tabs are
thin metal pieces which are bonded to the solar cell metallization pattern. Solar cells are·
interconnected as shown in Figure 2.54.

Cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and they. are connected
in series to achieve the desired voltage. By combining a number of solar cells in series, the
voltage is increased but the current is unchanged. Solar panels on space craft consist of module
of cells connected in series and parallel to produce the required voltage and power.
 [ 2.108 ] Renewable Energy System

21

One PV cell 3 cells in series 2 chains in parallel

l
Figure 2.54 Connection ofPV cells

2.17.3. Power Output of a Solar PV Cell

It is known that the power input to a solar cell is the product of solar insolatiori per unit
area and solar cell area.

So, it can be written as

P;n = Solar insolation (S.D x Solar cell area (A)

Similarly, the efficiency of solar cell, n ='{="

mn

- VoltageP
Solar insolation (S.J) x Solar array area (A)
.:.Power output (Pour) obtained from a solar PV cell can be calculated by
Energy output (kWh/month) = Solar cell area (mn') x Conversion efficiency x
Solar radiation for the month (kWh!m 2/day)

2.17.4. Solved Problems on PV Cells

Problem 2.8

A single solar cell (12 cm x 12 cm) produces a voltage of 0.6 V and a current up to
2.8 A. lftlte solar insolation is 850 Wlm2, calculate the efficiency ofthe solar cell
Given data:
Size of a solar cell= 12 cm x 12 cm= 0.12 m x 0.12 m
Solar Energy [ 2.109 ]

Voltage, V = 0.6 V
Current, I= 2.8 A
Solar insolation, S.I = 850 W/m2

@ Solution:
Area, A= 0.12 x 0.12 = 0.0144 m2
Power input, P = S.I x A =. 850 x 0.0144 = 12.24 W
.
Power output, Pout= V x I= 0.6 x 2.8 = 1.68 W
Pout 1.68
Efficiency, 11 =-=--x 100= 13.73% Ans.
P 12.24

Problem 2.9

A single solar cell on illumination by insolation of 850 Wlm1 produces a voltage of

0.6 Vanda current of2.1 A. The solar cell efficiency is 12%. Determine the area ofthe cell.

Given data:
Solar insolation, S.I = 850 WI
Voltage, V= 0.6 V
Current, I= 2.1 A
Efficiency, n = 12% = 0.12
@ Solution: ·
Power output, Pout= Vx J= 0.6 X 2.1 = 1.26 W
We know that
P,
Efficiency, h=
P
1.26
0.12=
P
PA = 10.5 W
Also, power input, Pn = S.Jx A
PL 10.5 2 2
Area, A= S.I =
850
= 0.0124 m = 123.53 cm Ans.

Problem 2.10

A solar insolation on a rectangular module of 1.25 m x 2.0m of photovoltaic cells is

750 Wmmn. Ifthe efficiency of the cells is 15%, what will be the power output of the module?
 [ 2.110 l Renewable Energy System

Given data:
Solar insolation, S.I= 750 W/m2
Size of a solar cell= 1.25 m x 2.0 m
Efficiency, n = 15% = 0.15
@ Solution:
Area, A= 1.25 x 2 = 2.5 m2
Power input, P = S.J X A= 750 2.5= 1875 W
Pout
Efficiency, h-
P
· Pout
0.15= 7g75
tl. :.. Power output, Pout= 281.~5 W Ans.
'I
'I
I
!
2.17.5. Power Output of a Solar PV Panel

As mentioned earlier, a solar PV panel has. solar cell module and solar array. A
photovoltaic module is the smallest non-divisible self-contained and environmentally protected
unit with a transparent cover. A module has two terminals and it delivers certain DC output
when is exposed to full sunlight.

The electrical output of the module depends on the size and number of cells, their electrical
interconnection and of course, on the environmental conditions to which the module is exposed.
The power of one module is given by

P, = n P. in Watts

where P, = Power of one module, W

P. = Power of one cell, W
n = Number of cells in a module.

An array has several modules connected in series or parallel and it delivers DC power
through two terminal leads.

Power of an array Pp is given by

P, = n· m Pc

where h = Number of cells in a module

m Number of modules in a panel.
Solar Energy [ 2.111 ]

Also, the solar panel output can be calculated in terms of daily Watt-hours by
Daily Watt-hours = Average hours of sunlight x Solar panel Watts x Conversion
efficiency of the solar panel

Factors determining the output ofsolar cells:

The following four factors determine the output of any solar electric panel.
(a) Efficiency of the photovoltaic cells
(b) Photovoltaic cell area
(c) Geographic location
(d) Tilt angle of the photovoltaic array
(e) Load resistance
(f) Solar irradiance and
(g) Operating cell temperature.

The solar cell efficiency is set by the manufacturing process. Most of the commercially
available PV modules have the efficiency in the range of 9% to 17% at converting the solar
energy to electrical energy.

The load resistance determines where on the current and voltage curve the module will
operate. The obvious preferred operating point is where maximum power is generated called
peak power point.

For a given solar cell area, the current generated is directly proportional to solar irradiance
and it is almost independent of temperature. Thus, as the sun's brightness increases the output
voltage and power decreases as the temperature increases. The voltage of crystalline cells
decreases about 0.5 %/°C temperature increase. Therefore, arrays should be mounted in the
sunniest place without shading and kept as cool as possible by ensuring air flow over and
behind the array.

Number ofsolarpanels needed to electrify various systems:

The required number of solar panels are calculated by mainly considering the three critical
factors as
(a) Annual electricity usage
(b) Solar panel wattage and
(c) Production ratio.
 [a1z] Renewable Energy System

(a)Annual electricity usage:

The annual electricity usage is the energy used in the places where it is used, for example,
home over a year. Measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) is influenced by the appliances in a home
which use electricity and how regularly they are used. it is known that refrigerators, air
conditioning units, small kitchen appliances, lights, chargers and more all use electricity.

(b) Solar panel wattage:

It is also known as solar panel's power rating. Panel wattage is the electricity output of a
specific solar panel under ideal conditions.

(c) Production ratio:

A solar panel system's production ratio is the estimation ofenergy output over time (kWh)
4 to actual system size (W). It depends on how many hours of sunlight that the system will get

l
.I
I
mainly based on geographic location. So, the production ratio will change accordingly.

For example, if a 10 kW system produces 14 kWh of electricity in a year has a production

ratio of 1.4 which is 14/10.
'
. I
System size
So, the number of panels production ratio x Solar panel wattage
The number solar panels should be calculated by considering the peak load of energy
requirement in a year and low solar panel wattage which means that the calculations should
consider the low production ratio.

2.17.6. Solved Problems on PV Panels

Problem 2.11
Thefactors of a solar PVpanel are asfollows.
(i) The optimum operating voltage of a photovoltaic cell = 0.45 V
(ii) Current i
n full sunlight = 270 4°/n
If the area of a cell = 40 cn, what would be the current and electrical power output?
Also, calculate the number of cells in series to operate the domestic appliances of 110 V and
calculate the total power output of 10 strings are operated in parallel.

Given data:
Voltage, V = 0.45 V
Current density, Ia= 270 4/m
Area, A= 40cm' = 0.004 m
Solar Energy [ 2.113 ]

@ Solution:
Current, I= Ir8A=270 x0.0045 = 1.08 4° Ans.

Power output, Pa= VI= 0.45x 1.08 = 0.49 W Ans.

To operate the home appliances of I IO V:

Total voltage _ 110
Number cells in series
Cell voltage 0.45

= 244.4 = 245 cells Ans.

Suppose there are 10 strings in parallel, the current would be

=10x1.08 = 10.8 4°

The power output = 10.8 x110= 1,188 W= 1.188 kW Ans.

Problem 2.12

Home consumes 4,500 kWh per year. Average Peak Sun Hours (PSH) per day for a
south-facing array = 7 hours 15 minutes. Overall average system efficiency factor = 65%.
Calculate the annual solarenergy needed to offset annual energy consumption. Ifthe Solar
Panel Wattage (SPW) is 0.55 kW, calculate the number ofpanels needed. Assumeproduction
ratio as 1.1.

Given data:
Annual electricity usage = 4,500 kWh per year
PSH = 7 hours 15 minutes = 7 + 15/60 = 7 .25 hrs
Efficiency, n = 65% = 0.65
SPW=0.55 kW
PR= 1.1

© Solution:
4500
Annual solar energy needed, Pout,= 365 = 12.33 kWh/day

12.33
Also, annual solar energy needed, Pout= _
7 25
= 1.7 kW

We know that efficiency,

P
h=
P
o.6s-!I
P
 [ 2.114 l Renewable Energy System

System size or Power input, P = 2.62 kW Ans.

b f _ System size
Num er O pane 1 s Production ratio x Solar panel wattage
2.62
- 1.1x0.5574.33 = 5 Ans.
PR x SPW

2.17.7. I-V and Power-Voltage Characteristics of a Solar PV Cell

A typical current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of a solar module or panel operating under

normal conditions is shown in Figure 2.55. Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected
together in either series or parallel combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current
capacity of the solar array. Jf the array panels are connected together in a series combination,
then the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel then the current increases.
I

1i P,
•
I
I

Current
~ ;3C f-_-_-__-,--.-_-_-__-:_-_-_-_-_-----::,..::...._ _ _ _ _ I

I
U
m Maximum Power!
Point (MPP) I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
o__,_ _. 0
0 Voltage (V) V, Voe

Figure 2.55 I-V andpower-voltage characteristics of a solar cell

As we know, power delivered by the PY cell is the product of voltage (V) and current
(I). The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will
still be the product of the voltage times the current, (P = V x I). However, the solar panels are
connected together, the upper right-hand corner will always be the maximum power point
(MPP) of the array. The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own
constriction. It is measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell at the most optimized
condition to produce maximum output.
At both open and closed-circuit conditions, the power delivered is zero. At some point,
the power delivered is a maximum.
Solar Energy [_211 )

Amps Power
V-I Curves
• Parallel MPP

Series MPP

0
Voltagc(V) Volts

Figure 2.56 I-V and Power-Voltage characteristics ofsingle, series andparallel

solar cell

Voltage (V)-Current (/) characteristics curve is plotted to analyse its behavior. It is plotted
from values obtained by measuring voltage and current.

