Our victory is not in the last step actually it starts from our first step

12th std Chemistry Bestie

With additional question & answers

Name :
Std & Sec :
School :

Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D.

PG Assistant in chemistry
Government Higher Secondary School - Vallipattu
 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933

INDEX

Page
S. No LESSON
No

1 METALLURGY 1

2 P – BLOCK ELEMENTS – I 8

3 P – BLOCK ELEMENTS – II 15

4 TRANSITION AND INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS 21

5 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 26

6 SOLID STATE 34

7 CHEMICAL KINETICS 43

8 IONIC EQUILIBRIUM 48

9 ELECTRO CHEMISTRY 55

10 SURFACE CHEMISTRY 64

11 HYDROXY COMPOUNDS AND ETHERS 72

12 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 85

13 ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 99

14 BIOMOLECULES 111

15 CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE 119

தெய்வத்ொன் ஆகா தெனினும் முயற்சிென்

தெய்வருத்ெக் கூலி ெரும் - ெிருக்குறள்

Even if God has given up, perseverance will pay

the wages for one’s efforts.

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1. METALLURGY
1 What are the differences between Minerals and ores? (May-22, Mar-24)
Minerals Ores
1 Naturally occurring substances Mineral from which the metal extracted
contains metals in Free State or in the conveniently and economically
form of compounds like oxides,
sulphides
2 All minerals are not ores All ores are minerals
3 Eg: China clay Eg: Bauxite
2 What are the various steps involved in extraction of pure metals from their ores?
i) Concentration of words
ii) Extraction of crude metal
iii) Refining of crude metal
3 What is the role of quick lime in the extraction of iron from its oxide Fe2O3? (Sep-20)
1) Quicklime acts as flux
2) It reacts with silica gangue and remove it as slag
4 Which type of ores can be concentrated by froth flotation method? Give two examples
for such ores. (Sep-20, Mar-23)
Sulphide ores. Eg: Zinc blende (ZnS), Galena (PbS)
5 Describe a method for refining Nickel? (May-22)
350K 460K
Mond process: Ni (S) + 4CO (g) Ni(CO)4 (g) Ni (S) + 4CO (g)
6 Van-Arkel method for refining Zirconium / Titanium
550K 1800K
Ti (S) + 2I2 (S) TiI4 (vapour) Ti (S) + 2I2 (S)
7 Explain zone refining process with an example? (Mar-20, Mar-23)
Principle: Fractional crystallization
When an impure metal is melted and allowed to solidify, the impurities will prefer to be in the
molten region.
Impure metal is taken in the form of rod
Process: one end of the rod is heated using a mobile induction heater. when the heater is
moved to the other end, pure metal crystallizes while the impurities will move on to the
adjacent molten zone. The process is repeated several times by moving the heater in the
same direction again and again to achieve the desired purity level.
Eg: Germanium, Silicon, Gallium
8 Using the Ellingham diagram
A) Predict the condition under which
i) Aluminium might be expected to reduce magnesia.
Above 15OOK aluminium have more negative ΔG° then magnesia. So, it will be in lower
part of Ellingham diagram. Hence aluminium will be used to reduce magnesia.
ii) Magnesium could reduce Alumina
Below 1500K magnesium has more negative ΔG° value then Alumina. so, it will be in the
lower part of Ellingham diagram. Hence magnesium is used to reduce Alumina.
B) it is possible to reduce Fe2O3 by coke at a temperature around 1200K
since carbon has more negative ΔG° value then Fe2O3, around 1200K, coke can reduce
Fe2O3.
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9 Explain the electro metallurgy of aluminium?
Anode: Carbon rods
Cathode: Iron tank lined with carbon
Electrolyte: 20% Alumina + molten cryolite + 10% calcium chloride solution
Temperature: 1270 K
Ionization of Alumina: Al2O3 2Al3+ + 3O2-
Cathode: 2Al3+(melt) + 6e- 2Al(l)
Anode: 6O2-(melt) 3O2 + 12e-
Since carbon acts as anode, the following reaction takes place
C(S) + O2-(melt) CO + 2e-
C(S) + 2O2-(melt) CO2 + 4e-
Due to the above reactions, anodes are slowly consumed. The pure aluminium is formed at
the cathode. The net electrolysis reaction,
4Al3 (melt) + 6O2-(melt) + 3C 4Al(l) + 3CO2(g).
10 Describe the role of the following in the process mentioned
i) Silica in the extraction of copper (Mar-24)
• Silica acts as a flux. It reacts with ferrous oxide (gangue) to form ferrous silicate slag

ii) Cryolite in the extraction of aluminium

• Cryolite lowers the melting point of alumina and increases it’s electrical conductivity.
iii) Iodine in the refining of zirconium
• The impure titanium metal is heated with iodine to form the volatile titanium tetra iodide.
• On heating the volatile complex in tungsten filament forms pure zirconium.
iv) Sodium cyanide in froth flotation.
• When the impurities ZnS present in galena (PbS), sodium cyanide is added to depress
the flotation property of ZnS by forming a layer of zinc complex Na2[Zn(CN)4] on the
surface of ZnS.
11 Explain the principle of electrolytic refining with an example? (Jul-22)
It is carried out in an electrolytic cell containing aqueous solution of salts of the metal of
interest.
Anode: Impure metal
Cathode: Pure metal
Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of salts of the metal
The metal of interest dissolves from anode and passes into the solution while the same
amount of metal ions from the solution will be deposited at the cathode.
The less electropositive impurities in the anode, settle down at the bottom. It is known as
anode mud.
Eg: Electrolytic refining of silver
Anode: Impure silver rods
Cathode: Pure silver
Electrolyte: acidified aqueous solution of silver nitrate.
When current is passed through the electrolyte,
reaction at anode: Ag Ag+ + e-
reaction at cathode: Ag+ + e- Ag
During electrolysis, silver atoms lose electron at anode and get deposited on cathode.
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12 Define flux?
A chemical substance that forms an easily fusible slag with gangue is called flux.
Eg: CaO, SiO2
13 Explain the following terms with suitable examples. (Jun-20)
i) Gangue: The non-metallic impurities, rocky materials and Siliceous matter associated with
ore. Eg: SiO2.
ii) Slag: A flux combines with infusible gangue present in the ore.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3.
flux gangue slag
14 Give the basic requirement for vapour phase refining?
The metal is treated with a suitable reagent which can form a volatile compound, then it
is decomposed to give the pure metal.
15 The selection of reducing agent depending on the Thermodynamics factor: explain with
an example
Consider the reduction of a metal oxide MxOy,
2 . 2x
MO → M(S) + O2(S) ---- (1)
y x y (S) y
The above Reduction may be carried out with C. Carbon may be oxidized to either CO or CO2.
C + O2 CO2(g) ---- (2)
2C + O2 2CO(g) ---- (3)
2CO + O2 2CO2(g) ---- (4)
Based on thermodynamics considerations, for a spontaneous reaction ΔG = -ve. Therefore, the
reduction of metal oxide (equation 1) with given reducing agent can occur if the free energy
change for the the coupled reaction [equations 1 & 2, 1& 3 or 1& 4] is negative. Hence the
reducing agent is selected in a way that it provides large negative ΔG value.
16 Give the limitations of Ellingham diagram?
• It is constructed based only on thermodynamic considerations.
• It gives information about the thermodynamic feasibility of a reaction.
• It does not give any idea about rate of the reaction and the possibility of other reactions.
• The interpretation of ΔG is based on the assumption, that the reactants are in equilibrium
with the products which is not always true.
17 Write a short note on electrochemical principles of metallurgy?
• The reduction of oxides of active metals such as sodium, Potassium etc., by carbon is
thermodynamically not feasible. Such metals are extracted by electrochemical methods.
• The metal salts are taken in fused or solution form. The metal ions present can be reduced
by treating it with some suitable reducing agent or by electrolysis.
ΔG° = - nFE° Where n - number of electrons, F – Faraday
constant and E° - the electrode potential of the redox couple.
• If E° is positive then ΔG is negative and the reduction is spontaneous.
• Hence the Redox reaction is planned in such a way that EMF of the net reaction is positive.
• When more reactive metal is added to the solution containing relatively less reactive metal
ions, the more reactive metal will go into the solution. for eg,
Cu(S) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(S)

Cu2+(aq) + Zn(S) Cu(S) + Zn2+(aq)

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18 Define calcination? (Mar-24)
The heating of concentrated ore in absence of air is known as calcination. During this process,
the water of crystallisation present in the hydrated oxide escapes as moisture.
∆
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
19 What is roasting?
The concentrated ore is oxidised by heating it with excess of oxygen below the the melting
point of the metal.
∆
2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
20 Define smelting?
Flux and a reducing agent are added to concentrated ore and the mixture is melted by heating
at an elevated temperature in a furnace is known as smelting.
Fe2O3 (S) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(S) + 3CO2 (g)
21 Write the application of the Ellingham diagram?
It is useful to select a suitable reducing agent and appropriate temperature range for reduction.
1. Ag2O and HgO are at the upper part of the Ellingham diagram. It indicates that these
oxides are unstable at moderate temperature and will decompose on heating even in
the absence of a reducing agent.
2. It is used to predict the thermodynamic feasibility of reduction of oxides of one metal by
another metal.
3. The carbon line cuts across the lines of many metal oxides. Hence, it can reduce all
those metal oxide at sufficiently high temperature.
22 Explain the froth flotation process? (Aug-21)
• Used to concentrate sulphide ores. Eg: Galena (PbS), Zinc blende (ZnS)
• The metallic ore particles which are preferentially wetted by oil can be separated from
gangue.
•Crushed ore is mixed with water, pine oil or eucalyptus oil and a little amount of collector
called sodium ethyl xanthate is added.
• A froth is generated by blowing air through this mixture. The ore is coming with froth and
impurities settle down. The froth is dried to recover concentrated ore.
23 Explain magnetic separation?
• Ferromagnetic ores can be concentrated by this method.
• It is based on the difference in the
magnetic properties of the ore and the
impurities.
• Eg: Tin stone can be separated from the
wolframite impurities. similarly, ores like
chromite, pyrolusite can be removed
from non-magnetic siliceous impurities.
• The crushed ore is poured onto an
electromagnetic separator consisting of
a belt moving over two rollers of which
one is magnetic.
• The magnetic part of the ore is attracted
towards the magnet and falls as a heap
close to the magnetic region while the nonmagnetic part falls away from it.
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24 Gravity separation or Hydraulic wash?
1. It is used to concentrate oxide ores. Eg: Haematite, Tin stone
2. The ore having high specific gravity is separated from the gangue by washing with running
water.
3. Crushed ore is treated with rapidly flowing current of water.
4. The lighter gangue particles are washed away by running water.
25 Explain Aluminothermic process?
• Cr2O3 is mixed with aluminium powder
and placed in a fire clay crucible.
• an ignition mixer, usually magnesium
and barium peroxide, initiate the
reduction process.
BaO2 + Mg BaO + MgO
• The large amount of heat evolved,
facilitates the reduction of Cr2O3 by aluminum powder.
∆
Cr2O3 + 2Al → 2Cr + Al2O3.
26 Explain leaching?
In leaching, the crushed ore is allowed to dissolve in a suitable solvent, the metal present
in the ore is converted to its soluble salt or complex, while the gangue remains insoluble.
27 Explain cyanide leaching?
• Gold + dilute sodium cyanide + air cyanide complex
4Au + 8CN- + 2H2O + O2 4[Au (CN)2]- + 4 OH-
• Gold recovered by treating cyanide complex with zinc.
2[Au (CN)2]- + Zn [Zn(CN)4]2- + 2Au
• This process gold is reduced to its elemental state (zero oxidation state). it is is called as
Cementation
28 Define in blistered copper?
When the metallic copper is solidified, it has a blistered appearance due to evolution of
SO2 gas formed during the process. This copper is called blistered copper.
29 Explain the process of extracting copper from copper pyrites?
• The concentrated ore is mixed with an acidic flux called silica and heated in a reverberatory
furnace.
• The ferrous oxide formed is basic in nature and combines with silica to form ferrous silicate
(flag).
• The remaining metal sulphides Cu2S and FeS are mutually soluble and form a copper
matte.

