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Chapter 9
Memory:
The Knowing Mind
Pages 319-360
Sections 9-1 to 9-8

TopHat Join Code: 508861

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In this chapter, we will…

• Describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory.​
• Differentiate between sensory, working, and long-term memory, as
well as the different types of long-term memory.​
• Analyze the variables influencing retrieval from short- and long-term
memory.​
• Describe forgetting, decay, interference, motivated forgetting, and
confabulation.​
• Identify memory strategies that could be useful in our own lives.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4tfh7vs0MIc&ab_channel=AcademyofLearningCollege

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Agenda

What is memory?

Memory processes

Forgetting

The biology of memory

Attention
What is memory?
Sensation

▪ Memory – The ability to store and Perception

retrieve information over time
Learning

▪ Part of an information processing

Memory
continuum
Thinking

Problem Solving

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What is memory? Encoding

Stages of Memory

▪ Encoding – The transformation of information

from one form to another
▪ Storage – The retention of information Storage
▪ Retrieval – The recovery of stored information

Retrieval
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Agenda

What is memory?

Memory processes

Forgetting

The biology of memory

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Sensory memory – Holds large amounts of incoming data for a
short period of time (one second or less)

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Sensory memory – translated or transduced into several

types of codes/representations
▫ Visual codes (sight)
▫ Haptic codes (touch)
▫ Acoustic codes (sound)

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Short-term memory – Holds small amounts of information for a
limited time (30 seconds at most)

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Short-term memory – Can be
increased by repetition/rehearsal

▪ Capacity: 7 ± 2 (?)

▪ Can be increased by chunking

(process of grouping similar or
meaningful information together)

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

Remember these letters:

UBKFCSANJIAC

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

Remember these numbers:

7010209810

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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Working memory – An extension of short-term memory that
includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information
at once

Short-Term Memory Working Memory

• Passive storage • Active manipulation
• Single process at a time • Multiple processes
simultaneously

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Manages/delegates
Working memory attention to other
components

Visual and Verbal and

spatial auditory
information information

Combines
information from
LTM with WM

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Working memory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7dlfkxt6PRM
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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

▪ Long-term memory – The location of permanent memories (with
few limitations to capacity or duration)

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Levels of Processing

▪ Levels of processing theory – The depth of

processing applied to information predicts its
ease of retrieval

▪ Deeper processing = better retention (easier

retrieval)
▫ Maintenance (repetition) vs. Elaboration (linking
new material to things you already know)

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Levels of processing
How quickly How accurately
they responded they responded

Longer time = Deeper

deeper processing =
processing better recognition

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Deep Processing

▪ Elaboration – Making meaningful associations between concepts

▪ Distinctiveness – Making clear contrasts between concepts
▪ Personal – Relating concepts to personal experience
▪ Appropriate Retrieval and Application - Practice recalling the
information and using the information

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Deep Processing

▪ Serial position effect – The likelihood

of recalling an item depends on
where it is in the list
▪ We remember words when they’re…
▫ First in the list (primacy effect; LTM)
▫ Last in the list (recency effect; WM)
▪ …unless retrieval is delayed

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Working vs. Long-term Memory

▪ Patient H.M. ▪ Patient K.F.

Able to remember small Could form new long-term
amounts of information for a memories, but when asked to
few seconds, but had extreme recall a list of digits, could only
difficulty forming long-term remember one or two at a
memories time

These are separate processes

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Types of Long-term Memory

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Declarative Memories

Declarative memories – A consciously retrieved

memory that is easy to verbalize
▪ Semantic memory – General knowledge
memory
▫ Word meanings, facts

▪ Episodic memory – Memory from personal

experience
▫ “Life Episodes”

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Semantic vs. Episodic memory

Type of Information Processed:​ Organization of Information in
• Semantic: general knowledge Memory:​
about world​ • Semantic: organized in
• Episodic: specific information categories​
about events, objects, and • Episodic: organized as a
people​ timeline​
Four dimensions
distinguish
semantic from
episodic memory

Source of Information:​ Focus of the Memory:​

• Semantic: originates from • Semantic: provides an objective
others or from repeated understanding of the world​
experience​ • Episodic: provides a reference
• Episodic: can be from a point for our subjective
single, personal experience experience​ 28

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H.M.

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Declarative Memories
▪ Autobiographical Memory – Semantic or episodic memories that
reference the self
▪ We use semantic memory to help episodic memory
▪ Hyperthymesia – Highly superior autobiographical memory
▫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-uFDhJPKOc

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Long-term Memory

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Nondeclarative (Implicit) Memories

▪ Nondeclarative memory – Unconscious and
effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult
to verbalize
▫ “Like riding a bike”
▫ Hard to declare where it comes from

▪ Procedural memory – An implicit memory

for how to carry out skilled movement
▫ Helps us automate our performance

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Fill in the blank

▪ Red ▪ Apple
▪ Yellow ▪ Plum
▪ Blue ▪ Pear
▪ Purple ▪ Nectarine
▪ Gr_____ ▪ Gr____

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Nondeclarative (Implicit) Memories

▪ Priming – A change in a response

to a stimulus as a result of
exposure to a previous stimulus

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8PSy3cccs8M&ab_channel=FightMediocrity 35

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Connectionist Theories
▪ Tendency to group memories with
overlapping features

▪ The mind is an interconnected

network

▪ Spreading activation model – A

connectionist theory proposing that
people organize general knowledge
based on their individual experiences

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Schema in action

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QelK8rDrbpM&ab_channel=NationalGeographic 37