For this, open circuit voltage is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals ofthe
cell when no load is connected to the cell. Also, it depends upon the techniques of
manufacturing and temperature. Generally, open circuit voltage ofsolar cell nearly equal to 0.5
to 0.6 volt which is denoted by Wa. The maximum amount of current that a PV cell can deliver
is the short circuit current which denoted Isc. At one point of voltage and corresponding
current, maximum power is delivered by a solar cell. So, the performance of solar cell is
decided by a factor called fill factor.

2.17.8. Operating Regions and Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) of a PV Solar
Cell

The solar cell operates in the region M-N, when the load resistance is small. On the other
hand, ifthe load resistance is large, the solar cell operates in the regions P-Q ofthe curve. When
the solar cell is open-circuited i.e. not connected to any load, the current will be at its minimum
(zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its. maximum which is known as the open circuit
voltage (Voe). At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited i.e. the positive and
negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the
 [ 2.116 j Renewable Energy System

current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum which is known as the short circuit current
(lsc)- The span of the solar cell /-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current
(lsc) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage (Voe). In other words,
the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at short
circuit.
Amps

Maximum Power
-,SC d),M--------------
max
N
Point (MPP)

'm
t
+
w
Ii
.I '-----------------'-----'Qc:.-e_
V_rn_ax__ Volts
0 n
I Voltage (/)
Ve

Figure 2.57 I-V characteristics ofa PV cell

There are two extreme operating conditions of solar cells such as zero output voltage and
zero output current conditions. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any
electrical power but there must be a point somewhere in between where the solar cell generates
maximum power. However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for
which the power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp• In other words, the point at which
the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is shown in Figure 2.57 at the top right
area of the dotted rectangle. This is the "maximum power point" or MPP. Therefore, the ideal
operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.

Solar tracking is a technology for orienting a solar collector, reflector, or photovoltaic

'
panel towards the sun. As the sun moves across the sky, a tracking device makes sure that the
solar collector automatically follows and maintains the optimum angle to receive the most of
the solar radiation. In order to get a maximum concentration, an arrangement for tracking the
sun's virtual motion is required.

MPPT stands for maximum power point tracking. It depends on the solar irradiance and
cell temperature. Tracking is done by using modern inverters which have mechanisms to track.
 Solar Energy [_217]

At this point, PV cell delivers maximum possible power called maximum power point tracking
(MPP1).

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of V,, and l,p can be estimated from the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current:

Vn ==(0.8-0.90)

h, = (0.85-0.95)1
Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output
power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

2.17.9. Efficiency and Fill Factor of the Solar Cell

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance ofone
solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to
input energy from the sun. It is a measurement ofa solar panel's ability to convert sunlight into
usable electricity. Given the same amount ofsunlight shining for the same duration oftime on
two solar panels with different efficiency ratings, the more efficient panel will produce more
electricity than the less efficient panel. In addition to' reflecting the performance ofthe solar
cell itself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity ofthe incident sunlight and the
temperature ofthe solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured must
be carefully controlled in order to compare the performance of one device to another.
Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AMI .5 conditions and at a temperature of25°C. Solar
cells intended for space use are measured under AMO conditions.

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is
converted to electricity and is defined as:
. Voe x Ix FF
Effiiciency, . Power (Pmax)
n= Maximum
Incident power (Pa)
= P
where Va is the open-circuit voltage,
Iis the short-circuit current,
FF is the fill factor.

Most solar panels are between 15% and 20% efficient, with outliers on either side ofthe
range. High-quality solar panels can exceed 22% efficiency in some cases, but the majority of
photovoltaic panels available are not above 20% efficiency.
 [a.11s] Renewable Energy System

Fill factor is the ratio of the maximum power to the product of the open circuit voltage
and short circuit current.

Fill factor a
Y.I.
If the fill factor is high, the performance of a solar cell be better. Generally, commercially
available PV cells in market will have a fill factor greater than 0. 7. If the fill factor of solar
cells is less than 0. 7, they are not recommended for larger electricity generation projects.

2.18. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

Advantages:
1. It has no moving parts and hence no wear.
3

i 2. Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity conversion is obtained

through simple devices.
t· 3. It produced no pollution.

4. It has a wide. power handling capacity.

5. It has the ability to work for a long period without maintenance.

6. It needs low maintenance cost.

7. It has long effective life.

8. It is highly reliable.

9. Power to weight ratio is high.

10. It can be used with or without sun tracking.
11. Desired currents and voltages can be achieved by mere integration.

12. It is easy to fabricate because the connection of semiconductor devices is easy.

Disadvantages:
1. Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce due to the cost ofmanufacturing
PV devices and the conversion efficiencies ofthe equipment. The system requires high
initial cost.
2. Solar power is a variable energy source with energy production dependent on the sun.
It makes solar energy panels less reliable a solution.
3. Energy storage is required because of no insolation at night.
Solar Energy [ 2.119 ]

4. This system require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct electricity (DC)
into alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power network.
5. In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large areas for
deployment.
6. Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%).
-
7. Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they are
fragile and can be damaged relatively easily.
8. Some toxic chemicals such as cadmium and arsenic are used in the PV production
process. therefore, it requires recycling and proper disposal.

2.19. SOLAR PV APPLICATIONS

Photovoltaic cells could be applicable to either small or large power plants since they
function well on a small scale and it may be adaptable to local energy generation on building
roof tops. The cost of energy storage and power conditioning equipment might be high.
However, it makes the most economical method of energy generation in large stations.

A variety of PV system configurations have been developed and deployed for rural
applications such as drinking water supply, street lighting, irrigation water pumping and for
operation of electronic equipment. Solar cells have also been used to operate navigational
signals, high way emergency call system, rail road crossing warnings, automatic
meteorological stations, etc. in location where the access to utility power lines is difficult.

Some ofthe typical applications include the following.

1. Grid interactive PV power gerieration.

2. Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply.
3. Lighting.
4. Medical refrigeration.
5. Community radio and television sets.
6. Weather monitoring.
7. Powering small village.
8. Telecommunication and signaling.
9. Railway signaling equipment.
10. Battery charging.

11. Street lighting.

[ 2.120 ] Renewable Energy System

Other market sector

Communications
Electric utility sector

Grid interactive

Other end use Transportation

Water pumping

Figure 2.58 Solar direct thermal applications

Figure 2.58 shows the proportion of direct solar Rt voltaic cell ene rgy applications to
various household, industrial and commercial sectors.

2.19.1. Solar PV Battery Charging

A solar charger utilizes solar energy to supply electricity to device or cha rger batteries.
This electricity is used to charge electrical devices such as'cell phones, laptops, car batteries,
reading lights and personal fans. They are mostly portable. A series of solar cells are connected
in a stationary location and can be connected to a battery bank to store energy for off-peak
usage.

A battery charger bank functions similar to a solar photovoltaic system and a more
traditional battery bank storage system. First, sunlight strikes the surface of the PV cells.
Photovoltaic solar cells convert sunlight directly into solar power (electricity). This electricity
moves to a solar battery charger kit to store the electricity until any compatible device is ready
to charge. Then, a charge inverter which is changing from direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC) turns the electricity back into a more usable form. Also, certain devices use DC
Solar Energy 1 2.121J

electricity to charge their batteries while other devices primarily use AC electricity. Therefore,
some devices do not require a charge inverter.

The charge controller is a converting device which connects and disconnects the charger
to the battery in a way to take control over charging and to stop charging at the correct voltage.
It will protect the batteries from damage from over-charging and regulate the power going from
the solar panels to the batteries. Therefore, the electricity is kicked out of the extended-life
battery and poured into an electrical device.

Solar PV panel

y Charge controller
Battery
DC power

Figure 2.59 Solar battery charging system

2.19.2. Solar PV Domestic Lighting

Electricity used for lighting during night time. is one of the most convenient and preferred
4

form of energies because more than 6 lacks villages in our Country. Out of them, 1 lakh villages
do not be electrified. Also, only a quarter of house-holds have proper connection in electrified
. .

villages. Electricity supply situation in villages is unwarranted due to power shortage in many
stages. Also, it is not mostly available even in electrified villages for lighting when it is most
needed.

For village lighting, three major system configurations are available as follows.