• The matte is separated from the slag and fed to the converting furnace.

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• During conversion, the FeS present in the material is first oxidised to FeO and removed by
slag formation with silica.
• The remaining copper sulphide is further oxidised to its oxide which is subsequently
converted to metallic copper as shown below.

30 Define auto reduction?

Simple Roasting of some of the ores give the crude metal. The use of reducing agents is
not necessary.
Eg: HgS + O2 Hg + SO2
31 Give the uses of zinc?
1. For galvanising metals.
2. Used to produce die-castings in automobile, electrical and hardware industries.
3. Zinc oxide used in manufacturing paints, rubber, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, batteries,
etc.
4. Brass alloy used in water valves to resist corrosion.
32 Applications of aluminium?
1. Cooking vessels made of aluminium.
2. Used as packing materials for food items.
3. Alloys of aluminium is used in the design of aeroplanes and other forms of transport.
4. It is used in the design of chemical reactors, medical equipments, refrigeration units and
gas pipelines.
5. Used in electrical overhead electric cable with steel core for strength.
33 Applications of iron?
1. Iron and its alloys are used in bridges, cutting tools and rifle barrels.
2. Cast iron is used to make pipes, valves etc.
3. Magnets can be made from iron and its alloys.
4. Stainless steel is used in architecture, bearings, surgical instruments and jewellery.
5. Chrome Steels are used for manufacturing cutting tools and crushing machines.
34 Applications of copper?
1. Copper is the first metal used by humans.
2. Due to the use of its alloy bronze resulted in a new era called the ‘Bronze age’.
3. Used for making coins and ornaments along with gold.
4. Copper and its alloys are used for making wires, water pipes and other electrical parts.
35 Applications of gold?
1. Used in making coins and ornaments along with copper.
2. Used in electroplating.
3. Used in dental fillings and electrical connectors.
4. Gold nanoparticles are used for increasing the efficiency of solar cells and also used as
catalyst.
36 Explain Ammonia leaching?
When a crushed ore containing nickel, copper and cobalt is treated with aqueous
ammonia under suitable pressure, ammonia selectively leaches these metals by forming their
soluble complexes like, [Ni(NH3)6]2+, [Cu(NH3)4]2+ and [Co(NH3)5H2O]3+ respectively from the
ore leaving behind the gangue, iron(III) oxides/hydroxides and aluminosilicate.
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37 Explain Acid leaching?
Leaching of sulphide ores such as ZnS, PbS etc., can be done by treating them with hot
aqueous sulphuric acid.

In this process the insoluble sulphide is converted into soluble sulphate and elemental sulphur.
38 Explain Alkali leaching?
In this method, the ore is treated with aqueous alkali to form a soluble complex.
For eg, bauxite, an important ore of aluminum is heated with a solution of sodium hydroxide or
sodium carbonate in the temperature range 470 - 520 K at 35 atm to form soluble sodium
meta-aluminate leaving behind the impurities, iron oxide and titanium oxide.

The hot solution is decanted, cooled, and diluted. This solution is neutralised by passing
CO2 gas, to form hydrated Al2O3 precipitate.

The precipitate is filtered off and heated around 1670 K to get pure alumina Al 2O3.
39 Explain the applications of the Ellingham diagram?
• Ellingham diagram helps us to select a suitable reducing agent and appropriate
temperature range for reduction.
• From the Ellingham diagram, we can infer the relative stability of different metal oxides at a
given temperature.
1. Ellingham diagram for the formation of Ag2O and HgO is at upper part of the diagram and
their decomposition temperatures are 600 and 700 K respectively. It indicates that these
oxides are unstable at moderate temperatures and will decompose on heating even in the
absence of a reducing agent.
2. Ellingham diagram is used to predict thermodynamic feasibility of reduction of oxides of
one metal by another metal. Any metal can reduce the oxides of other metals that are
located above it in the diagram.
3. The carbon line cuts across the lines of many metal oxides and hence it can reduce all
those metal oxides at sufficiently high temperature.

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2. P – BLOCK ELEMENTS - I

1 Write a short note on anamolous properties of the first element of p – block. (J-20) (A-20)
1. Small size
2. High ionization enthalpy and high electronegativity.
3. Absence of D orbitals in the valence shell
2 Describe briefly allotropism in p- block elements with specific reference to carbon?
Graphite Diamond
1 It is soft It is hard
2 It Conducts Electricity It will not conduct electricity
2
3 sp Hybridisation sp3 Hybridisation
4 Flat hexagonal sheets of carbon atoms Tetrahedral arrangement
5 Successive carbon sheets held together by Covalent bonds
weak Vander Waals forces
6 Used as Lubricant Used for cutting glasses and rock drilling
7 Using carbons 4 valence electrons, 3e - There is no free electron for conductivity
forms 3 bonds, 1e- forms 1 bond. This 
e- delocalised over entire sheet and
responsible for its conductivity.
Fullerenes:
1. C32, C50, C60, C70 etc. These molecules have cage like structure
2. C60 have Soccer ball structure called as Buckminster fullerene or buckyballs.
3. It contains 20 six membered rings and 12 five membered rings.
4. sp2 hybridisation, shows aromatic character.
5. C-C bond distance 1.44A°, C=C distance 1.38A°.
Carbon nanotubes
1. It has graphite like tubes with fullerene ends.
2. Stronger than steel and conduct electricity.
3. Used in nanoscale electronics, catalysis, polymers and medicine.
Graphene: It has a single planar sheet of SP2 hybridised carbon atoms, densely packed in a
honey comb crystal lattice.
3 Give the uses of Borax? (Aug-21)
1. Used for identification of coloured metal ions.
2. In the manufacture of optical and borosilicate glass, enamels and glazes for pottery.
3. Used as flux in Metallurgy and also act as preservative.
4 What is catenation? Describe briefly the catenation property of carbon. (M-20, Jun-21, 22)
Catenation is an ability of an element to form a chain of atoms.
Conditions:
i) The valency of an element is greater than or equal to two.
ii) Element should have an ability to bond with itself.
iii) The self-bond must be strong.
iv) Kinetic inertness of catenated compounds towards other molecules.
5 Write a note on Fischer tropsch synthesis? (Mar-23)
The reaction of carbon monoxide with hydrogen using metal catalysts at 500 – 700K and
50 atm gives saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
nCO + (2n+1) H2 CnH(2n+2) + nH2O
nCO + 2n H2 CnH2n + nH2O

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6 What is inert pair effect? (May-22)
In heavier post transition metals, the outer ‘s’ electrons have a a tendency to remain inert
and show reluctance to take part in the bonding is known as inert pair effect.
7 Give the structure of CO and CO2.
i) CO:

ii) CO2 :

8 Give the uses of silicones? (Mar-23)

1. Used for low temperature lubrication
2. In vacuum pump
3. In high-temperature oil bath
4. For making water proofing clothes
5. Used as insulating material in electrical motors
6. Mixed with Paints and enamels to make them resistant towards high temperature,
sunlight, dampness and chemicals.
9 Describe the structure of diborane? (Mar-23)

• Two BH2 units are linked by two bridged hydrocarbons. It has 8 B-H bonds.
• Diborane has only 12 valence electrons and are not sufficient to form covalent bonds.
• The four terminal B-H bonds are normal covalent bonds. (2c - 2e bond) (Total 8 electrons)
• The remaining four electrons used for bridged bonds in two three centred B-H-B bonds
utilize two electrons each. Hence it is 3c – 2e bonds.
• The bridged hydrogen atoms are in plane.
• In diborane, Boron is sp3 hybridised. Three of the four sp3 hybridised orbital contain single
electron and fourth orbital is empty.
• Two of the half-filled hybridised orbitals of each boron overlap with the 1s orbitals of two
hydrogens to form four terminal 2c – 2e bonds, leaving one empty and one half filled in
each boron.
• The three centre-two electron B-H-B bond formation involves overlapping the half-filled
hybridised orbitals of one boron, the empty hybridised orbital of the other boron and the
half-filled 1s orbital of hydrogen.
10 Write a short note on hydroboration?
Diborane reacts with alkenes and alkynes in ether solvent at room temperature is known
as hydroboration.
B2H6 + 6RCH=CHR 2(RCH2-CHR)3B
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11 Give one example for each of the following
i) icosogens – Boron (13th group)
ii) tetragen – Carbon (14th group)
iii) prictogen – Nitrogen (15th group)
iv) chalcogen – Oxygen (16th group)
v) halogen – Fluorine (17th group)
12 Write a note on metallic nature of p - block elements.
• The tendency of an element to form a cation by losing electrons is known as metallic
character.
• On descending the group, the ionisation energy decreases and hence metallic character
increases.
• In p-block, the elements present in the lower part or metals.
• Eg: In Group – 13 all elements are metals except boron and in group – 14 tin and lead are
metals.
13 What are silicones? How is it prepared?
Silicones or Poly siloxanes are organo silicon polymers. The hydrolysis of dialkyl chloro silanes
gives silicones.

14 What is inorganic benzene? How is it prepared?

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15 How will you identify borate radical? (Ethyl Borate test) (Mar-23)
Con. H2 SO4
Borate salt + Ethyl alcohol → Triethyl borate (Ester)
Con. H2 SO4
H3BO3 + 3C2H5OH → B(OC2H5)3 + 3H2O
The vapour of this Ester burns with green edged flame.
16 Write a note on zeolites?
• Zeolites are three dimensional crystalline solids containing aluminium, silicon and oxygen
in their regular three-dimensional framework.
• The general formula is Na2O. (Al2O3). x(SiO2). yH2O (x=2 to 10; y=2 to 6).
• Zeolites have porous structure in which sodium ions and water molecules are loosely held.
• The silicon and aluminium atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated with each other through
shared oxygen atoms.
• Zeolites have three-dimensional crystalline structure looks like honeycomb consisting of a
network of inter connected tunnels and catges.
• Water molecules move freely in and out of these pores but the zeolites framework remain
rigid.
• Zeolites are useful to remove permanent hardness of water.
17 How will you convert boric acid to boron nitride? (Mar-24)
800 – 1200K
B(OH)3 + NH3 → BN + 3H2O
Δ

18 A hydride of 2nd period alkali metal (A) on reaction with compound of Boron (B) to give a
reducing agent (C). Identify A, B and C. (Sep-20 Compulsory)
Ether
2LiH + B2H6 → 2LiBH4
(A) (B) (C)
A = Lithium hydride
B = Diborane
C = Lithium borohydride
19 A double salt which contains fourth period alkali metal (A) on heating at 500K gives (B).
Aqueous solution of (B) gives white precipitate with BaCl2 and gives red colour
compound with alizarin. Identify A and B.
500𝐾
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24 H2O → K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3 + 24 H2O
(A) (B)
A = Potash Alum
B = Anhydrous potash alum
Aqueous solution of B + BaCl2 White precipitate (test for sulphate)

Aqueous solution of B + alizarin red colour (test for Aluminium)

20 CO is a reducing agent. Justify with an example?
CO reduces Iron (III) oxide to iron. So, it is a powerful reducing agent.
3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe + 3CO2
21 Write the preparation of Alum? (Sep-20)
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.4Al(OH)3 + 6H2SO4 K2SO4 + 3Al2(SO4)3 + 12H2O
K2SO4 + Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
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22 What is burnt alum? how it is prepared?
Potash alum on heating at 475K, loses water of hydration and swells up. The swollen mass is
known as burnt alum.
475K
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O → K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3 + 24H2O
23 Uses of alum?
1. For purification of water
2. For waterproofing and textile.
3. Used in dyeing, paper and leather tanning industries.
4. It is employed as a styptic agent to arrest bleeding.
24 Write the use of Boron?
1. Used as a moderator in nuclear reactor
2. Used as rocket fuel igniter.
3. Boron is essential for the cell walls of plants.
4. Used in eye drops, antiseptics, washing powders etc.
25 What is the action of heat on borax?
On heating of borax gives borax beads.
∆
Na2B4O7.10H2O → Na2B4O7 2NaBO2 + B2O3
-10H2 O

26 Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid. Why?