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Schemas

▪ Schema – A set of expectations

about objects or situations
▪ We fit new information into
existing schemas
▫ Retain what’s consistent, exclude
what isn’t
▫ Details added to make memories
consistent

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Retrieval from short-term memory

bepsm

▪ We search through STM one item at a time rather than

retrieving its contents all at once
▪ It would take you longer to decide whether “s” was on the list
than ”b”

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Retrieval from long-term memory

▪ Recognition – True/false or
multiple choice

▪ Recall – Open-ended questions

▫ Information is generated, not
recognized
▫ Cue – A stimulus that helps you
access target information

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Retrieval from long-term memory

▪ Encoding specificity – A process in which memories

incorporate personal, unique combinations of information
when encoded (e.g., specific smells, sounds)
▫ The most effective cues are self-generated

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Cues

▪ Context-dependent memory
▫ Recall is best when the
surrounding environment of your
study situation closely matches
the testing situation
▫ Standing vs. sitting
▫ Scuba divers on land vs. in water
▫ Mania vs. depression

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Retrieval from long-term memory

▪ Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) – Not being able to fully retrieve a

word you’re looking for
▫ Recall first letter or the number of syllables
▫ The beat to a song but not the lyrics

▪ Retrieval doesn’t follow the all-or-none law

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Retrieval from long-term memory

▪ Reconstruction – Rebuilding a memory out of stored elements

▫ Blending retrieved information with new context

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Retrieval from long-term memory

Retelling a complicated story

▪ Simplification
▪ Highlighting some aspects more than
others
▪ Details adjusted to fit your worldview

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Retrieval from long-term memory

Elizabeth Loftus – The
memory expert
▪ Memory reconstruction
▪ False memories When a real family photo was
superimposed on a hot air
balloon, 50% of participants
“remembered” taking a ride as a
child, including very specific
details!

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False
memory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQr_IJvYzbA&ab_channel=thibs44 48

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Retrieval from Long-term Memory

▪ Source monitoring – Remembering when, where, and how a

memory was acquired
▪ Can produce false memories when we attribute a memory to
the wrong source

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Retrieval of Emotional Events

▪ Flashbulb memories – an especially vivid and detailed memory

of an emotional event
▫ Can be recalled as “flashbacks”
▫ A snapshot of context, details, and feelings
▪ Where were you during 9.11.2001?
▫ Some recall where they were and what they were doing…
▫ …or not

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Eyewitness Testimonies

▪ Often used in court, but unreliable

▪ Especially when the identifier was under extreme duress

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Eyewitness testimonies

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZhcp6dOKds&list=PL_xAT4X6QvcB6UPYwAen24Ir6OocUTluw&index
=13&ab_channel=BBC
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Eyewitness Testimonies

▪ Should we continue to use eyewitness testimonies?

▪ If so, what could be done to reduce these problems?

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Agenda

What is memory?

Memory processes

Forgetting

The biology of memory

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Forgetting

▪ Forgetting – A decrease in the

ability to remember a previously
formed memory
▫ Must have once been a memory
to forget it

▪ Good or bad?
▫ Motivated forgetting

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Forgetting

▪ Decay – Reduction in ability to retrieve rarely used information

over time
▫ Results from disuse or lack of practice
▪ Use it or lose it?
▫ No, time is not a perfect predictor

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Forgetting
▪ Interference – Difficulty in retrieval due to conflict between new and old
information
▫ Lists of words
▪ Proactive – Reduced memory for target information because of old
information (earlier learning)
▫ OSU Passwords
▪ Retroactive – Reduced memory for target information because of new
information (subsequent learning)
▫ Class after this class

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Forgetting

▪ Motivated forgetting – Failure to retrieve

negative memories
▫ Forgetting protects against threatening information
▫ “Repressed memories”

▪ Confabulation – Confusion between real and

imagined memories
▫ Not all memories are “repressed”
▫ If you press, you may create a false memory

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Agenda

What is memory?

Memory processes

Forgetting

The biology of memory

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Biology of Memory

▪ Memories require long-term structural changes in neurons

▪ Strength of synapses increased when learning

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Biology of memory

▪ Long-term Potentiation – The enhancement of

communication between two neurons resulting from their
synchronous activation
▫ Sending/receiving information becomes more efficient
▫ Repeated activation = stronger connection
▫ May be related to strength/duration of long-term memory

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Biology of Memory

▪ Henry Molaison (H.M.)

▫ Suffered from severe seizures
▫ Hippocampus removed
▫ Memory function
significantly declined

▪ The reason we know so much

about memory

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Long-term memory & the brain

▪ Studies of people with brain

damage and brain imaging studies
in healthy individuals support
distinction between declarative
and nondeclarative memories
▪ Patient H.M. – declarative
memories and the hippocampus

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Biology of Memory

▪ Procedural memories associated

with activation of the basal
ganglia

▪ Huntington’s and Parkinson’s

▫ Trouble with procedural
memories
▫ Declarative memories intact

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How can we improve our

memory?

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Improving Memory

▪ Sleep! (Chapter 6)
▪ Distributed practice
▫ Time + repetition = consolidation
▫ Multiple practices > one long practice
▫ Massed practice (cramming)…not
great
▪ Practice testing
▫ Must know the content first
▫ Helps form long-term memories
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Improving Memory

▪ Recite/rephrase the material

▫ Don’t just reread
▫ Make things personally relevant
▪ Mnemonics
▫ Link target information into a
pattern that’s easy to retrieve

▪ Memory champions video

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Any questions?

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