(1) Domestic lighting system or solar lantern

(2) Pole mounted standalone street lighting system and
(3) Non-grid interactive centralized lighting system.
 ( 2.122 ] . Renewable Energy System

Solar photo-voltaic powered lights called lanterns are considered to be alternative solution
to village lighting needs. A typical solar lantern consists of small photovoltaic module,
alighting device, high frequency investor, battery charge controller and appropriate housing.
During day time, the module is placed under the sun and it is connected to lantern through
cables for charging a lantern using 10 W lamp. The expected life of the lamp is 3 to 5 years;
Storage battery is the main component in lantern. Frequent maintenance is not needed for
electrotype batteries.

¥
a

! y Charge controller Power conversion AC power

device (Inverter)
DC power

I Power storage system :

(Batteries) '

.. . . . . . . . AC power to home

Figure 2.60 Solar domestic lighting system

2.19.3. Solar PV Street Lighting

Street lighting system consists of two photo-voltaic modules, mounting frame, 4 m long
pole, battery box, tubular type lead-acid battery, charge controller, investor and day light
sensors. The photovoltaic modules charge the batteries during day time. During night time, an
automatic light sensor shifts on a powerful high efficiency light and the lamp is switched off
automatically during morning time. Time module sensing is used to switch on lights on the
evening. It works for one fluorescent tube lights of20 Wfor whole night. An example is given
in Problem 2.4 on Page 2.132 for both domestic lighting and street lighting to get better
understanding.
Solar Energy 1 2.123 l

Solar PV module

Luminary
Bend pipe

Solar charge
controller

Battery stand

Figure 2.61 Solar Street lighting system

2.19.3.1. Solved Problem on Solar PV Lighting system

Problem 2.13

A solar PV LED lamp operates with a voltage of 3.5 V DC and draws a current of
0.16A. The lamp is required to operatefor 6 hours every night. Assuming the configuration,
calculate the wattage and area ofPV module required which would collect enough energy
through the day and operate satisfactorily at night through the year. Also calculate the
capacity ofthe battery voltage 2.5 V and depth ofdischarge 85%.
Given:
1. The daily global radiation variesfrom a minimum oJ 5 kWhlni2 in the winter to a
maximum of8 kWh/nin summer
2. The PV module efficiency is 18% while the battery charging efficiency is 94% and
the battery discharging efficiency is 88%.
3. The LED driver efficiency is 90%.

Given data:
For PV module,
[ 2.124 ] Renewable Energy System

2
Global radiation. = 5-8 kWhlm
.

Module efficiency, n= 18%

For battery,
Voltage, V= 2.5 V
Depth of discharge = 85%
Battery charging efficiency = 94%
Battery discharging efficiency= 88%.
For lamp,
Voltage, V= 3.5 V
Current, I= 0.16 A
Time, t = 6 hours
LED driver efficiency = 90%
@ Solution:

LI'
pV module Lamp

t--+--+--+--+-- -+--t,--~j Batte~

Figure 2.62

Power ofthe lamp, P = VxI= 3.5 x 0.16 = 0.56 W

Energy consumed by the lamp, Pou,= P x t = 0.56 x 6 = 3.36 W/day

Efficiency ofthe lamp, n= PL

P
0.9 = 3.36
P,
Power input to the lamp, Pn = 3.73 W/day
We know that power input to the lamp = Power output from the battery

Overall efficiency ofthe battery, n»= llchar. x lldischar. = 0.94 x 0.88 = 0.827
:. Power input to the battery, P;nb = Power output from the battery/n
= 3.73 x 0.827 = 3.085 W/day
Also, power output of the solar PV module= Power input to the battery
Since global radiation available for 6 hours,
Solar Energy [_21zs]
PV module wattage= Power output of the solar PV module/time
= 3.085/6 = 0.514 W Ans.
It is assumed that the standard value of global radiation, S.I = 1000 W/m2 and
loss power factor= 0.9.
Power input to the solar PV module = Global radiation x Area x Time x Module
efficiency x Loss power factor

:. Power input to the solar PV module/day = S.I x Ax tx nu 0.9

3.085 = 10004x6x0.18x0.9
:. Area, A= 0.003174 m' = 31.74 cm 2 Ans.

2.19.4. Solar PVWater Pumping

In many remote and rural areas, hand pumps or diesel driven pumps are used for water
supply. Diesel pumps consume fossil fuel and they affect the environment. So, they need more
maintenance but they are less reliable. PV powered water pumps have received a considerable
attention because of major developments in the field of solar-cell materials· and power
electronic systems technology.

Maximum power
point tracker

DC-DC converter [
brushless motor
controller

Figure 2.63 Solar PV waterpumping system

Pumping of water for the purpose of drinking during sunshine hours is a successful
application of stand-alone PV system without storage. Solar PY water pumping system is
successfully used in many parts ofthe world in the range of5 kW to 10 kW. This water pumping
delivers a minimum of 15,000 liters/day for 200 W panel and 70,000 liters/day for 2250 W
panel from a suction of 7 m and a total head· of 10 m on a clear sunny day. Figure 2.63 shows
the layout of a solar PY water pumping system using brushless DC motor to drive positive
displacement pump.
 [a.1z6] Renewable Energy System

Two types of pumps are commonly used for water-pumping applications such as positive
displacement and centrifugal. Displacement pumps have water output directly proportional to
the speed of the pump but it is almost independent of head. These pumps are used for solar
water pumping from deep wells or bores. Centrifugal pumps are used for low-head applications
especially if they are directly interfaced with the solar panels. The centrifugal pumps have
relatively high efficiency but it decreases at low speeds which can be a problem for a solar
water-pumping system at times of low light levels.
In water pumping, three types of motors have generally been used. They are as follows:
1. Permanent magnet DC motors
2. Brush-less DC motors

1\ 3. Low capacity pumping systems.

¥'
• !, These power-conditioning units are also used for operating PV panels close to their
1 maximum efficiency for fluctuating solar conditions. The speed of the pump is governed by
the available driving voltage. Ifcurrent becomes lower than the acceptable limit, then pumping
will stop. When the light level increases, the operating point will shift from the maximum-
power: point leading to a reduction in efficiency.
A Maximum-Power Point Tracker (MPPT) can be used for controlling the voltage-current
output from PV inverters to operate PV close to the maximum operating point for smooth
operation of motor pump units. DC-DC converter can be used to keep PV panel output voltage
constant and to help in operating the solar arrays close to the maximum-power point.
In the beginning, a high starting current is required to produce a high starting torque. PV
panels cannot supply this high starting current without adequate power conditioning equipment
such as a DC-DC converter or by using a starting capacitor. DC-DC converter can generate the
high starting current by regulating the excess PV array voltage. DC-DC converter can be a
boost or buck converter. PV inverters are used to convert DC output of the solar arrays to an
AC quantity so as to run the ac motor-driven pumps.

2.19.4.1. Solved Problem on Solar PV Water: Pumping System

Problem 2.14

A PVsystem supplying drinking water is installed in a vijay-sundari agriland ofnational

drinking water mission. The water is pumped from bore wellfrom the depth of 40m.
The array consists of 15 modules, each having an area of 5000 cn and an overall standard
conversion efficiency of 14.5% for solar insolation. The conversion efficiency is based on
Solar Energy [21zr]
the module area. It is given that inverter efficiency is 95% andpump-motor set up efficiency
is 48%. Calculate water discharge rate when the total radiation incident normally on the
modules is 950 Wme.

Given data:
Depth of bore well, H= 40 m
Number of arrays =15 •
2
Each array area= 5000 cm = 0.5 en?
Conversion efficienc y, n = 14.5%
Inverter efficiency, l']inver = 95%
Pump-motor set up efficiency, 1'1:rm = 48%
Solar radiation, S.J = 950 W!m2

@ Solution:
It is assumed that the module efficiency = 85% = 0.85

Power input to the solar PV array = Global radiation x Efficiency of the global

radiation x Area of each module x Number of modules x Module efficiency

Power input to the solar PV array = S.Ix nsr 4xN nu

, .
= 950x0.1450.5x15x0.85 = 878.16 W
Combined efficiency of inverter and pump-motor set up,

n= l']i. X l']pm. = 0.95 X 0.48 = 0.456

We know that efficiency of the inverter and pump-motor set up,

Paa
P,
Pc
0.456 = 878.16

Power output or power available to discharge water, Pout== 400.44 W

From fluid machineries, it is known that

Power available to operate the pump, P = wQH = pgOH

400.44 = 1000x9.819x40

:. Discharge rate, Q = 0.00102 m'ls = 1.02 litresls Ans.

 [ 2.128 ] Renewable Energy System

2.19.5. Solar PV Medical Refrigeration System

In medical refrigeration systems, many life-saving vaccines require refrigeration during

storage and transportation in order to remain effectiveness. WHO has specified technical details
for PY based refrigerators using solar energy for such applications. The volume of refrigerator
chamber varies from 20-100 liters with freezer volume ranging from I 0-35 liters. PY module
size ranges from I 00 W to over 600 W.
. .
•

2.19.6. Solar PV Telecommunication and Signaling System

Solar PY power is best suited for telecommunication applications such as TV

broadcasting, radio microwave and local telephone exchange. In hill stations, either Low Power
Transmitters (LPT) or Very Low Power Transmitters (VLPT) are installed to receive and they
1! retransmit the signal for local population. Each VLPT is designed to operate completely
'" unattended. It consists of a 10 W transmitter with daily mean energy consumption of less than

I,1
I
4 kWh.