Boric acid accepts hydroxyl Ion rather than donating a Proton.
B(OH)3 + H2O ⇋ H3O+ + [B(OH)4]-
27 Explain the structure of boric acid?
• It has two-dimensional layered structure
• It consists of [BO ]- unit
3

• These are linked to each other by hydrogen bonds.

28 Write the uses of boric acid? (May-22, Jul-22, Mar-24)
• In the manufacture of pottery classes, animals and pigments.
• Used as an antiseptic and as an eye lotion.
• Used as a food preservative.
29 Explain the types of silicones?
i) Linear silicone: Hydrolysis and subsequent condensation of dialkyl or diaryl silicon chloride.
a) Silicone rubber: Silicones are bridged together by methylene or similar groups.
b) Silicone resins: Prepared by blending silicones with organic resin such as acrylic esters.
ii) Cyclic silicones: Obtained by hydrolysis of R2SiCl2
iii) Cross linked silicones: Obtained by hydrolysis of RSiCl3
30 Explain the types of silicates?
Silicones are classified into various types based on linking of tetrahedral units of [SiO4]4-
1) Ortho silicate (Neso silicates)
The simplest silicates contain discrete [SiO4]4- tetrahedral units.

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2) Pyso silicate or Soro silicate
It contains [Si2O7]6- units. it is formed by joining two [SiO4]4- tetrahedral units by having one
oxygen atoms at one corner.
Eg: Thortiveitite Sc2Si2O7

3) Cyclic silicates or Ring silicates

ions formed by linking three or more tetrahedral [SiO4]4- unit.
−
It contains (𝑆𝑖𝑂3 )2𝑛
𝑛
Each silicate unit shares two of its oxygen atoms with other units.
Eg: Beryl [Be3Al2(SiO3)6]

4) Iono silicates
They contain ‘n’ number of silicate units by sharing two or more oxygen atoms. They are
classified into two types
a) Chain silicates or Piroxenes: They contain [(SiO3)n]2n- ions formed by ‘n’ number of [SiO4]4-
tetrahedral units linearly. Each silicate unit shares two of its oxygen atoms with other unit.
Eg: spodumene Li4(SiO3)2

b) Double chain silicates or amphiboles

−
It contains [𝑆𝑖4 𝑂11 ]6𝑛
𝑛 ions. it is classified into two types
i) Those sharing 3 vertices.
ii) Those sharing only 2 vertices.
Eg: Asbestos

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5) Sheet silicates or phyllo silicates

It contains [𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 ]2𝑛
−
4-
𝑛 . Each [SiO4] tetrahedron units shares 3 oxygen atoms with others.
It forms two dimensional sheets.
Eg: Talc, Mica, etc.

6) Three dimensional silicates

All oxygen atoms of [SiO4]4- tetrahedra are shared with other tetrahedra to form three-
dimensional network. They have general formula (SiO2)n. Eg: Quartz
31 Complete the following reactions
a. B(OH)3 + NH3 BN + 3 H2O
b. Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + H2O 4 H3BO3 + Na2SO4
c. B2H6 + 2 NaOH + 2 H2O 2 NaBO2 + 6 H2
d. B2H6 + 6 CH3OH 2 B(OCH)3 + 6 H2
e. 4 BF3 + 9 H2O 4 H3BO3 + 3 H+ + 3 [BF4]-
f. HCOOH + H2SO4 CO + H2O + H2SO4
g. 2 SiCl4 + NH3 Cl3Si – NH – SiCl3 + 2 HCl
h. SiCl4 + 4 C2H5OH Si(OC2H5)4 + 4 HCl
i. 2 B + 6 NaOH 2 Na3BO4 + 3 H2
𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
j. H2B4O7 → 2 B2O3 + H2O
32 What are silicates? (Mar-24)
The mineral which contains silicon and oxygen in tetrahedral [SiO4]4- units linked together in
different patterns are called silicates.
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3. P – BLOCK ELEMENTS - II
1 Chalcogens belongs to p - block. Give reason?
• The last electron enters in p-orbital. so chalcogens belong to p-block.
• The common electronic configuration is ns2 np5
2 Explain why fluorine always exhibit an oxidation state of -1?
• Smaller size.
• High electronegativity.
• Low F-F bond dissociation energy.
3 Why fluorine is more reactive than other halogens?
It has low F-F bond dissociation energy, high electronegativity and is smaller in size. so, it is
more reactive than other halogens
4 Give the oxidation state of halogen in the following?
a) OF2 = -1 (Mar-23) b) O2F2 = -1 c) Cl2O3 = +3 d) I2O4 = +4 (Mar-23)
5 What are interhalogen compounds? Give examples. (Aug-21, Mar,Jun-22)
Each halogen combines with other halogens to form a series of compounds called
interhalogen compounds.
Eg: IF, IF3, IF5, IF7
Properties of of inter halogen compounds:
1. The central atom will be the larger one.
2. It can be formed only between two halogens.
3. Fluorine can't act as central metal atom due to smaller size.
4. Due to high electronegativity and smaller size chlorine helps the central atom to attain high
coordination number.
5. They can undergo auto ionisation.
6. They are strong oxidizing agents.
6 Uses of helium. (Jun-20, Aug-21, Mar-24)
1. Helium and oxygen mixture is used by divers to prevent the painful dangerous condition
called bends.
2. It is used to provide inert atmosphere in electric arc welding of metals.
3. It has lowest boiling point and used in cryogenics.
4. Used for filling air balloons.
7 Uses of Neon?
1. This is used in advertisements as neon sign.
2. A brilliant red glow is caused by passing electric current through neon gas under low
pressure.
8 Uses of Argon? (Jul-22)
It prevents the oxidation of hot filament and prolongs the life in filament bulbs.
9 Uses of Krypton?
1. It is used in fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs etc.
2. Lamps filled with krypton are used in airports as approaching lights as they can penetrate
through dense fog.
10 Uses of Xenon?
1. It is used in fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs and lasers.
2. It emits intense light in discharge tubes instantly. Due to this it is used in high-speed
electronic flash bulbs used by photographers.

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11 Uses of Radon?
1. It is radioactive and used as a source of gamma rays.
2. It is sealed as small capsules and implanted in the body to destroy malignant i.e. cancer
growth.
12 What is the hybridisation of iodine in IF7? Give its structure
Hybridisation = Sp3d3
Structure = Pentagonal bipyramidal

13 Give the balanced equation for the reaction between chlorine with cold NaOH and hot
NaOH? (Jun-20)
cold NaOH : Cl2 + 2NaOH NaOCl + NaCl + H2O
hot NaOH : 3Cl2 + 6NaOH NaClO3 + 5 NaCl + 3H2O
14 How will you prepare chlorine in the laboratory?
2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8 H2O + 5Cl2 ↑
15 Give the uses of sulphuric acid?
1. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, ammonium sulphate, superphosphate, HCl,
HNO . 3

2. it is is used as drying agent

3. it is used for preparation of pigment, explosives etc.
16 Sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent. Justify with an example? (Mar-24)
HCOOH + H2SO4 CO + H2SO4.H2O
17 Write the reason for the anomalous behaviour of Nitrogen?
1. Small size
2. High electronegativity
3. High ionization energy
4. Non availability of d - orbitals in the valence shell.
18 Write the valence shell electronic configuration of group - 15 elements.
N [He] 2s2 2p3
P [Ne] 3s2 3p3
As [Ar] 4s2 4p3
Sb [Kr] 5s2 5p3
Bi [Xe] 6s2 6p3
19 What happens when PCl5 is heated?
PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
20 Suggest a reason why HF is a weak acid, whereas binary acids of all the other halogens
are strong acids.
Due to the presence of hydrogen bonds in hydrochloric acid they won’t completely ionise. so, it
is a weak acid, but in the case of all other hydrohalic acids they are completely ionised and
therefore they are strong acids.

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21 Write the molecular formula and structural formula for the following molecules.
Molecular Molecular
Molecule Structural Formula Molecule Structural Formula
formula formula
Nitrous Hypo
N2O
oxide phosphoric H4P2O6
Nitric acid
NO
oxide
Ortho
Dinitrogen phosphoric H3PO4
N2O3 acid
trioxide

Nitrogen Pyro
NO2 phosphoric H4P2O7
dioxide
acid
Nitrogen
N2O4 Sulphurous
tetraoxide H2SO3
Acid (Mar-20)

Nitrogen Sulphuric
N2O5 H2SO4
pentoxide Acid

Thio
Hyponitrous Sulphuric H2S2O3
H2N2O2
acid Acid
Dithionous
H2S2O4
Hydronitrous Acid
H4N2O4
acid
Disulphurous
H2S2O5
Acid
Nitrous
HNO2
acid Disulphuric
H2S2O7
Acid
Pernitrous
HOONO
acid
Peroxymono
Sulphuric H2SO5
Nitric Acid
HNO3
acid
Peroxo
Disulphuric H2S2O8
Pernitric Acid (Mar-20)
HNO4
acid
Dithionic
H2S2O6
Acid
Hypo
phosphorous H3PO2 Polythionic
H2Sn+2O6
acid acid

Ortho
phosphorus H3PO3 Phosphine PH3
acid

22 Give the reaction between nitric acid and a basic oxide?

ZnO + 2 HNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + H2O

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23 Draw the structure of phosphine?

24 List the type of hybridisation and structure of xenon compounds?

Compound Hybridisation Shape / Structure
XeF2 3
sp d Linear
XeF4 3
sp d 2 Square planar
XeF6 3
sp d 3 Distorted octahedron
XeOF2 3
sp d T Shaped
XeOF4 3
sp d 2 Square pyramidal
XeO3 sp 3 Pyramidal
25 Give two equations to illustrate the chemical behaviour of phosphine?
317𝐾
Thermal stability: 4PH3 → P4 + 6H2
Basic nature: PH3 + HI PH4I
26 Deduce the oxidation number of oxygen in hypofluorous acid - HOF.
+1 0 -1
H - O - F The oxidation number of oxygen in hypofluorous acid is 0.
27 What type of hybridisation and structure occur in (Sep-20)
Inter halogen compound hybridisation structure
BrF, ClF sp3 Linear
BrF3, ClF3 sp3d T shaped
BrF5, IF5 sp3d2 Square pyramidal
IF7 sp3d3 Pentagonal bipyramidal
28 Differenciate between White and Red phosphorus?
White phosphorus Red phosphorus
1 It is poisonous It is not poisonous
2 It shows Phosphorescence It does not show Phosphorescence
3 Its ignition temperature is very low It does not ignite at low temperatures
4 It has garlic smell It is odourless
5

29 Discuss about the structure of ammonia?

1. Pyramidal shape
2. N-H bond distance is 1.016A°
3. Bond angle is 107°
4. Structure of ammonia may be regarded as a tetrahedral
with one lone pair of electrons but it has pyramidal shape
as shown in the figure.