'I 2.19.7. Solar PV Standalone Devices

PY has been used for many years to scientific calculators and novelty devices.
Improvements in integrated circuits and low power LCD displays make it possible to power a
calculator for several years between battery changes, making solar calculators less common. In
contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently due to
increasing cost of labour for connection of main electricity or a regular maintenance
programme. In particular, it is used in parking meters, emergency telephones and temporary
traffic signs, etc.

2.19.8. Solar Space Heating

Solar space heating systems capture the sun's energy to supplement the existing heating
system for a home or commercial building. The heating system intensifies the sun's power to
heat water or air that is then used to heat the building. Solar heating systems may be either
active or passive systems. Active solar water heating systems use pumps to circulate the liquid
warmed by collectors. Passive systems do not use pumps but instead, use gravity and water
pressure to circulate the liquid instead.

Active systems may be further divided into two types.

a) Direct circulation (open loop):

In this system, water is circulated directly through the solar collectors. This system cannot
be used in areas where the temperature drops below freezing.
Solar Energy [ 2.129 ]

b) Indirect circulation (closed loop):

In this system, a non-freezing liquid is circulated through the collectors and it heats the.
water in a tank afterwards through a heat exchanger. A basic solar space heating system is
shown in Figure 2.64. The solar collectors absorb sunlight to heat up the water passing through
it. The heated water then transferred back to the water storage tank. The temperature in the tank
can reach anywhere from 55°C to 80°C. An air heat exchange is provided to transfer the heat
energy from water to air which is then passedthrough the building to ward up. Pumps are
provided for forced circulation between collector and tank, and between tank and heat
exchanger.

Hot water
Pump

Water tank To building

storage unit
Heat
array

Pump
exchanger

-
F rom
building

Figure 2.64 Solar space heating system

2.19.9. Solar Space Cooling

Solar cooling is a technology which converts the heat collected from the sun into useful
cooling for delivery toapplications such as building air conditioning. In this process, solar heat
is collected and it is used by a thermally-driven cooling process which generates chilled water
or conditioned air for use in the building. Chilled water is not widely used for cooling in
residential applications but it is used extensively in commercial buildings.

For solar space cooling, either vapour absorption refrigeration cycle or vapour compression
refrigeration cycle may be used. In vapour absorption system, a liquid or solid absorbent is
used to release heat during cooling. Commonly used absorbent are Lithium bromide-water and
Ammonia-water. . These absorbents. absorb heat during evaporation and hence, it produces a
cooling effect. In vapour compression refrigeration system, a heat pump is used to drive a
compressor of the refrigerator. Vapour coolant such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) or
 [ 2.130 ) Renewable Energy System
.
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) is compressed initially and this compressed vapour is then
condensed to a liquid by passing it through a throttle valve or expansion valve where it is
evaporated at low pressure. This process produces the cooling effect. Vapour absorption system
is more efficient than the vapour compression system and it requires less solar heat to achieve
a given amount of cooling.

High pressure refrigerant vapour

,
Hot water Generator Heat
(Heat rejected
Condenser
exchanger)

High pressure liquid

11 refrigerant
¥+ Weak solution
Pump

f Solar collectors
Expansion
valve

\I Throttling valve
Low pressure

I
vapour-
Absorber Pump
Strong solution
Pump

Heat rejected Cold air out

Figure 2.65 Vapour absorption solar cooling system

Figure 2.65 shows a layout of vapour absorption solar cooling system. This system consists
of a generator, condenser, evaporator and absorber. An absorber containing low temperature
solution absorbs the low-pressure refrigerant vapour coming from the evaporator where it
releases the latent heat of condensation. Due to this, the solution is heated up and becomes
strong solution while the absorber is cooled by the circulating water, absorbing the heat of
solution and maintaining a constant temperature. The strong solution is pumped to the generator
where the heat is transferred to the solar collector and it becomes weak solution. This weak
solution is returns to the absorber through throttling valve. The high-pressure refrigerant vapour
from the generator is condensed in the condenser to a high pressure liquid refrigerant. This
liquid refrigerant is passed through the expansion or throttling valve where it evaporates. This
.•
low temperature vapour is passed to the space to be cooled where it absorbs the heat of
evaporation from the warm air in the space.
Solar Energy [_2131]

Advantages ofvapour absorption solar cooling system:

(i) It is compact and less bulky. Hence, less space is required for installation.
(ii) It has no moving part except the motor driven pump and hence, it produces less wear.
(iii) It is quiet in operation and it has Jess moving parts.
(iv) Less maintenance is required.

2.20. RECENT ADVANCES IN SOLAR PV CELL APPLICATIONS

Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic (PY) materials· and systems leads to a

considerable efficiency, cost, and durability improvements. The selection of PY systems
become a more valuable choice for' a wide range of applications such as power production,
water pumping and space exploration.

The use of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is one of the most
significant recent developments in PV technology. C-Si solar cells can convert more than 20%
of the sun's energy into electricity.

The use of thin-film solar cells is another significant recent advancement in PY

technology. Thin-film solar cells are constructed from substantially thinner materials than c-Si
solar cells. So, they are lighter and less expensive to produce. Thin-film solar cells are also
more flexible than c-Si solar cells by allowing to use in a broader range of applications. In
addition to above advancements in PY materials, substantial advancements in PY systems have
also occurred.

PY ·is currently used to power homes and businesses, solar trackers, inverters and batteries
as well as to pump water and power satellites and other spacecraft. So, the development ofnew
manufacturing processes to reduce the cost of PV systems. As the cost of PY continues to fall,
solar PV is expected to become the major form of renewable energy in future.

2.20.1. Building Integrated PV Systems

A Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) system consists of integrating photovoltaics

modules into the building envelope, such as the roof or the facade. By simultaneously serving
as building envelope material and power generator, BIPV systems can provide savings in
materials and electricity costs, reduce use offos_sil fuels and emission ofozone depleting gases,
and add architectural interest to the building. While the majority ofBIPV systems are interfaced
with the available utility grid, BIPV may also be used in stand-alone, off-grid systems.
 [2.132 I Renewable Energy System

Figure 2.66 shows a basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid. It consists
ofthe following elements.

1. Solar array:
It is a large or small element which converts the solar insolation into useful DC electrical
power.

2. Charge controller:

A charge controller regulates the power into and out ofthe battery storage bank (in stand-
alone systems).

3. Battery storage:
It is used to store the electricity produced by solar array. A power storage system generally
! comprised of the utility grid in utility-interactive systems.
¥'

l4 Backup power supply

(Diesel generator)

I Charge controller Power conversion

device (Inverter) t-- -t- +-- ---< ~
o
(.) (I]
0 0
..J -

Power storage system

a (Batteries)

~-----------------------~
Figure 2.66 Basic photovoltaic system integrated with power grid

4. Power conversion equipment or inverter/converter:

Power conversion equipment includes an inverter to convert the PV module's DC output
to AC compatible with the utility grid. It converts the battery bus-voltage to AC frequency and
phase to match to integrate with the utility grid. It contains a suitable output step up transformer
and power correction circuits.

4. Backuppower supply diesel generator:

Backup power supplies such as diesel generators (optional-typically employed in stand-
alone systems)
Solar Energy [ 2.133 )

5. Switches and circuit breakers

It permits isolating parts of the system as the battery. Solar PV systems are broadly
classified into three categories.

l. Standalone power system

2. Central power system or grid connected system
3. Hybrid system.

2.20.2. Standalone Power System

It is located at the load center. It is more relevant and successful system in remote and
rural areas which have no access to grid supply. The indicative capacity of system is 10 W -
l 00 • The main components of a general stand-alone solar PY system are shown in Figure
2.67. This system has battery, inverter and charge regulator.

Charge regulator unit

AC load
+
Solar PV
panel

Battery
Inverter

Figure 2.67 Standalone PVpower system

A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires storage to meet' the energy demand
during period of low solar irradiation and night time. Several types of batteries are available
such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium, zinc bromide, zinc chloride, sodium-sulfur and
vanadium batteries. The provision ofcost-effective electrical energy storage remains one ofthe
major challenges for the development of improved PY power systems. Typically, lead-acid
batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days ofenergy storage. Their reasonable
cost and general availability have led the widespread application of lead-acid batteries for
remote area power suppliesdespite their limited lifetime compared to other system
components. An inverter is used to convert the DC power produced by the modules into
alternating current that can plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights, motors and
other loads.
 [ 2.134] Renewable Energy System
I
Charge controllers are used to regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from
being excessively charged and discharged. Blocking diodes in series with PV modules are used
to prevent the batteries from being discharged through PV cells at night when there is no sun
available to generate energy. These blocking diodes also protect the battery from short circuits.
In a solar power system consisting of more than one string connected in parallel, if short-circuit
occurs in one of the strings, the blocking diode prevents the other PV strings from discharging
. .
through the short-circuited string. The battery storage in a PV system should be properly
controlled to avoid catastrophic operating conditions such as overcharging or frequent deep
discharging.