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30 How will you prepare ammonia using Haber’s process?
In the presence of iron, nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia.
Fe
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
31 Write the preparation of xenon fluoride compounds?
Ni
Xe + F2 → XeF2
400°C
Ni/Acetone
Xe + 2F2 → XeF4
400℃
Ni /200atm
Xe + 3F2 → XeF6
400℃

32 Explain the manufacture of chlorine by Deacon’s process? (Sep-20)

723K
4HCl + O2 → 2H2O + 2Cl2
(Cu2 Cl2 )

33 Explain the bleaching action of Chlorine?

Chlorine is a strong oxidising and bleaching agent because of the nascent oxygen.
H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl
HOCl HCl + (O)
Colouring matter + Nascent oxygen Colourless oxidation product
34 Explain the preparation of bleaching powder? (Mar-20, May-22)
It is prepared by passing chlorine gas through dry slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O
35 Uses of chlorine?
1. Purification of drinking water
2. Bleaching of cotton textiles, paper and rayon.
3. Extraction of gold and Platinum.
36 Why do Noble gases process high ionization energy?
1. Effective nuclear charge is high
2. Completely filled orbital in their outermost shell.
37 What happens when XeF6 undergoes hydrolysis?
on hydrolysis with water vapour XeF6 gives XeO3
XeF6 + 3H2O XeO3 + 6HF
38 What is meant by Holmes signal? (Jun-20)
Phosphine is used for producing smoke screen. In a ship, a container with a mixture of
calcium carbide and calcium phosphide, liberates phosphine and acetylene when thrown into
the sea. The liberated Phosphine catches fire and ignites acetylene. These burning gases
serves as a signal to the approaching ships. This is known as Holmes signal.

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39 HF is not stored in glass bottles. why? (Mar-20)
HF attacks silica silicates present in glass bottles.
Hence HF is not stored in glass bottles and stored in Teflon bottles.
SiO2 + 4HF SiF4 + 2 H2O
Na2SiO3 + 6HF Na2SiF6 + 3 H2O
40 Complete the following reactions.
1. 4 NaCl + MnO2 + 4 H2SO4 Cl2 + MnCl2 + 4 NaHSO4 + 2 H2O
2. NaNO3 + HCl NaCl + HNO3
3. P4 + 3 NaOH + 3 H2O 3 NaH2PO3 + PH3 ↑ (Mar-23)
4. 3 AgNO3 + PH3 Ag3I + 3 HNO3
5. 4 Mg + 10 HNO3 4 Mg(NO3)2 + N2O + 6 H2O
∆
6. KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3O2
7. Cu + Conc. H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2 H2O + SO2 (Mar-23)
8. 2 Sb + 3 Cl2 2 SbCl3
9. 2 HBr + H2SO4 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + Br2
10. XeF6 + 3 H2O XeBO3 + 6 HF (Mar-23)
11. 5 XeO64- + 2 Mn2+ + H+ 2 MnO4- + 5 XeO5 + 7 H2O
12. 2 XeOF4 + SiO2 2 XeO2F2 + SiF4
Ni / 200atm
13. Xe + F2 → XeF2
400℃
41 Define Phosphorescence?
White phosphorus glows in the dark due to oxidation which is called phosphorescence.
42 Define the structure of ozone molecule?
The ozone molecule has a bent shape and symmetrical with delocalised bonding
between the oxygen atoms.

43 Write the uses of Oxygen?

1. Oxygen is one of the essential components for the survival of living organisms.
2. It is used in welding (oxyacetylene welding)
3. Liquid oxygen is used as fuel in rockets etc...
44 Write the uses of Sulphur dioxide?
1. Sulphur dioxide is used in bleaching hair, silk, wool etc...
2. It can be used for disinfecting crops and plants in agriculture.
45 Write the valence shell electronic configuration of group-15 elements?
Valence shell electronic configuration of group-15 elements is ns2np3.
Elements Valence shell electronic configuration
Nitrogen [He] 2s2 2p3
Phosphorus [Ne] 3s2 3p3
Arsenic [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3
Antimony [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3
Bismuth [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3
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4. TRANSITION AND INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
1 What are transition metals? give four examples.
An element whose atom or cation with an incomplete d-subshell occupies the central position
of the periodic table between s and p-block elements is called transition metals.
Eg: Gold, silver, copper, iron.
2 what are inner transition elements?
• The elements in which the electrons are filled in (n-2)f in orbitals are called f block elements
or inner transition elements.
• In the modern periodic table, in the sixth period after lanthanum, the electrons are
preferentially filled in the inner 4f subshell and these 14 elements following lanthanum
having similar chemical properties are called lanthanides.
• In the seventh period after actinium, the electrons preferentially field in the inner 5f subshell
and these 14 elements following actinium have similar chemical properties called actinoids.
3 Describe the preparation of potassium dichromate?
Ore: Chromite ore
Concentration: Gravity separation process.
900−1000℃
4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2
2 Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
4 Explain why Cr2+ is strongly reducing while Mn3+ is strongly oxidizing.
➢ E0 value for Cr2+ is negative (-0.41V),
➢ If E0 of a metal is large and negative, the metal is a powerful reducing agent.
➢ Whereas E0 Value for Mn3+ is positive (+1.57V).
➢ On the other hand, Mn3+ acts as oxidising agent.
5 Justify the position of lanthanides and actinides in the periodic table?
• The actual position of lanthanides in the periodic table is at group 3 and period number 6.
However, in the sixth period after lanthanum, the electrons are preferentially filled in inner
for f subshell and these 14 elements following lanthanum show similar chemical properties,
grouped together and placed at the bottom of the periodic table.
• Similarly, the 14 elements following actinium resemble in the physical and chemical
properties, grouped together and placed at the bottom of the periodic table.
• If we place these elements after lanthanum in the periodic table below for 4d series, the
properties of the elements belong to a group would be different and it would affect the
proper structure of the periodic table. Hence a separate position is provided to the inner
transition elements at the bottom of the periodic table.
6 Explain the oxidation states of 4d series elements?
The oxidation states of 4d series vary from +3 to +8. The highest oxidation state of 4d
elements were found in their compounds with higher electronegative elements like O, F and
Cl. Eg: RuO4.
7 Which is more stable Fe3+ or Fe2+? Why? (May-22, Mar-24)
➢ The electronic configuration of Fe2+  [Ar] 3d6 4s0
➢ The electronic configuration of Fe3+  [Ar] 3d5 4s0
➢ Fe3+ is more stable, since it has half-filled orbitals.

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8 What is Lanthanide contraction and what are the effects of Lanthanide contraction?
(Sep-20, Mar-24)
As we move across 4f series, the atomic and ionic radii of Lanthanoids show gradual
decrease with increase in atomic number. This decrease in ionic size is called
Lanthanoid contraction.
Consequences of Lanthanoid contraction:
➢ Size and radius of ions decreses
➢ Basicity decreases
➢ In the complete f - series very small change in radii of lanthanoids is observed and
their chemical properties are quite similar.
➢ The elements of the second and third transition series resemble each other more
closely than the elements of the first and second transition series.
9 What are interstitial compounds? (Jun-20, Aug-21, May-22)
➢ An interstitial compound is formed when small atoms like hydrogen, boron,
carbon or nitrogen are trapped in the interstitial holes in a metal lattice.
➢ They are usually non-stoichiometric compounds. Eg: TiC, Mn4N
Properties
➢ Hard and show electrical and thermal conductivity.
➢ Have high melting points higher than those of pure metals.
➢ The hydrides are used as powerful reducing agents.
➢ Metallic carbides are chemically inert.
10 Calculate the number of unpaired electrons in Ti3+, Mn2+ and calculate the spin only
magnetic moment. (Aug-21)
Ions Unpaired Magnetic moment
electrons µS = √𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐) BM
3+ [Ar]3d1 4s0 = 1 = √1(1 + 2) = √3 = 1.73 BM
Ti
2+ [Ar]3d5 4s0 = 5 = √5(5 + 2) = √35 = 5.91 BM
Mn
11 Explain briefly how +2 States become more and more stable in the first half of the first-
row transition elements with increasing atomic number.
E0 M2+/M for 3d series upto Mn is highly negative. Therefore +2 states become more stable
in the first half of the first-row transition elements.
12 Actinoid contraction is Greater from element to element than the Lanthanide
contraction. Why?
This is due to poor shielding effect by 5f electrons in actinoids as compared to that by 4f
electrons in lanthanoids.
13 Explain the variation EOM3+/M2+ in 3d series?
• The standard electrode potential for the M3+/M2+ half-cell gives the
relative stability between M3+ and M2+.
• The negative values for titanium, vanadium and chromium indicate that the higher
oxidation state is preferred. If we want to reduce such a stable Cr3+ ion, strong
reducing agent which has high negative value for reduction potential like metallic zinc
(E=- 0.76V) is required.
• The high reduction potential of Mn3+ / Mn2+ indicates Mn2+ is more stable than Mn3+. For
Fe3+ / Fe2+ the reduction potential is 0.77V, and this low value indicates that both Fe3+
and Fe2+ can exist under normal conditions.
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14 Compare the ionization enthalpies of first series of the transition elements?
Ionization energy of transition elements is intermediate between those of s and p b l o c k
elements. As we move from left to right in a transition metal series, the ionization enthalpy
increases as expected. This is due to increase in nuclear charge corresponding to the filling of
d electrons.
15 Compare lanthanides and actinides. (Jul-22, Mar-23)
Lanthanoids Actinoids

1. Differentiating electrons enters in 4f Differentiating electrons enters in 5f orbital.

orbital.
2. Binding energy of 4f orbitals are higher. Binding energy of 5f orbitals are lower.
They show less tendency to form They show greater tendency to form
3.
Complexes. complexes.
Most of the actinoids are coloured. For Eg.
4. Most of the lanthanoids are colourless
U3+ (Red), U4+(Green), UO22+(Yellow)
They do form oxocations such as U022+,
5. They do not form oxocations
NpO22+
Besides +3 oxidation states lanthanoids Besides +3 oxidation states actinoids show
6. show +2 and +4 oxidation states in few higher oxidation states such as +4,
cases. +5, +6 and +7.
16 Why Europium (II) is more stable than cerium (II)?

Europium (II) Cerium (II)

Electronic configuration of Electronic configuration of Cerium
Europium is [Xe]4f 75d06s0 (II) is [Xe]4f 15d16s0

In Ce2+, 4f and 5d sub shells are

In Eu2+, 4f sub shell is half filled
partially filled.
Eu2+ is more stable Ce2+ is less stable
17 Out of Lu(OH)3 and La(OH)3 Which is more basic and why?
La(OH)3 is most basic and Lu(OH)3 is least basic. Due to lanthanoid contraction. As the
size of lanthanoid ions decreases from La3+ to Lu3+, the covalent character of the hydroxide
increases and hence the basic strength decrease.
18 Why first ionization enthalpy of chromium is lower than that of zinc?

Chromium Zinc
1) Chromium (Z=24) 1) Zinc (Z=30)
2) Electronic Configuration of 2) Electronic configuration of Zinc
Chromium is [Ar] 3d5 4s1 is [Ar] 3d104s2
3) It can easily lose 4s1 electron to 3) It is difficult to remove one
give stable half filled (3d5) electron from 4s2 (completely
configuration. Hence first filled). Hence first ionization
ionization enthalpy of chromium is enthalpy of zinc is comparatively
less more.

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19 Which is stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+ ?
If the standard electrode potential (E°) of a metal is large and negative, the metal is a
powerful reducing agent, because it loses electrons easily.
Cr2++2e- Cr E0 =-0.91V

Fe2++2e- Fe E0 =-0.44V
Since Cr2+ has larger negative value of E0, Cr2+ is a stronger reducing agent than Fe2+.
20 Why do zirconium and hafnium exhibit similar properties?
Zirconium and Hafnium exhibit similar properties due to lanthanoid contraction.
21 Which metal in the 3d the series exhibits +1 oxidation state more frequently and why?
(Jun-20)
Copper exhibits +1 oxidation state in the 3d series.
Reason: Electronic configuration of Cu = [Ar] 3d104s1
It can easily lose 4s1 electron to give stable 3d10 configuration. Hence, it exhibits +1
oxidation state
22 Transition metals show high melting points why?
The high melting points of transition metals are attributed to the involvement of greater
number of electrons in the inter atomic metallic bonding from (n-1)d electrons in addition to ns
electrons.
23 Why transition elements show variable oxidation states? (Aug-21)
Due to very small energy difference between (n-1)d and ns orbitals.
24 Give the electronic configuration of Copper and Chromium.
Chromium [Cr24] = [Ar] 3d5 4s1
Copper [Cu29] = [Ar] 3d10 4s1
25 Explain why Mn2+ is more stable than Mn3+?
Half field and completely filled orbitals are more stable than the partially filled orbitals. so
Mn (3d5) with half-filled orbital is more stable than Mn3+ (3d4).
2+

26 Differenciate paramagnetic and diamagnetic.

Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
1 Having unpaired electrons All paired electrons
2 Attracted by external magnetic field Repelled by external magnetic field
3 Eg- Ferrous Eg- Zinc
27 Why do transition elements and its compounds act as catalyst?
Transition metals has energytically available d-orbitals that can accept electrons from
reactant molecule or metal can form bond with reactant molecule using its d electron.
28 Explain why transition metals form alloys?
• atomic sizes are similar
• one metal atom can be easily replaced by another metal atom from its crystal lattice to form
an alloy.
29 State Hume- Rothery rule for alloy formation?
• The difference between the atomic radii of solvent and solute should be less than 15%
• Both the solvent and solute must have the same crystal structure and valency and their
electronegativity difference must be close to zero.
30 Explain why d block elements form complexes?
• Transition metal ions are small and highly charged
• They have vacant low energy d-orbitals to accept an electron pair donated by other groups.
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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
31 Electronic configuration common oxidation States
Landanide [Xe]4f1 - 14 5d0 - 1 6s2 +3 (Others - +2, +4)
actinoids [Rn]5f2 - 14 6d0 - 2 7s2 +3 (Others - +2, +4, +5, +6, +7)
32 What are actinides? Give three examples.
The 14 elements following actinium from Thorium to Lawrencium are called actinoids.
Eg: Thorium, Uranium, Lawrencium
33 complete the following reactions
a) 2 MnO4 2- + 2 H+ 2 MnO4 - + H2
𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐝
b) C6H5CH3 → C6H5COOH
𝐊𝐌𝐧𝐎𝟒

c) 2 MnO4 - + 10 Fe2+ → 2 Mn2+ + 10 Fe3+ + 8 H2O

+ 16𝐻 +
∆
d) 2 KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
Red hot

e) Cr2O7 2- + 6 I- + 14 H+ 2 Cr3+ + 3 I2 + 7 H2O

f) Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
34 Write the electronic configuration of Ce4+ and Co2+
Electronic Configuration of Ce4+  [Xe] 4f0 5d0 6s0
Electronic configuration of Co2+  [Ar] 3d7 4s0
35 The E° M2+/M value for copper is positive. Suggest a possible reason for this.
In 3d series as we move from Ti to Zn, the standard reduction potential E0 M2+/M
value is approaching towards less negative value and copper has a positive reduction
potential. i.e., elemental copper is more stable than Cu2+.
36 Describe the variable Oxidation state of 3d series elements.
• The first transition metal scandium exhibits only +3 oxidation state, but all other
transition elements exhibit variable oxidation states by losing electrons from (n-1)d
orbital and ns orbitals as the energy difference between them is very small.
• Number of oxidation states increases with the number of electrons available.
• Number of oxidation states decreases as the number of paired electrons increases.
• The first and last elements show a smaller number of oxidation states and the
middle elements with a greater number of oxidation states.
37 Explain chromyl chloride test? (Mar-20)
Chloride salt + potassium dichromate + con. H2SO4 chromyl chloride (orange red
vapours)

Lead acetate
chromyl chloride gas + NaOH sodium chromate → Lead chromate (yellow
precipate)
38 Write a note on Zeigler Natta catalyst. Give its use. (Jul-22)
A mixture of TiCl4 and tri alkyl aluminium is used for polymerisation.
CH3
TiCl4 +Al(C2 H5 )3
n CH3-CH=CH2 → [ CH – CH2 ] n
39 Define Standard electrode potential?
Standard electrode potential is the value of the standard emf of a cell in which molecular
hydrogen under standard pressure (1atm) and temperature (273K) is oxidised to solvated
protons at the electrode.
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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
5. COORDINATION CHEMISTRY
1 Give the difference between double salt and coordination compounds. (Sep-20, A-21, M-24)
Doublesalt Coordinationcompound
Double salts lose their identity in aqueous They don’t lose their identity in aqueous
1. solution by completely dissociating in to solution as they do not ionize completely (the
ions in the solvent complex ion further doesnot get ionized)
They give test for all the constituent ions They do not show test for all their constituent
2.
ions for example in K4[Fe(CN)6], it does not
show the test for Fe2+ and CN-
3. Example: K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Example: K4[Fe(CN)6]
2 Arrange the following in order of increasing molar conductivity
i) Mg [Cr(NH3)(Cl)5] ii) [Cr(NH3)5Cl]3[CoF6]2 iii) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3]
On ionisaton
i) Mg [Cr(NH3)(Cl)5] ➔ Mg2+ + [Cr(NH3)(Cl)5]2-
ii) [Cr(NH3)5Cl]3[CoF6]2➔3[Cr(NH3)5Cl]2+ + 2[CoF6]3-
iii) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3] ➔ does not ionize
As the number of ions in solution increases, their molar conductivity also increases. Therefore
[Cr(NH3)3Cl3]<Mg [Cr(NH3)(Cl)5]<[Cr(NH3)5Cl]3[CoF6]2
3 Write the IUPAC names for the following complexes.
Na2[Ni(EDTA )] Sodium 2,2’,2’’,2’’’-(ethane-1,2-diyldinitrilo)tetraacetato Nickelate(II)
[Ag(CN)2]- dicyanido argentate(I) ion
[Co(en)3]2(SO4)3 tris(ethane1,2-diamine) cobalt(III) sulphate
[Co(ONO)(NH3)5]2+ pentaamminenitrito-O-cobalt(III)ion
[Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)] diamminechloridonitrito- N-platinum(II)
4 Write the formula for the following coordination compounds.
Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II) K4[Fe(CN)6]
pentacarbonyl iron(II) [Fe(CO)5]
pentaamminenitrito- N-cobalt(III)ion [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]2+
hexaamminecobalt(III) sulphate [Co(NH3)6]2(SO4)3
sodium tetrafluoridodihydroxidochromate(III) Na3[CrF4(OH)2]
5 Give an example of coordination compound used in medicine and two examples of
biologically important coordination compounds. (Jun-20, Mar-24)
Coordination compound used in medicine:
Ca- EDTA chelate radioactive poisoning removing lead and radioactive metal ions from
body.
Cis- Platin Anti tumour drug cancer treatment
Biologically important coordination compounds:
Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamine) - only vitamin consist of metal ion (Co2+) surrounded by
Porphyrin ligand.
Hemoglobin (RCB) - Oxygen career in blood
Chlorophyll - useful in photosynthesis in plants
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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
6 Classify the following ligands based on the number of donor atoms.
a) NH3 b) en c) ox2- d) triaminotriethylamine e) pyridine

Ligand Number of donoratom Type of ligand

NH3 1 (1N-donor) monodentate
En 2 (2N-donor) Bidentate
ox2- (oxalato) 2 (2 –O- donor) Bidentate
3 (3N-donor)
Triaminotriethylamine Tridentate
Central nitrogen atom cannot be cooridnated
Pyridine 1 (N-donor) monodentate
7 Give one test to differentiate [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5 SO4]Cl
[Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4➔[Co(NH3)5Cl]2+ + SO42- [Co(NH3)5 SO4]Cl➔[Co(NH3)5 SO4]+ + Cl-
• This complex produces sulphate ion in • This complex produces chloride ion in
aqueous solution. aqueous solution.
• On addition of BaCl2, white precipitate • On addition of AgNO3, curdy white
of BaSO4 is produced. precipitate of AgCl is produced.
• No reaction with AgNO3 • No reaction with BaCl2
8 Explain why [Ti(H2O)6] is coloured while [Sc(H2O)6]3+ is colourless?
3+

[Ti(H2O)6]3+ [Sc(H2O)6]3+
Central metal ion Ti3+ Sc3+
outer electronic
3d1 3d0
configuration
number of unpaired
1 0
electrons
Ti3+ has one electron. d-d no unpaired electron. d-d
electron transition occurs. so, it electron transition does not
is coloured occur. so, it is colourless
9 In an octahedral crystal field, draw the figure to show splitting of d orbitals. (Sep-20)
The energy of the orbitals dx2-y2 and dz2 (represented as eg orbitals) will increase by
3/5∆ₒ while that of the other three orbitals dxy, dyz and dxz (represented as t2g orbitals)
decrease by 2/5∆ₒ. Here, ∆ₒ represents the crystal field splitting energy in the octahedral field.

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
10 In a tetrahedral crystal field, draw the figure to show splitting of d orbitals
The energy of t2g orbitals increases by 2/5Δt and that of e orbitals decreases by 3/5Δt as
shown below. when compared to the octahedral field, this splitting is inverted and the spliting
energy is less. The relation between the crystal field splitting energy in octahedral and
4
tetrahedral ligand field is given by the expression Δt = Δo
9

11 Write the postulates of werner's theory. (Jun-20, May-22)

1. Most of the element’s exhibit, two types of valences.
• Primary valence
• Secondary valence
Primary valence Secondary valence
2 It denotes oxidation state of the metal atom. It denotes the coordination number.
It is positive in most of the cases and zero in It is satisfied by negative ions, neutral
3 certain cases. They are always satisfied by molecules, positive ions or the
negative ions. combination of these.
4 It is non directional It is directional
5. According to Werner, there are two spheres of attraction around a metal atom/ion in a
complex.
• The inner sphere is known as coordination sphere.
• The outer sphere is called ionisation sphere.
6. The geometry of the complex is determined by the spacial arrangement of the groups which
satisfy the secondary valence. If the secondary valency is,
Six - octahedral geometry.
Four -either tetrahedral or square planar geometry.
Limitation: it does not explain their colour and the magnetic properties.
12 What are hydrate isomers? Explain with an example. (Mar-20)
The exchange of water molecules in the crystal lattice with a ligand in the coordination
entity will give different isomers. These types of isomers are called hydrate isomers.
Example : CrCl3.6H2O has three hydrate isomers as shown below.
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 Violet colour gives three chloride ions in solution
[Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2.H2O Pale green colour gives two chloride ions in solution
[Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O Dark green colour gives one chloride ion in solution.

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
13 What is linkage isomerism? Explain with an example.
This type of isomers arises when an ambidentate ligand is bonded to the central metal
atom / ion through either of its two different donor atoms. (-NO2- / -ONO-)
Example: [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]2+ & [Co(NH3)5(ONO)]2+
14 Explain optical isomerism in coordination compounds with an example.
• Coordination compounds which possess chirality exhibit optical isomerism.
• The pair of two optically active isomers which are mirror images of each
other are called enantiomers.
• Their solutions rotate the plane of the plane polarised light either clockwise are
called 'd' (dextro rotatory) or anticlockwise are called 'l' (levo rotatory).
• The octahedral complexes of type [M(xx)3] n±, [M(xx)2AB]n± and [M(xx)2B2]n±
exhibit optical isomerism.