The output of the array after converting to AC is fed to loads and the excess of load
i
requirement is used to charge the battery. When the sun is not available, the battery supplies
11.
,, the load through the inverter.

i
4'
2.20.3. Grid Connected PV Systems

Components ofa grid connected PVsystem:

I
The key components of a grid-connected solar PV system are essential for grid connected
PV system.

1. Solarpanels:
Solar panels are the main parts of the system. They capture sunlight and convert it into
electricity. The selection of panels are based on the factors such as efficiency, durability and
manufacturer warranties.
•
2. Inverter:

The inverter is used to convert DC electricity from the solar panels into AC electricity
usable by homes and grids. Modem inverters come with advanced features such as monitoring
and optimization.

3. Mounting structures:
Mounting structures ensure secured installation of solar panels on the roof or the ground.
Proper installation is necessary to maximize the energy production.

4. Monitoring system:
Many solar PV systems include a monitoring system which allows homeowners to track
their energy productionand system performance in real-time.
Solar Energy [_a1as}
5. Grid connection:
Grid connection involves the installation of a bidirectional meter aad the necessary
electrical connections to ensure the system can interact without any flaws with the grid.

Workingprinciple:
The process begins when sunlight strikes the solar panels installed on the roof or ground-
mounted structures. These panels are equipped with photovoltaic cells which consist
semiconductors made of silicon. When sunlight strikes these cells, it will excite the electrons
producing a flow of direct current (DC) electricity. The electricity generated by the solar panels
is in the form of DC. An inverter is used to convert DC electricity into alternating current (AC)
which is the standard form of electricity required in homes and on the grid. After converting
.
into AC, it is used to power your home's electrical needs. When the solar panels generate more
electricity than home consumption, the excess power will flow back into the grid.

Power conversion
device (Inverter)
Local load
AC power
DC power
I
I
Power storage system
(Batteries)

............-.-...

Figure 2.68 Grid connected PVpower system

Grid-connected systems often feature a net meter. It tracks the electricity of so_lar system
exporting to the grid when it produces more than home consumption. The surplus electricity is
sent back to the grid to receive credits for it on the utility bill.

Grid-connected systems are unique because they remain connected to the utility grid when
the solar system is not generating electricity during nighttime, the power can be drawn from
the grid seamlessly.
 [ 2.136 ] Renewable Energy System

Factors to be considered while installi

ng a grid connected PV System:
(i) If the roof is high enough and if windy weather is common in the area, then it should
be consulted with installation company before installing it.

(ii) Solar PY systems possess more weight than solar panels. Therefore, it should be
ensured with roof load to install for the next 25 years.

(iii) Some electrical components will need more time to fix. It is a time-consuming process.

Advantages ofgrid-connected solar PVsystems:

1. It reduces electricity bills.
2. It provides Environmental benefits.
3. It ensures a good grid support.
1,
¥
it 4. It ensured financial incentives.

I! I

41j 2.20.4. Battery for Solar Applications

!

1. Lead acid GEL battery:

Lead-acid GEL battery has standard lead-acid accumulators. It provides a voltage of 12 V

or 24 V. The open lead battery is economical to buy; however, there are some details not to
neglect.

2. AGM battery:

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) battery has water and acid solution found in the open lead
battery, 'fhe structure ofthe AGM battery electrolyte is based on fiber sheet. It does not require
maintenance. First, its energy output relative to its weight is good. It can produce an electric
charge corresponding to 250 Ah.

3. Lithium-Ion battery:

They are reserved for portable photovoltaic systems where their large discharge capacity
is most interest. A lithium battery contains series-welded cells and an electronic card present
to manage the charging and discharging there itself.

2.21. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is solar constant and what is its value? [Anna Univ. Nov'19 & Nov'20]
Solar constant is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area
perpendicular to the sun's direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The
Solar Energy [21s7]

solar constant is expressed in three common units as per the World Radiation Centre. They
are:
1, 1.367 kW/m2 or 1367 WIm,
2. 1 I 65 kcal/m'/per hour,
3. 432 Btu per sq.ft per hour.

This value has been accepted and adopted universally as a standard value of solar
constant.

2. hat is beam, diffuse andglobal radiation? {Anna Univ. Nov'21]

() Beam radiation:
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sum is called direct radiation or Beam radiation.

(ii) Diffuse radiation: [Anna Univ. May'

22]
It is the solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by
reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.

(iii) Global or total radiation:

Global radiation is also called as total radiation. It is the total short-wave radiation
from the sky falling onto a horizontal surface on the ground. It includes both the direct
solar radiation and the diffuse radiation resulting from reflected or scattered sunlight in
flat plate type collectors.

3. Dife
f rentiate between beam and diffuse radiation. [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

S.No. Beam radiation Diffuse radiation

.

l. It describes solar radiation The sunlight has been scattered by

travelling on a straight line from the molecules and particles in the
sun down to the surface ofthe earth atmosphere.

2. Beam radiation has a definite Diffuse radiation follows an uncertain

direction. path which is much more scattered.

3. Shadows are only produced when Shadows are not produced when
beam radiation is blocked. diffuse radiation occurs.
 [a.1as ] Renewable Energy System

4. What is solar time? [Anna Univ. Apr'23J

The time used for calculating the hour angle is the local solar time (or) local apparent time.
The solar time can be obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two
corrections. The first correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in
longitude. The second correction called equation oftime correction.

Local Solar Time (LST)

..]y (4.5;} longitude _ location correction

The positive sign is used for western hemisphere and the negative sign is applicable for
the eastern hemisphere.
5. Define hour angle.
Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a
point directly in the line with the sun rays. It is equivalent to 15° per hour.

6. What is Zenith angle?

Zenith angle is a vertical angle between the sun rays and a line perpendicular to the
horizontal plane through the point.

• I It is denoted as 0- and 0, = -a

where a = solar altitude.

7. What is pyrheliometer and pyranometer?
Pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures the beam radiation.
Pyranometer is an instrument which measures the total or global radiation over a
hemispherical field of view.

8. What is the use ofsunshine recorder?

The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder.

9. Define local apparent time.

The time used for calculating the hour angle co is the local apparent time. It can be
obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two corrections.

10. What is angle ofincidence?

Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident beam (h) and normal (N) to
surface (S). It is shown in Figure 2.69.
Solar Energy

Ib, cos 0

Figure 2.69
11. What is angle of latitude?
Angle of latitude is the angle between equatorial plane of earth and line joining· the
point on the earth's surface and earth's centre.

12. Explain angle of declination.

Angle of declination is the angle between the line joining centre of the sun and earth
and the equatorial plane.

Equator/
plane
Declination angle o
Figure2.70

13. What is total radiation?

Total radiation is the beam and diffuse component of solar radiation which are
absorbed in flat plate type collectors.

U. Mention the instruments used for solar radiation and type of solar radiation measured
using each instrument. [Anna Univ. Nov'20)

1. Pyrheliometer:
It is an instrument used for the measurement of 'direct solar radiation flux' at normal
incidence. This instrument is usually attached to an electrically driven equatorial mount
whichtracks the sun.
[214o] Renewable Energy System

2. Pyranometer:
A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring 'solar irradiance on a
planar surface' and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (Wlm2 ) from
the hemisphere above within a wavelength range 0.3 µm to 3 µm. an instrument which
measures the total or global radiation over a hemispherical field of view.

15. Name the instruments used to measure Solar radiation and Sunshine hours.
[Anna univ. Apr'23]
A pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface.
The duration of bright sunshine in a day i.e. sunshine hours is measured by means of a
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.

16. Give the classification of methodsfor solar energy utilization. [Anna univ. Nov'2I]

(i) Direct source of energy

(ii) Indirect sources of energy
(iii) Supplementary sources of energy.

17. What is solar collector? What are the dife

f rent types of collectors used?
[Anna Univ. Nov'19J
Solar collector is a device used for collecting the solar radiation and it transfers energy
to fluid passing in contact with it. The collectors receive heat from solar rays and give it to
the heat-transport fluid. Solar collector surface is designed for high absorption and low
emission. So, the utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These collectors are
classified into two types. They are as follows:

(i) Non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.

18. Listfew applications of low temperature water heaters in domestic and industrial use.
[Anna Univ. Nov'21J
Domestic uses:
(i) Swimming pools
(ii) Laundries
(iii) Hotels and
(iv) Restaurants.
Solar Energy 1 2.141J

Industrial uses:
(i) Food and beverages industries
(ii) Processing industries, and
(iii) Textile industries.

19. State any two advantages and disadvantages ofsolar air Iteaters.
Advantages ofsolar air heaters:
1. It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance.
2. The need to transfer thermal energy from the· working fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is used directly as the working fluid.

Disadvantages ofsolar air heaters:

1. A large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the
electrical power required to blow the air through the system can be significant if
the pressure drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
2. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.

20. Write down the applications ofsolar air heaters.

1. Heating greenhouse buildings
2. Drying agricultural products
3. Heat source for a heat engine
4. Air-conditioning buildings.

21. Write down the advantages offlat-plate collectors.

1. It has the advantages ofusing both beam and diffuse solar radiations.
2. It does not require orientation towards the sun.
3. It requires a little maintenance.
4. These collectors are simpler than concentrating reflectors.

22. Mention the disadvantages offlat-plate collectors.

l. The temperature attained by the working fluid is low.

2. The construction is heavy in weight.
3. Conduction heat loss is more as the area is large.
4. Initial installation cost ofthe collector is more.
 [ 2.142 ] Renewable Energy System

23. Specify the applications offlat plate solar collectors. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
1. It is used in solar water heating systems.
2. It is used in solar space heating and cooling systems.
3. It is used in low temperature power generation.
4. It is used in solar heating dryers.

24. What is heliostat?

Heliostat' is a large and flat reflecting mirror with a provision to track the sun in two
planes. The solar rays are reflected by each individual heliostat onto the central receiver
mounted on a tall tower. A central receiver is mounted on a tall tower.
.
25. Define concentration ratio ofsolar collector. [Anna Univ. Nov'20 & Apr'23]
M
N,
.'·!'i'~' Concentration ratio (CR) is the ratio of solar power per unit area of the concentrator
surface (kW/m2 ) to solar power per unit area on the line focus or point focus (kIm). For
I+ I
flat plate collectors, CR = 1. Using heliostats with sun-tracking in two planes, CR of the
:' order of l 000 can be obtained.
#'
·I

I
26. D efine the terms: Aperture (W), area concentration ratio (C), intercept factor (y); and
ii
.,,II
the acceptance angle (20a) in concentrating collectors. [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Aperture (W):
ii,I Aperture is the plane opening ofthe concentrator through which the solar radiation will
1'
I
pass. For a cylindrical or linear concentrator, it is described by width and diameter of the
opening.

Area concentration ratio (C or CR):

Concentration ratio is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the system to the
area of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of the collector facing
(normal) the beam.
CR= kW/m2 in solar radiation on surface
kWlm2 on surface of focus of collector

Interceptfactor ():
Interceptfactor () is the fraction of the radiation refracted from the concentrator and
is incident on the absorber. It is usually close to unity.

Acceptance angle (20a):

Acceptance angle is the angle over which beam radiation deviates from the normal to
the aperture plane and upto reach the absorber. Collectors with large acceptance angles
Solar Energy [214a_]

requir e only occasional adjustments but collectors with small acceptance angles need to be
adjusted continuously.

27. Define collectorefficiency. [Anna Univ. Nov'22]

Collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of useful heat gained by the collector per
2
unit of aperture area (Im') to the total irradiation of the collector (W/m ).

28. What are the different types ofconcentrating collectors?

1 . Line focusing and
2. Point focusing type.

29. What are the ma in types ofconcentrating collectors?

1. Parabolic though collector
2. Mirror strip reflector
3. Fresnel lens collector
4. Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors.

30. State the usage ofvarious types ofconcentrating collectors. [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

The usage of various types of concentrating collectors as follows.

(a) Parabolic trough collector

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants and for home
or small business solar water heating applications.
(b) Paraboloidal dish collector
This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.

(c) Minor strip reflector

This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants operating in
'medium scale industries.
(d) Fresnel lens collector
This type of collector is useful for generating process heat for industrial
applications.
(e) Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
This type of collector is generally used in home or small business solar
water heating applications.
 [2144] Renewable Energy System

(I) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC).

CPCs are used as the primary. concentrator with photovoltaic cells that
require water for space heating.

31. List out the advantages of concentrating collectors overflat plate collectors.
/Anna Univ. Apr'23]
1. The reflecting surface ofthe concentrating collector requires less material and
structurally simpler than flat-plate collectors.
2. The absorber area ofa concentrator system is smaller than a flat-plate system.
3. It can be used for electric power generation.

32. hat are the disadvantages of concentrating collectors?

1. In concentrating collectors, only the beam component is collected because the
diffuse component cannot reflect.
2. Costly orienting systems must be used to track the sun.
3. Additional maintenance is required to retain the quality of reflecting surface
against dirt, weather and oxidation.
33. Name three solar collectors requiring one axis sun-tracking. /Anna Uni. Apr'23]
(i) Flat plate collectors
(ii) Paraboloidal dish collector
(iii) Solar PV systems.

34. Name the types of solar energy storage methods.

(iv) Thermal energy storage
(v) Sorption storage
a. Chemical energy storage.

35. Differentiate between flat-plate and concentrating collectors.

S. No. Concentrating collectors Flat-plate collectors
1. Concentrating collectors can absorb Flat-plate collectors can absorb both
only direct solar radiation. direct and diffuse solar radiation.
2. They need continuous tracking These collectors do not require
mechanisms and more expensive tracking mechanisms and mounting is
(pivoting) mounting structure. simple.
Solar Energy [_214s]
3. They can generate high temperature of They can generate low temperature of
about 750°C. about 140°C.

4. The amount ofheat which can be The amount ofheat which can be
stored per unit volume is more. stored per unit volume is less.

5. They can be used for electric power They can be used only for heating of
generation. domestic water and heating, and
cooling ofbuildings.

6. The absorber area ofa concentrator The absorber area ofa flat-plate
system is small. system is big.

36. Name the components of a solar water heater.

(a) A flat plate collector to absorb solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.

(b) Storage tank to hold water for use and cold water feeding the flat plate collector.

(c) Connecting pipes inlet and outlet for feeding cold water from the storage tank
and taking hot water to the storage tank or point ofuse.
I
37. What do you mean by solar direct thermal applications?
Direct thermal applications involve the direct use of heat, resulting from the
absorption of solar radiation for space heating and cooling of residences and other
buildings, to provide hot-water for such buildings, and to provide heat for agricultural,
_

industrial and other processes that require only moderate temperatures.

38. What is passive solar heating?

Passive solar energy technologies absorb solar energy, store and distribute it in a
natural manner without using mechanical elements and also use natural ventilation.

39. List down the methods of thermal energy storage.

(i) Sensible heat storage
(ii) Latent heat storage
(iii) Stratified storage.

40. Briefly explain the princi

ple of sensible heat storage.
In Sensible Heat Storage (SHS), thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature
ofa solid or liquid by using its heat capacity. SHS system utilizes the heat capacity and the
change in temperature ofthe material during the process ofcharging and discharging. The
 [ 2.146 ) Renewable Energy System

amount of heat stored depends on the specific heat of the medium, temperature change and
amount of storage material.

41. What is the basic principle oflatent heat storage?

Latent heat storage uses the latent heat of the material to store thermal energy. Latent
heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released during the change of the material from one
phase to another phase.

42. Classify Phase Change Materials (PCM).

(i) Organic PCM (paraffin, fatty acids)
.
(ii) Inorganic PCM (hydrates, molten salts, metal) and
(iii) Eutectic PCM (organic-organic; organic-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic
compounds).

43. What are the advantages oflatent heat or PCM storage?

(i) It includes large density of heat storage and constant temperature.

(ii) The process is completely reversible and it can be repeatedly utilized without
degradation.

44. What is meant by solar pond? /Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Solar energy will
warm a body of water but the water loses its heat unless some method is used to trap it.
Water warmed by the sun expands and rises as it becomes less dense. Once it reaches the
surface, the water loses its heat to the air through convection or evaporation process. The
cold water is heavier which moves down to replace the warm water thereby creating a
natural convective circulation.

45. Sketch the solar pond and name different zones.

Upper convective zone (Fresh water)

\-_-Non convective zone (Gradient zone)

------------------- ---
--
.'..Lower convective zone (Salt saturated)'.".'

Figure 2.71 Convective zones in solar pond

Solar Energy [ 2.147 )

46. How does a solarpond work? {Anna Univ. Nov'2I]

Solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy: Solar energy will
warm a body of water but the water loses its heat unless some method is used to trap it.
Water warmed by the sun expands and rises as it becomes less dense. Once it reaches the
surface, the water loses its heat to the air through convection or evaporation process. The·
cold water is heavier which moves down to replace the warm water thereby creating a
natural convective circulation. It mixes the water and dissipates heat. So, the major
attention is given in designing the solar ponds to reduce either convection or evaporation
for storing the heat collected by the pond. So, it can be operated under any climate.

47. Give the types ofsolar pond. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

(a) Convective solar ponds
(b) Non-convective solar ponds.

48. Define energy ef

ficiency. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Energy efficiency is defined as minimum ene rgy to perform the task in which waste
energy is eliminated. Energy efficiency provides the benefits of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, reducing demand for energy imports, and lowering our costs on a household
and economy-wide level.
t

49. What are the applications ofsolarpond?

1. Power generation
2. Space heating and cooling
3. Crop drying
4. Desalination
5. Process heat.

50. State any four advantages and disadvantages ofsolarpond.

Advantages ofsolar ponds:
(i) It provides low investment costs per installed collection area.
(ii) Thermal storage is incorporated into the collector and it is of very low cost.
(iii) Diffuse radiation (cloudy days) is fully used.
(iv) Very large surfaces can be built. Thus, large scale energy generation is possible.
' .
Disadvantages ofsolar ponds:
() Although solar ponds are simple to construct, they are costly in terms of energy
efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency of asolar pond is 17% when it is
operated between 80°C and 20°C.
[214s ] Renewable Energy System

(ii) It needs large land area to function properly.

(iii) The accumulated salt crystals have to be removed periodically and it adds
maintenance expense.
(iv) It can be only operated only operate in sunny days and if the site is shaded by tall
trees or building, it may not work properly.

51. Give some applications of solar energy storage systems. {Anna Univ. Apr'23]
1. Industrial process heating
2. Power generation
3. Pumping of water
4. Water desalination
4. Food drying
5. Refrigeration and air conditioning.