Example:

15 Coordination
Coordination compound Hybridisation Geometry
Number
[CuCl2]-, [Ag(CN)2]- 2 sp Linear
[HgI3]- 3 sp2 Trigonal planar
[Ni(CO)4], [Ni(Cl)4]2- 4 sp3 Tetrahedral
[Ni(CN)4]2-, [Pt(NH3)4]2+ 4 dsp2 Square planar
[Fe(CO)5] 5 dsp3 Trigonal bipyramidal
[Co(NH3)6]3+, [Ti(H2o)6]3+,
[Fe(CN)6]2-, [Fe(CN)6]3- 6 d2sp3 Octahedral
Inner orbital complexes
[CoF6]4-, [FeF6]4-,
Fe(H2O)6]2+ 6 sp3d2 Octahedral
Outer orbital complexes
16 What is crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE)?
Crystal Field stabilization energy (CFSE) is defined as the energy difference of electronic
configurations in the ligand field (ELF) and the isotropic field/bary centre (Eiso).
CFSE = { ELF} – { Eiso}
= {[nt2g (-0.4) + neg (0.6)] Δo + np P} – {n’p P}
nt2g = No. of electrons in t2g orbitals
neg = No. of electrons in eg orbitals

np = No. of electron pairs in the ligand field

n’p = No. of electron pairs in the isotropic field (bary centre)

P = pairing energy

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
17 What is crystal field splitting energy?
• The splitting of five d-orbitals of the metal ion in the presence of ligand field into two sets
having different energies is called crystal field splitting or energy level splitting.
•The orbitals lying along the axes dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals will experience strong repulsion and
raise in energy to a greater extent than the orbitals with lobes directed between the axes
dxy, dyz and dzx. Thus, the degenerate d orbitals now split into two sets and the process is
called crystal field splitting. The difference in the energy of the two sets is called crystal field
splitting energy (Δ).
hc
• The crystal field splitting energy (Δ) is given by, Δ = hν = = hc𝜈̅
λ
• The relation between the crystal field splitting energy in octahedral and tetrahedral ligand
4
field is given by, Δt = Δo.
9
18 Explain valence bond theory?
1. The ligand metal Bond is covalent in nature
2. Each ligand should have a loan pair of electrons
3. In order to accommodate the electron pairs donated by the ligands, the central metal ion
provide required number of vacant
4. Please vacant orbitals of Central metal atom undergo hybridization
5. The vacant hybridised orbitals of Central metal ion, linearly overlap with field orbital of the
ligands to formsigma bond
6. The hybridised orbitals are directional and have a definite geometry to the complex ion.
7.
Coordination
Hybridisation Geometry Examples
Number
2 SP Linear [CuCl2]-
8.

Inner spare complex Outer sphere complex

(n-1)d orbitals or involved in nd orbitals are involves in hybridization
hybridization
Low spin complexes High spin complexes
9.
unpaired electron paramagnetic
paired electron diamagnetic
-
10. Ligands such as CO, CN , en and NH3 present in complexes cause paring of electrons in
central metal atoms are called strong field ligands.
11. Greater the overlapping greater is the bond strength.
19 What are the limitations of VB theory? (Aug-21, Jul-22)
• it does not explain that colour of the complex.
• it considers only there spin only magnetic moments and does not consider the other
components of magnetic moments.
• it does not provide a quantitative explanation as to why certain complexes are inner orbital
complexes and the other or outer orbital complexes for the same metal. For eg, [Fe(CN)6]4-
is diamagnetic (low spin) whereas [FeF6]4- is paramagnetic (high spin).

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
20 A solution of [Ni(H2O)6]2+ is green, whereas a solution of [Ni(CN)4]2- is colourless. Why?
[Ni(H2O)6]2+ [Ni(CN)4]2-
Central metal ion Ni2+ Ni2+
Electronic 3d8 4s0 3d8 4s0
configuration ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂
3d8 4s0 3d8 4s0
Number of
unpaired 2 0
electrons
reason for H2O is a weak ligand so it does not No unpaired electron because
coloured / 2+
pair the two unpaired electron of Ni . strong ligand pairs the
colourless Hence d-d transition is possible. So, electrons. Hence d-d
Red colour is absorbed and transition is not possible. So,
complementary colour green emitted. it is colourless.
21 Why tetrahedral complexes do not exhibit geometrical isomerism.
All the four ligands are adjacent to one another in tetrahedral complex. As the relative
positions of donor atoms of ligands attached to the central atom are same with respect to each
other they do not exhibit geometrical isomerism.
22 Discuss briefly the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls. (Mar-23)
• In metal carbonyls, the bond between metal atom and the carbonyl ligand consists of two
components.
• An electron pair donation from the carbon atom of carbonyl ligand into a vacant d-orbital of
σ bond
central metal atom. This electron pair donation forms M ← CO sigma bond.
• This sigma bond formation increases the electron density in metal d orbitals
• In order to compensate for this increased electron density, a filled metal d-orbital interacts
with the empty * orbital on the carbonyl ligand and transfers the added electron
density back to the ligand. This second component is called -back bonding.
• Thus, in metal carbonyls, electron density moves from ligand to metal through
sigma bonding and from metal to ligand through  bonding.
• This synergic effect accounts for strong M ←CO bond in metal carbonyls.

23 Define spectrochemical series?

Based on the spectral data, crystal field splitting power of various ligands for a given
metal ion, are in the following order

The above series is known as spectrochemical series. The ligands present on the right
side of the series such as carbonyl causes relatively larger crystal field splitting are called
strong ligands, while the ligands on the left side are called weak ligands which causes
relatively smaller crystal field splitting.

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
24 Based on VB theory explain why [Cr(NH3)6]3+ is paramagnetic, while [Ni(CN)4]2- is
diamagnetic?
Complex [Cr(NH3)6]3+ [Ni(CN)4]2-
Central metal atom/ ion Cr(III) - 3d3 4s0 Ni(II) - 3d8 4s0
and its electronic
configuration
Outer orbitals of metal 3d3 4s0 3d8 4s0
atom/ion ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿

Nature of ligand NH3 is a weak ligand CN- is a strong field ligand

pairing of 3d electrons in causes the pairing of 3d
the metal does not take electrons in the metal
place
Magnetic property Paramagnetic. Therefore, the Diamagnetic. Therefore,
magnetic moment is the magnetic moment is
µs= √3(3 + 2) µs= 0 BM
µs= 3.87 BM
25 Based on VB theory explain why [Ni(CN)4] 2- is diamagnetic, while [NiCl4]2- is
paramagnetic?
Complex [Ni(CN)4]2- [NiCl4]2-
Central metal atom/ ion Ni(II) - 3d8 4s0 Ni(II) - 3d8 4s0
and its electronic
configuration
Outer orbitals of metal 3d8 4s0 3d8 4s0
atom/ion ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿

Nature of ligand CN- is a strong field ligand Cl- is a weak field ligand. So
causes the pairing of 3d it won’t pair 3d electrons in
electrons in the metal the metal
Magnetic property Diamagnetic. Therefore, the Diamagnetic. Therefore,
magnetic moment is the magnetic moment is
µs= 0 BM µ = √2(2 + 2) µB = 2.8 BM
26 On the basis of VB explain the nature of bonding in [Co(C2O4)3]3- ?
Complex [Co(C2O4)3]3-
Central metal atom/ ion and its Co(III) - 3d6 4s0
electronic configuration
Outer orbitals of metal atom/ion 3d6 4s0
↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
Nature of ligand C2O42- is a weak field ligand which does not pair
3d electrons in the metal
Magnetic property Paramagnetic. Therefore, the magnetic moment is
µ = √4(4 + 2) µB = 4.90 BM
Hybridisation / GFeometry sp3d2 / Octahedral (outer orbital complex)

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
27 Write the oxidation state, coordination number, nature of ligand, magnetic property and
electronic configuration in octahedral crystal field for the complex K4[Mn(CN)6].
K4[Mn(CN)6]
Oxidation state 4(+1) + x + 6(-1) = 0; x = +2
Coordination number 6
Nature of ligand CN- Strong field ligand
Magnetic property Paramagnetic (one unpaired electron)

Electronic configuration in octahedral crystal field t52g e0g

28 Draw all possible geometrical isomers of the complex [Co(en)2 Cl2]+ and identify the
optically active isomers.

Optically active isomers Optically inactive isomer

29 Give an example for complex of the type [Ma2b2c2] where a, b, c are monodentate
ligands and give the possible isomers.

Eg: [Pt Cl2 (NH3)2 (Py)2 ]2+.

30 What is the coordination entity formed when excess of liquid ammonia is added to an
aqua solution of copper sulphate?
When excess of liquid ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of copper sulphate it
gives tetraammine copper (II) sulphate.
CuSO4 + 4NH3➔ [Cu(NH3)4]SO4
So, the coordination entity is: [Cu(NH3)4]2+
31 What is central metal ion in complexes? (Mar-23)
The metal ion which accepts electron pair donated by ligands is called as central metal ion.
32 Define Ligands?
The ligands are the atoms or groups of atoms bound to the central atom/ion. The atom in
a ligand that is bound directly to the central metal atom is known as a donor atom, which
donates an electron pair to the central metal atom.

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33 In the complex, [Co(en)2 Cl2]Cl, identify the following (Mar-24)
i) IUPAC IUPAC name - Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride
ii) Central metal ion - Cobalt(III) (or) Co3+
iii) coordination number - 6

6. SOLID STATE
1 Define unit cell? (Aug-21) (Jul-22)
A basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid is called as a unit cell.
2 Give any three characteristics of ionic crystals?
1. How high melting points.
2. Do not conduct electricity in solid state.
3. Conduct electricity in molten state.
4. They are hard and brittle.
3 Differentiate crystalline and amorphous solids. (Sep-20, May-22)

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids

Long range orderly arrangement
1 Short range, random arrangement of constituents
of constituents
2 Definite shape Regular shape
3 Anisotropic in nature Isotropic like liquids
They are considered as pseudo solids or super cold
4 They are true solids
liquids
5 They have sharp melting points Gradually soft and over range of temperature
6 Eg: NaCl, Diamond, etc Eg: Rubber, Glass, etc
4 Classify the following solids.
i) P4 - Molecular solid
ii) Brass - Metallic solid
iii) Diamond - Covalent solid
iv) NaCl - Ionic solid
v) Iodine - Molecular solid
5 Distinguish between isotropy and anisotropy in solids? (Jun-20)
Isotropy Anisotropy
1 uniformity in all direction it depends on the direction of measurement
It has identical values of physical
They show different values of physical
properties such as refractive index,
2 properties when measured along different
electrical conductance etc., in all
directions
direction
3 Eg: Glass Eg: NaCl

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
6 Write the general characteristics of solids?
1. It has definite volume and shape
2. Rigid and incompressible
3. Have strong Cohesive forces
4. Have short interatomic, ionic or molecular distance
5. Their constituents have fixed positions and only oscillate about their mean positions
7 Types of solids and properties?
Types of solids Ionic crystal Covalent Molecular Metallic crystal
crystal crystal
structural units Cations and Atoms Molecules Positive metal
Anions ions and a cloud
of electrons
Forces Electrostatic Covalent bond Vander waals Metallic bond
attractive forces forces
Example NaCl Diamond Solid CO2 Gold
8 Types of molecular solids
Non-polar molecular Polar molecular solids Hydrogen bonded
solids molecular solids
1 Week dispersion forces dipole-dipole interaction Hydrogen bond
or London forces
2 Low melting point Higher melting point Soft solids
3 Eg: Naphthalene Eg: CO2 Eg: Solid ice
9 Calculate the number of atoms in
Unit cell sc bcc fcc (Mar-23)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁𝑓
𝑁 8
( 8𝑐 ) = ( 8 ) = ( 𝑐 ) + ( 𝑏) = ( 𝑐) + ( )
No. of atoms in a unit 8 1 8 2
cell 8 1 8 6
=1 =( + )=2 =( + )=4
8 1 8 2
10 Explain briefly seven types of unit cell?