52. Define photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result of
the absorption of ionizing radiation.
When the solar cell (p-n junction) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and
it is acted upon by the internal electric fields, thereby resulting in a photocurrent (IL). The
generated photocurrent flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in
the absence of an external applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is
measured as the short-circuit current (Jsc). This phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect.

53. What is Solar cell? What are the uses of solar cells?
{Anna Univ. (EEE) May'12, Dec'12 &Nov'19]
·Solar cell is a device which directly converts the energy of light into electrical energy
through the process of photovoltaic effect.

Solar cells have been developed and deployed for rural applications such as drinking
water supply, street lighting, irrigation water pumping and for operation of electronic
equipment. Solar cells have also been used to operate navigational signals, high way
emergency call system, rail road crossing warnings, automatic meteorological stations, etc.
in location where the access to utility power lines is difficult.

54. The maximum efficiency ofthe solar cells is very low- Justify this statement.
[Anna Univ. Apr'23]
The problem with solar cell efficiency lies in the physical conversion of sunlight.
Some photons that hit a solar cell are reflected away from the cell's surface. Out of those
 photons that are absorbed, some have their energy turned into heat in a process ofinternal
recombination instead of producing electric current. It is one of the fundamental factors
that limits efficiency.
55. Differentiate between solar cell and solar array or module.

, A single converter cell is called a solar cell or more generally a photovoltaic cell and
combination of such cells are designed to" increase the electric power output called solar
module or solar array.

56. What is the principle of solar photovoltaic energy conversion?

[Anna Univ. Nov'21, May'22 & Apr'23J

Photovoltaic power generation is based on the principle of photovoltaic effect in

which solar cells to convert solar energy directly into useful electrical energy. Solar
photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation ofan electromotive force as a result ofthe
absorption of ionizing radiation. So, solar photovoltaic (PY) systems convert solar energy
directly into electrical energy.

57. Briefly explain the working of solar PV cell. /Anna Univ. Nov'21]
d Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made ofsemiconductors which generate electricity when
they absorb light. Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by radiation that separate
positive and negative charge carriers in absorbing semiconductor material. In the presence
ofan electric field, these charges can produce a current for use in an external circuit. Such
fields exist permanently at junctions in materials as "built-in" electric fields and provide
the required EMF for useful power production.

58. Draw the equivalent circuit of a solar cell. /Anna Univ. Nov'22]
R,
I

lo +

Figure 2.72 Equivalent circuit ofa solar cell

59. What are the different types ofPNjunction?

1. Cadmium-sulphide
 [ 2.150 j Renewable Energy System

2. Gallium-arsenide
3. Zinc-sulphide
4. Gallium-antimonide.

60. What are the three different types of 'Homojunction' PV cells?

1. Amorphous silicon
2. Poly crystalline silicon
3. Single crystal silicon.

61. List the types of solar cells.

Solar cells are classified as follows.
1. On the basis ofthickness ofactive material
(a) Bulk material cell
(b) Thin film cell

'f" 2. On the basis ofjunction structure

•
1 (a) p-n homojunction cell

1 '£
•'
(b) Hetero-junction cell

I JI (c) p-n multi junction cell

& (d) metal-semiconductor Schottky junction
a
(e) p-i-n semiconductorjunction

3. On the basis oftype ofactive material

(a) Single crystal silicon cell
(b) Multicrystalline silicon cell
(c) Amorphous silicon
(d) Gallium arsenide cell
(e) Copper indium diselenide cell
(f) Cadmium telluride cell and
(g) Organic PV cell.

62. Write short note on PV module, panel and array.

A photovoltaic module is made of multiple interconnected solar cells. A solar PV
panel is a collection ofmodules physically and electrically grouped together on a support
structure. These modules are connected in series/parallel to increase the voltage/current
Solar Energy [a1@)
ratings. When modules are connected in series, it is desirable to have each module's
maximum power production occurring with the same current.
A PV array is a collection of panels. The modules in a PV array are usually first
connected in series to obtain the desired voltage. The individual strings are then connected
in parallel to allow the system to produce more current.

63. Under what circumstance the solar cells are connected in parallel andseries?
Cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and they are
connected in series to achieve the desired voltage.

64. List thefactors determining the output ofsolar cells.

The following four factors determine output of any solar electric panel.

(a) Efficiency of the photovoltaic cells

(b) Load resistance
(c) Solar irradiance and
(d) Cell temperature.

65. What is the efficiency ofa solar cell?

Effi f Electrical power output
c1ency o1 a soar ce1 <- Power intercepted

66. Why the efficiency ofsolar thermal power generation is lesser than other systems?
[Anna Univ. Nov'20]

The solar thermal power generation systems need to generate steam of such high
temperature for the conversion of heat energy to electricity being more efficient. Also,.
these plants get around the issue of unable to efficiently store electricity by being able to
store heat instead. So, the main components affect the efficiency of thermal power plants
which include boiler, turbine and generator. The major energy loss in a thermal power
plant includes boiler heat loss, pipe heat loss, cold source loss, mechanical Joss, and-¢

generator loss, etc.

67. What are the components ofphotovoltaic system?

1. Solar cell array

2. Load leveler
3. Stora ge system
4. Tracking system.
[2Ti ] Renewable Energy System

68. What are the applications ofsolarphotovoltaic system?

1. Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply.
2. Weather monitoring.
3. Railway signaling equipment.

69. State the advantages ofphotovoltaic solar energy conversion.

t. ·

1. It does not need moving parts.

2. It is highly reliable.
3. It is a long effective life.
4. It does not create pollution.

70. What are the disadvantages ofphotovoltaic solar energy conversion?

1. It is costly.
2. It requires energy storage.
3. It needs no insolation at night.

71. List the different modes ofsolar cooling. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
1. Vapour compression cooling
2. Sorption-based cooling (including absorption and adsorption chilling).
72. When the solar distillation and dryers are used? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]
Solar water distillers or solar stills are usually used in remote areas where there is
limited access to freshwater. It is used for low capacity and self-reliant water supplying
systems. A solar dryer is used immensely in the food and agriculture industry. They are
used for drying of food products such as agricultural crop drying, food processing
industries for dehydration of fruits and vegetables, fish and meat drying, wood or wood
chips.

2.22. SOLVE D QUESTIONS

1. Explain the physics of the sun.

Refer chapter 2.1.1 on Page 2.2.

2. Define solar constant.

Refer chapter 2.1.2 on Page 2.3.

Solar Energy [ 2.153 ]

3. With necessary diagram, explain in detail the propagation of solar radiation in terms of
terrestrial and extraterrestrial radiations. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 2.1.4 on Page 2.4.

4. Define: 1. Altitude angle 2. Incident angle 3. Declination angle 4. Solar azimuth angle.

Refer chapter 2.1.5 on Pages 2.5-2.7.

5. Define clarity index and concentration ratio.

Refer chapter 2.1.8 on Page 2.10.

6. What is solar insolation? List down the various parameter affecting solar insolation.

Refer cha pter 2.1.9 on Page 2.10.

7. How different radiations such as beam, diffuse, reflected and total radiations on tilted
surface are calculated? Explain.

Refer chapter 2.1.10 on Page 2.10.

8. Discuss about the terrestrial and extraterrestrial solar radiation. Derive the equation for solar
radiation falling on a tilted surface. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Refer chapter 2.1.4 on Page 2.4 for terrestrial and extraterrestrial solar radiation
and chapter 2.2.2 on Page 2.14 for equation of solar radiation falling on a tilted
surface.

9. Compare pyrheliometer and pyranometer.

Refer chapter 2.3 on Page 2.30.

10. Explain the working of Pyranometer and Pyrheliometer with the help of neat sketch.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]

Refer chapter 2.3.1 on Page 2.30 for Pyrheliometer and chapter 2.3.2 on Page
2.34 for Pyranometer respectively.

11. What is beam, diffuse and global radiation? Which instruments are used for the
measurement ofthese radiations? Explain the working of Solar Pyranometer for measuring
Global Radiation in detail. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Refer chapter 2.1.3 on Page 2.3 for explanation of beam, diffuse and global
radiation, refer chapter 2.3 on Page 2.30 for instruments used for the
 aw] Renewable Energy System

measurement of these radiations and refer chapter 2.3.2 on Page 2.34 for
working of solar pyranometer.

12. Describe the measurement of diffuse radiation using a suitable type of instrument.

Refer chapter 2.3.3 on Page 2.37.

13. Explain with neat sketches, the measurement of solar sunshine.

Refer chapter 2.3.4 on Page 2.37.

14. What are solar collectors? How are the solar collectors classified?

Refer chapter 2.4 on Page 2.39.

j 15. Describe the characteristics and types of flat plate solar collectors. [Anna Univ. Nov
'20]
11rt Refer chapter 2.5 on Page 2.39 for characteristics and chapter 2.5.1-2.5.4 on
; •t.,,,f
Page 2.41-2.45 for types of flat plate solar collectors.
!'41
I

16. Explain the construction and working of liquid heating flat-plate collectors with a neat
"•
E #►

'+ir'' sketch.
Refer chapter 2.5.1 on Page 2.40.
e
r. 17. With a neat sketch explain the modified flat plate collectors.
JI Refer cha pter 2.5.2 on Page 2.41
ti 18. Explain the solar air heater with neat sketches. Also mention the advantages and
disadvantages of solar air heaters.

Refer chapter 2.5.3 on Page 2.42.

19. Elucidate· the construction and working of an evacuated tubular collector with necessary
sketches.
Refer chapter 2.5.4 on Page 2.43.

20. What are concentrating solar collectors? List its various types.

Refer chapter 2.6 on Page 2.45 for concentrating solar collectors and chapters
2.6.1-2.6.6 on Pages 2.48-2.51 for its types.

21. Describe the construction and working of paraboloidal dish collector with sketches.

Refer chapter 2.6.2 on Page 2.47.

22. With a neat sketch explain the mirror strip collectors.

Refer chapter 2.6.3 on Page 2.48.

Solar Energy [21ss]

23. Explain the construction and working of Fresnel lens collectors with sketches.

Refer chapter 2.6.4 on Page 2.49.

24. How does a flat plate collector with booster mirrors work as a concentrating collector?
Explain with a neat sketch.

Refer chapter 2.6.5 on Page 2.50.

25. For what applications Concentrating collectors are used? Explain the working of
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator with the help of a neat sketch. What are the terms
"Tracking" and "Concentration Ratio" in th is concentrator means? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

Refer chapter 2.6.6 on Page 2.51.

26. What are the advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors?

Refer chapter 2.6.7 on Page 2.51.

27. Discuss about the features ofdifferent types ofconcentrating type solar collectors. Discuss·
about its applications. '20]
[Anna Univ. Nov

Or

28. Explain concentrating type solar collectos and mention their advantages and
disadvantages over flat plate collectors. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapters 2.6.1.1-2.6.6 on Pages 2.46-2.51.

29. Compare and differentiate between flat-plate and concentrating collectors.

Refer chapter2.6.8 on Page 2.52.

30. Explain in detail about solar thermal power generation.

Refer chapter 2.7 on Page 2.53.

31. Briefly explain the low temperature system with flat plate collector in solar power plants.
[Anna Univ. (EEE) June '13]
Refer chapter 2.7.1 on Page 2.53.

32. Explain with a neat sketch working ofa distributed (Parabolic) trough solar power plant.
[Anna Univ. (Mech.) Nov '20 & Dec'12]
Refer chapter 2.7.2 on Page 2.54.

33. Discuss the construction and working principle of central receiver power plants.
[Anna Univ. May '22 & Nov '22]
Refer chapters 2.7.4 and 2.7.5 on Pages 2.56 and 2.59 respectively.
§_s__].____, R_e_n_e_w_a_
b_
le_E
_n_e_rg_y_S
_y_s_te_m
_

34. Explain the analysis of a central receiver system.

[Anna Univ. (Mech.) Apr '08, Nov '08 & Dec'13]
Refer chapter 2.7.6 on Page 2.60.

35. With the help of neat sketch explain the construction and working of central receiver
collector. Where they are used? What are its advantages? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Refer chapters 2.7.4-2.7.7 on Page 2.56-2.62.

36. Develop the thermal resistance netwoek of a flat plate collector and analyse the various
thermal losses that occur in the collector. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 2.8.2 on Page 2.65.

37. Discuss the various performance parameters of solar collectors. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapters 2.8 on Page 2.62 and chapter 2.9 on Page 2.73.
38. In which applications, solar energy stora ge is required and when it is not required? Explain
briefly various methods of Thermal Energy Storage. List the considerations which
determine the selection of method of storage. [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

Refer chapter 2.11 on Page 2.86 for applications Solar Energy Storage and refer
chapter 2.11.1 on Page 2.87 for various methods of Thermal Energy Stora ge.

39. Explain with neat sketch latent heat stora ge or thermal energy storage system with PCM.

Refer chapter 2.12.2 on Page 2.89.

40. Explain sensible heat thermal energy storage system with suitable daigram.
[Anna Univ. Apr'23]

Refer chapter 2.12.1 on Page 2.88.

41. What is sensible arid Latent heat storage? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Which different liquids and solids are used for sensible and Latent thermal storage? What
are their important properties? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Refer chapter 2.12.1 on Page 2.88 for sensible heat storage and chapter 2.12.2
on Page 2.89.

42. Describe the method of stratified heat storage.

Refer chapter 2.12.3 on Page 2.92.

 Solar Energy [ 2.157 ]

43. What are the applications of Solar Pond? With the help of a neat sketch explain the
working and application of Solar Pond? What are the operational problems associated·
with its operation and maintenance? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]

Refer chapter 2.13.2 on Page 2.97 for applications Solar Pond, refer chapter2.13
on Page 2.94 for working of Solar Pond and refer chapter 2.13.3 on Page 2.98
for operational problems (limitations) associated with Solar Pond.

44. With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of solar pond.
[Anna Univ. Nov'21 & Anna Univ. May'22]
Or

With the hep of block diagram, explain the working of solar pond electric power plant.
f [Anna Univ. Apr '23]

Refer chapter 2.13 on Page 2.94.

in
th 45. Explain briefly the solar photovoltaic system.
9] Refer chapter 2.14 on Page 2.99.
fer 46. Describe the various photovoltaic materials.

Refer chapter 2.15.4 on Page 2.101.

47. Explain the construction and configuration of solar cells.

Refer chapters 2.16.1 & 2.16.2 on Pages 2.103 & 2.104 respectively.

48. Illustrate the various types of solar cells.

13)
Refer chapter 2.16.3 on Page 2.104.

49. Explain the working of Flat Plate collector used in Solar Water Heating System using
is?
Thennosyphon method with the help of a neat sketch. How the orientation and angle of
hat
tilt of the flat plate collector is decided? What are the advantages of Flat Plate collector
z/]
system? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]
2.2
Refer chapter 2.19.4 on Page 2.124 for working of Flat Plate collector, refer
chapter 2.5 on Page 2.39 for orientation of the flat plate collector and refer
chapter 2.5.3 on Page 2.44 for advantages of flat plate collector system.

50. Explain how solar module and array or formed. [Anna Univ. May '22]

Refer chapter 2.17.1 on Page 2.106.

[.is@] Renewable Energy System

51. Discuss about the characteristics of solar photovoltaic cells when they are connected in
parallel and series, [Anna Univ. May '22]
Refer chapter 2.17.2 on Page 2.107.

52. How power output of a solar cell is calculated and what are the factors affecting power
output of a solar cell?

Refer chapter 2.17.3 on Page 2.108.

53. Explain the I-V characteristics ofa solar cell with a neat sketch.
Refer chapter 2.17.7 on Page 2.114.

54. Briefly discuss maximum power point tracking ofa solar cell.

Refer chapter 2.17.8 on Page 2.115.

55. Discuss in detail about efficiency ofthe solar cell.

Refer chapter 2.17.9 on Page 2.117.

56. With the help ofblock diagrams, explain the operations ofstand-alone and grid interactive
solar PV systems. [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Refer chapter 2.22.2 on Page 2.133 for operations of stand-alone and chapter
2.22.3 on Page 2.134 for operations ofgrid interactive solar PV systems.

57. Explain the principle ofsolar photovoltaic energy conversion system. Explain the working
of grid connected solar power plant. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Refer chapter 2.17 on Page 2.106 for principle of solar photovoltaic energy
conversion system and chapter 2.20.3 on Page 2.134 working ofgrid connected
solar power plant.
58. Draw the current-voltage and power-voltage characteristics of a solar cell. What is fill-
factor'? Elaborate in detail the battery for solar applications. What is MPPT? What are the
different MPPT algorithms? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

Refer chapter 2.17.7 on Page 2.114, Page 2.117 for fill factor and, chapter 2.17.8
on Page 2.115.

59. Explain the algorithm for maximum power point tracking. Also discuss th necessary
conditions while synchrol'lizing the PV system with grid supply. [Anna Univ. Nov '20]

Or
 Solar Energy [ 2.159 )

Explain the Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm with a flowchart. [Anna Univ. Nov '22]

Or

Explain the concept of maximum power point tracking (MPPT) in solar PV systems.
Explain any one MPPT algorithm with flowchart. [Anna Univ. May '22]
Refer chapter 2.17.7 on Page 2.114 for algorithm for-maximum power point
tracking and chapter 2.20.3 on Page 2.134 for grid connected system.

60. State the advantages and disadvantagesof solar PV system.

Refer chapter 2.18 on Page 2.118.

61. Explain the working of solar water pumping system. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Refer chapter 2.19.4 on Page 2.125.

62. Describe the function of solar PV lighting.

Refer chapter 2.19.3 on Page 2.122.

le 63. Draw illustrative diagram showing all the important components of solar heating and solar
I cooling unit. Explain the working principles of these devices. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Er Refer chapter 2.10.16 on Page 2.74 for solar heating and chapter 2.19.5 on Page
2.128.

Mg 64. Explain the working of solar telecommunication and signaling system.

'1 Refer chapter 2.19.6 on Page 2.128.
y
65. As an Engineer, identify the favourable points for developing a solar thermal based power
td
generation projects at your home town. Also share the merits and demerits of the same
based on their performance. [Anna Univ. Apr'23]
II-
be Refer chapters 2.19.1-2.19.6 on Pages 2.120-2.128.
I]

r.s

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