Name of unit cell Edge lengths Angle

1 Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°
2 Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90°
3 Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β = 90°, γ = 120°
4 Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90°
5 Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90°
6 Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 90°, β ≠ 90°
7 Triclinic a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°
11 What is the two-dimensional coordination number of a molecule in square close packed
layer?
Coordination number = 4
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12 Distinguish between hexagonal close packing and cubic close packing?
Hexagonal close packing Cubic close packing
1 This is ‘aba’ pattern of arrangement This is ‘aba’ pattern of arrangement
2 The spheres can be arranged in such a The third layer is different from other two
way that the third layer is directly over layers and the stacking of layers is continued
the first layer (abcabc type)
3 It is based on hexagonal cubic unit cell It is based on the face centred cubic unit cell
4 The tetrahedral voids of the second The third layer may be placed over the
layer are covered by the spheres of the second layer in such a way that all spheres of
third layer the third layer fit in octahedral voids
13 Distinguish tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
Tetrahedral voids Octahedral voids
1 It is formed when a spheres of second The void in the first layer (a) are partially
layer (b) placed above the void of first covered by the spheres of layer (b) is called
layer (a) as octahedral void
2 If the number of closed packed spheres If the number of closed packed spheres be
be ‘n’ then, the number of tetrahedral ‘n’, then the number of octahedral voids is
voids is equal to 2n equal to n
3 It constitutes four spheres - three in the This constitutes six spheres - three in the
lower layer (a) and one in the upper layer lower layer (a) and three in the upper layer
(b) (b)
4 When the centres of these four spheres When the centres of these six spheres are
are joined, a tetrahedron is formed joined, an octahedron is formed
14 What is meant by the term “coordination number”? What is the coordination number of
atoms in a bcc structure? (Aug-20, May-22)
The number of nearest neighbours that surrounding a particle in a crystal is called the
coordination number of that particle.
Coordination number in bcc = 8, fcc = 12 and sc = 6
15 What are point defects?
If imperfections in solids occur due to missing atoms, displaced atoms or extra atoms,
those imperfections are called point defects.
1. stiochiometric defects
a. Schottky defect b. Frenkel defect
2. non - stiochiometric defects
a. metal excess defects b. metal deficiency defects
3. Impurity defects
16 What is mean by crystal lattice?
The regular arrangement of constituents (atoms, ions or molecules) throughout the
crystal is called as crystal lattice.
17 Define F - centres?
The anionic vacancies which are occupied by unpaired electrons are called F centres
18 Why ionic crystals are hard and brittle?
Ionic crystals are formed by the strong electrostatic attraction between cations and
anions. Strong external force needs to change the relative positions of ions. Hence ionic
crystal is hard and brittle.
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19 Define types of unit cells?
1. Primitive unit cell: contains only one type of lattice point. Eg: sc
2. Non - primitive unit cell: there are additional lattice points, either on a face of the unit
cell or within the unit cell. Eg: bcc, fcc
20 Sodium metal crystallizes in bcc structure with the edge length of the unit cell
4.3 x 10-8 cm. calculate the radius of sodium atom.
√3 1.732 X 4.3 X 10−8
r= a= = 1.86 x 10-8 cm.
4 4
21 Explain AAAA and ABABA and ABCABC type of three-dimensional
packing with the help of Neet diagram.
i) AAAA type of three-dimensional packing:
• This is simple cubic arrangement. This can be obtained by repeating
AAAA type two dimensional arrangements in three dimensions.
• Spheres in one layer sitting directly on the top of those in the previous
layer so that all layers are identical.
• Each sphere is in contact with 6 neighbouring spheres - four in its own
layer, one above and one below it. Hence, it's coordination number is 6.
ii) ABABA type of three-dimensional packing:
• This is body centred cubic arrangement
• The second layer is formed by arranging the spheres in
the depressions between the space in the layer A
• Third layer is repeated like the first layer. This ABABA
pattern is repeated throughout the crystal
• Each sphere has a coordination number 8. Four neighbours in the layer above and four
neighbours in the layer below it.

iii) ABC ABC type of three-dimensional packing:

• This is face centered cubic arrangement
• First layer is formed by arranging the spheres as in the case of two dimensional ABAB
arrangements. This is layer a.
• Second layer is formed by placing the spheres in the depressions of the first layer. This is
layer b.
• There are two voids formed tetrahedral and octahedral voids.
• The void in the first layer (a) are partially covered by the spheres of layer (b), it is an
octahedral void

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• The third layer (c) maybe placed over the second layer (b) in such a way that all the
spheres of the third layer fit in octahedral voids.
• This third layer (c) is different from the other two layers (a) and (b). This is called cubic
closed packed structure.
• Coordination number of each sphere is 12 - six neighbouring spheres in its own layer, three
in the upper and three in the lower layer.
22 Define packing fraction or packing efficiency? (Jul-22)
total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell
Packing efficiency = x 100
volume of the unit cell
23 Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of simple cubic crystal? (Mar-24)
total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell
Packing efficiency = x 100
volume of the unit cell
Volume of cube = a x a x a = a3
a
Radius of the sphere from figure, a = 2r  r =
2
4
Volume of the sphere with radius ‘r’ = πr3
3
4 a 3 πa3
= π( ) =
3 2 6 aa
The number of spheres belongs to a unit cell in sc arrangement is
1.
πa3
1×
6
Packing efficiency = 3 x 100 = 52.31%
a
24 Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of body centered cubic crystal?
total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell
Packing efficiency = x 100
volume of the unit cell
Volume of cube = a x a x a = a3
In ΔABC,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC = √AB2 + BC2 = √a2 + a2 = √2a
In ΔAGC,
AG2 = AC2 + CG2
2
AG = √AC2 + CG 2 = √(√2a) + a2 = √3a
from figure, AG = 4r
√3a = 4r
√3
r= a
4
3
4 3 4 √3 √3
Volume of the sphere with radius ‘r’ = πr = π ( a) = πa3
3 3 4 16
The number of spheres belongs to a unit cell in bcc arrangement is 2.
√3
2× πa3 √3 𝜋
16
Packing efficiency = X 100 = X 100 = 68%
a3 8
25 Calculate the percentage efficiency of packing in case of face centered cubic crystal?

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total volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell
Packing efficiency = x 100
volume of the unit cell
Volume of cube = a x a x a = a3
In ΔABC,
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
AC = √AB2 + BC2 = √a2 + a2 = √2a
from figure, AC = 4r
√2a = 4r
√2 a
r=
4
3
4 4 √2 𝑎 √2 πa3
Volume of the sphere with radius ‘r’ = πr3 = π( ) =
3 3 4 24
The number of spheres belongs to a unit cell in bcc arrangement is 2.
√2 𝜋𝑎3
4× √2𝜋
24
Packing efficiency = 3 X 100 = X 100 = 74%
a 6

26 Explain schottky defect and frenkel defect? (Mar-23)

Schottky defect (Jun-20) Frenkel defect (Mar-20) (Jul-22)
1 Arises due to the missing of equal number Arises due to the dislocation of ions from its
of cations and anions from the crystal crystal lattice and occupies an interstitial
lattice position
2 The cations and anions are almost similar The cations and anions differ in size
in size
3 It lowers the density of the crystal It does not affect the density of the crystal
4 Eg: NaCl Eg: AgBr
5

27 Write short note on metal excess and metal deficiency defect with an example?
Metal excess defect Metal deficiency defect
1 It arises due to the presence of more It arises due to the presence of less number
number of cations as compared to anions of cations than the anions
2 Eg: NaCl Eg: FeO
3 Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2-
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ O2- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+
Na+ Cl- Na+ e- Na+ Cl- Fe3+ O2- O2- Fe2+ O2-
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ O2- Fe3+ O2- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+
F center Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2- Fe2+ O2-
28 Write Bragg’s equation and define its terms?
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n = order of diffraction
nλ = 2dsinθ λ = wavelength of X - ray
d = distance between two successive planes of atoms
θ = angle of diffraction
29 Define impurity defects?
It is formed by introducing defects in ionic solids by adding impurity ions.
Eg: Addition of CdCl2 to AgCl
30 Why ZnO is colourless at room temperature and becomes yellow when heated?
• Metal excess defect occurs
• On heating, it loses oxygen and form free Zn2+ ions
• The excess Zn2+ ions and electrons occupy the interstitial positions.
31 Density of the unit cell?
nM
Density of the unit cell (ρ) = 3
a NA
n - Total number of atoms belongs to that unit cell
M - Molar mass a - Edge length NA - Avogadro number
32 Aluminium crystallizes in a cubic close Packed structure. Its metallic radius is 125pm.
calculate the edge length of unit cell. (Mar-24)
Given, r = 125pm
a√2 a√2 a
For ccp unit cell, r = = =
4 2 𝑋 √2 𝑋 √2 2√2
a = 2√2𝑟
a = 2 X 1.44 X 125 pm = 353.5 pm
33 Atoms X and Y form bcc crystalline structure. Atom X is present at the corners of the
cube and Y is at the centre of the cube. What is the formula of the compound?
NC 8
Number of atoms present at the corner (X) = = =1
8 8
Nb 1
Number of atoms present in the body centre (Y) = = =1
1 1
Formula of the compound = XY
34 Define Radius ratio?
• The structure of an ionic compound depends
upon the stoichiometry and the size of the
ions. Generally, in ionic crystals the bigger
anions are present in the close packed
arrangements and the cations occupy the
voids.
rC +
• The ratio of radius of cation and anion ( )
rA-
plays an important role in determining the
structure. Eg:

35 An element has bcc structure with a cell edge of 288 pm. The density of the element is

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7.2 gcm-3. How many atoms are present in 208g of the element.
Data :  = 7.2gcm-3 ; n = 2 ; W = 208g ; NA = 6.023 x 1023 ; M = ?
nM
= 3
a NA

a3 NA
M=
n
a = 288pm
= 288 x 10-12 m
= 288 x 10-12 x 102 cm
= 288 x 10-10 cm
= 2.88 x 10-8 cm
7.2 x (2.88 x 10−8 )3 x (6.023 x 1023 ) 103.59
M= =
2 2

M = 51.79 g.mol-1
W 208
No. of moles (n) = =
= 4 moles
M 51.79
Total no. of atoms = No. of moles (n) x Avagadro number
= n x NA
= 4 x 6.023 x 1023
= 2.4092 x 1024 atoms
36 If NaCl is doped with 10-2 mol percentage of strontium chloride, what is the
concentration of cation vacancy?
Mole percentage of strontium chloride = 10-2
10-2
No. of moles of strontium chloride(n) = = 10-4
100
No. of Strontium ions = No.of moles of strontium chloride(n) x Avagadro number
= 10-4 x 6.023 x 1023 = 6.023 x 1019
The concentration of cation (Strontium ions) vacancy = 6.023 x 10 19
37 KF crystallizes in fcc structure like sodium chloride. calculate the distance between K+
and F− in KF.( Given : density of KF is 248 3 .g cm−3 )
Data :  = 2.48 gcm-3 ; n = 4 ; M = 39 + 19 = 58 g.mol-1 ; NA = 6.023 x 1023 & a = ?
nM
= 3
a NA
nM 4 x 58
a3 = =
NA 2.48 x (6.023 x 1023 )

a3 = 0.1553 x 10-21 cm3

a = 0.5375 x 10-7 cm

a = 5.375 x 10-8 cm

a√2
In FCC structure distance between the two ions d = 2r =
2
-8
5.375 x 10 x √2
=
2
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-8
5.375 x 10 x 1.414
=
2
+ -
In FCC structure distance between K and F ions = 3.796 x 10-8 cm = 3.796 x 10-10 m
38 An atom crystallizes in fcc crystal lattice and has a density of 10 gcm−3 with unit cell
edge length of 100pm. calculate the number of atoms present in 1 g of crystal.
Data :  = 10 gcm-3 ; n = 4 ; W = 1g ; NA = 6.023 x 1023 ; M = ?
nM
=
a3 NA

a3 NA
M=
n
a = 100 pm
= 100 x 10-12 m
= 100 x 10-12 x 102 cm
= 100 x 10-10 cm
= 1.00 x 10-8 cm
100 x (1.00 x 10−8 )3 x (6.023 x 1023 ) 6.023
M= =
4 4
M = 1.506 g.mol-1
W 1
No. of moles (n) = = = 0.664 moles
M 1.506
Total no. of atoms = No. of moles (n) x Avagadro number
= n x NA
= 0.664 x 6.023 x 1023
= 3.999 x 1023 atoms

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
7. CHEMICAL KINETICS
1 Define average rate and instantaneous rate.
Average rate: It is defined as the ratio of change in final concentration of reactants and initial
concentration of reactants over the entire time period of reaction.

−(Final concentration of reactants−Initial concentration of reactants)

Average rate =
Change in time

Instantaneous rate: The rate of the reaction at a particular instant during the reaction is called
the instantaneous rate
2 Define rate law and rate constant.
Rate law is the expression which relates the rate, rate constant and concentration of
the reactants of a reaction.
Rate ∝ [A]m [B]n
Rate = k [A]m [B]n
Rate constant is the proportionality constant equal to the rate of the reaction when
concentration of each reactant is unity. [A] = [B] = 1, Rate constant k = Rate
3 Define half-life of a reaction?
It is defined as the time required for the reactant concentration to reach half its initial value.
4 Derive integrated rate law for a first order reaction? (Mar-20)
A Product
Rate = k[A]1
−d[A]
= k[A]1
dt
−d[A]
= k dt
[A]

integrating between the limits of concentration [A0] to [A] and time t = 0 to t = 1.

[A] −𝑑[𝐴] t
∫[A = K ∫0 dt
0 ] [A]

[A]
(−𝑙n [A])[A0] = k (t)t0

-ln[A] – (-ln[𝐴0 ]) = k(t-0)

- ln[A] + ln[𝐴0 ] = kt
[A ]
𝑙n ( [A]0 ) = kt
[A0 ]
2.303 log = kt
[A]

2.303 [A0 ]
𝑘= log
𝑡 [A]

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5 Derive integrated rate law for a zero-order reaction A product. (Aug-21, Jul-22, Mar-24)
A Product
Rate = k[A]0 ஃ [A]0 = 1
−d[A]
=k
dt
-d[A] = kdt
integrating between the limits of concentration [A0] to [A] and time t = 0 to t = 1.
[A] t
-∫[A ] d[A] = K ∫0 dt
0

[A]
−([A])[A0] = k (t)t0
[𝐴0 ] − [𝐴] = kt
[A0 ]−[A]
k=
t

6 Half-life of a first order reaction. Half-life of zero order reaction.

2.303 [A0 ] [A0 ]−[A]
k= log k=
t [A] t
[A0 ]
[A0 ] if t = t1/2 then, [A] =
if t = t1/2 then, [A] = 2
2
[A ]
2.303 [A0 ] [A0 ]− 0
k= log [A0 ] k= 2
t1/2 t1/2
2
2.303 [A0 ]
k= log 2 k=
t1/2 2t1/2

2.303 x 0.3010 0.6932 [A0 ]

k= = t1/2 =
t1/2 t1/2 2k

0.6932
t1/2 = The half-life of a zero-order reaction is directly
k
proportional to the initial concentration of the
For a first order reaction, the half-life is a reactant.
constant ie., it does not depend on the initial
concentration.
7 Differentiate between rate and rate constant of a reaction? (Aug-21)
Rate of a reaction Rate constant of a reaction
It represents the speed at which the
1 reactants are converted into products at it is a proportionality constant
any instant
it is measured as decrease in the it is equal to the rate of reaction, when the
2 concentration of the reactants or increase concentration of each of the reactants is
in the concentration of products unity.
it depends on the initial concentration of it does not depend on the initial
3
reactants concentration of reactants

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
8 What is an elementary reaction? Give the differences between order and molecularity of
a reaction. (Jul-22)
Each and every single step in a reaction mechanism is called an elementary reaction.
Order of a reaction (Mar-24) Molecularity of a reaction
it is the sum of the powers of
it is the total number of reactant species that
1 concentration terms involved in the
are involved in an elementary step
experimentally determined rate law.
it is always a whole number, cannot be zero
2 it can be zero or fractional or integer
or a fractional number
it is assigned for each elementary step of
3 it is assigned for a overall reaction
mechanism
9 Write the rate law for the following reactions.
a) A reaction that is 3/2 order in x and zero order in y.
b) A reaction that is second order in NO and first order in Br2.
a) Rate = k [X]3/2 [Y]0
Rate = k [X]3/2
b) Rate = k [NO]2 [Br2]1
10 Explain the rate determining step with an example.
Consider the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide catalysed by I-
The mechanism involves two steps
Slow
Step – 1 H2O2 + I- → H2O + OI-
RDS

Step – 2 H2O2 + OI- H2O + I- + O2

Overall reaction 2H2O2 2H2O + O2

Step one is the rate determining slow step, since it involves both H2O2 and I-. The overall
reaction is biomolecular.
11 Explain the effect of catalyst on reaction rate with an example. (Jun-20)
• Catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change.
• A catalyst lowers the energy of activation and hence greater number of molecules can
cross the energy barrier and change over to products, thereby increasing the rate of
reaction.

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12 Write Arrhenius equation and explain the terms involved. (May-22, Mar-24)

K = Ae- Ea / RT k = Rate constant, A = Frequency factor,

Ea = Activation energy, R = Gas constant, T = Absolute temperature in K.
13 Describe the graphical representation of first order reaction.
1 [A0 ]
k= ln [A]
t

kt = ln [A0] – ln [A]
ln [A] = -kt + ln [A0]
y = -mx + c
A plot of ln[A] against ’t’ gives a straight line with a negative slope. from this, the rate constant
is calculated. slope = - k, Intercept = ln [A]
14 Explain pseudo first order reaction with an example.
A second order reaction in which one of the reactants is taken in large access follows first
order kinetics is called pseudo first order reaction.
Eg: Acid hydrolysis of an ester
H+
CH3COOCH3 + H2O → CH3COOH + CH3OH
15 Define activation energy (Ea)?
The activation energy is the minimum energy that a molecule must have to process to react.
16 The rate law for a reaction of A, B and C has been found to be rate = K[A]2 [B][L]3/2. How
would the rate of reaction change when
i) concentration of [L] is quadrupled.
ii) concentration of both [A] and [B] are doubled
iii) concentration of [A] is halved
iv) concentration of [A] is reduced to (1/3) and concentration of [L] is quadrupled.
i) rate = K [A]2 [B] [L]3/2 ……….(1) ii) x rate = K [2A]2 [2B] [L]3/2 ……….(3)
x rate = K [A]2 [B] [4L]3/2 ……(2) 3
3 3 x rate k [2A]2 [2B][L]2
2 x rate k [A]2 [B][4L]2 ⇒( )= 3
⇒( )= 1 rate
1 rate 3 K [A]2 [B][L]2
K [A]2 [B][L]2
3 1 x = (2)2 (2)
3X
x = (4) = (4)
2 2
x=8
1
x = (64) ; 2x=8 Rate is increased by 8 times.
Rate is increased by 8 times.
iii) 𝐴 2 iv) 𝐴 2
x rate = K [ ] [B] [L]3/2 ……….(4) x rate = K [ 3 ] [B] [4L]3/2 ……….(5)
2 3
A 2
3 A 2
k [2] [B][L]2 5 x rate k [ 3 ] [B][4L]2
4 x rate ⇒( )=
⇒( )= 3 1 rate 3
1 rate K [A]2 [B][L]2
K [A]2 [B][L]2
1 2 1 2 3
x=( ) x=( ) (4) 2
2 3
1 1
x= x = (9)(8)
4
1 8
Rate is reduced by times. Rate is reduced by times.
4 9
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17 Explain briefly the collision theory of bimolecular reactions.
• According to this theory chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between the
reacting molecules.
• Consider the reaction, A2(g) + B2(g) 2AB(g)
• The rate of this reaction would be proportional to the number of collisions per second.
• Collision rate ∝ [A2] [B2]
• Collision rate = Z [A2] [B2] Where Z is a constant
• Pollution rate in gases can be calculated from kinetic theory of gases.
• For a gas at room temperature (298K) and 1 atm pressure each molecule undergoes
approximately 109 collisions per second i.e., 1 collision in 10-9 second. But in actual
practice this does not happen.
• It implies that all collisions are not effective to lead to the reaction.
• In order to colliding molecules must possess a minimum energy called activation energy.
−Ea
• Fraction of effective collisions f = e RT here f is collision factor
• Fraction of effective collisions (f) having proper orientation is given by the steric factor p.
Rate = p x f x collision rate Comparing eqn 1 & 2,
−Ea
Rate = p x e RT x Z [A2] [B2] …… (1) −Ea
k=pZe RT
Actually, rate Law = k [A2] [B2] …… (2)
18 Identify the order for the following reactions
i) Rusting of iron = First order
ii) Radioactive disintegration of 92U238 = First order
1 1+4 5
iii) 2A + 3B products; rate = k[A]½[B]2 = +2= =
2 2 2
19 How do concentrations of the reactant influence the rate of reaction?
• When the concentration of the reactant is increased simultaneously the reaction rate is also
increased.
Rate ∝ concentration of reactants
• As the concentration of reactants increases, the number of collisions between the reacting
molecules increases and hence the rate of the reaction increases.
20 How do nature of the reactant influence rate of reaction.
• A chemical reaction involves breaking of certain existing bonds of the reactant and forming
new bonds which lead to the product.
• Net energy involved in this process is dependent on the nature of the reactant. Hence the
rate of reaction is different for different reactants.
• Eg: FAS vs KMNO4 redox reaction occurs at room temperature but oxalic acid vs KMNO4
redox occurs at 60 °C
• The redox reaction of oxalic acid vs KMNO4 is relatively slow compared to the redox
reaction of FAS vs KMNO4.
21 For a reaction x + y + z Products the rate law is given by rate = k [X]3/2 [Y]1/2 what is
the overall order of the reaction and what is the order of the reaction with respect to z.
x+y+z Products
Rate = k [X] [Y]1/2
3/2

Overall order = 3/2 + ½ = 2 i.e., second order.

since the rate expression does not contain the concentration of z, the reaction is zero order
with respect to z.
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22 The rate constant for a first order reaction is 1.54 x 10-3 S-1. calculate its half life time.
(Sep-20)
0.693 0.693
Half-life = = = 0.45 x 1000 = 450 s
k 1.54 x 10−3
23 Rate law.
xA + yB Products
Rate ∝ [A]m [ B]n
Rate = k [A]m [ B]n
Reaction order = m + n
24 Give two examples for first order and zero order reaction.
First order reaction (May-22) Zero order reaction (Mar-23)
1 Decomposition of N2O5 Photochemical reaction between H2 and Cl2

2 Decomposition of H2O2 Iodination of acetone in acid medium

3 Decomposition of SO2Cl2 Decomposition of N2O on hot platinum surface

8. IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
1 Differentiate Lewis acids and bases?
Lewis acids Lewis bases
1 Electron deficient molecules Molecules with one (or) more lone pairs of
Eg: BF3, AlCl3, BeF2 etc... electrons. Eg: NH3, H2O, R-O-H, R-NH2
2 All metal ions. Eg: Fe2+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Cu2+ All anions. Eg: F-, Cl-, CN-, SCN-, SO42-
3 Molecules that contain a polar double Molecules that contain carbon – carbon
bond Eg: SO2, CO2, SO3 etc... multiple bond Eg: CH2=CH2, CH≡CH etc...
4 Molecules in which the central atom can All metal oxides
expand its octet due to the availability of Eg: CaO, MgO, Na2O, etc...
empty d–orbitals Eg: SiF4, SF4, FeCl3 etc.
5 Carbonium ion Eg: (CH3)3 C+ Carbanion Eg: CH3−
2 Arrhenius Concept
Acid: substance that dissociates to give hydrogen ions in water. Eg: HCl, H2SO4 etc.,
Base: substance that dissociates to give hydroxyl ions in water. Eg: NaOH, Ca(OH)2 etc.,
3 Lowry – Bronsted Theory (Proton Theory)
Acid is a proton donor. Eg: HCl
Base is a proton acceptor. Eg: NH3
4 Lewis concept (Mar-20, Jul-22)
Acid: a species that accepts an electron pair. Eg: BF3
Base: a species that donates an electron pair. Eg: NH3

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
5 Limitations of Arrhenius concept (May-22)
• It does not explain the behaviour of acids and bases in non-aqueous solvents such as
acetone, Tetrahydrofuran etc...
• This theory does not account for the basicity of the substances like ammonia (NH 3) which
do not possess hydroxyl group.
6 Limitations of Lowry – Bronsted theory
Substances like BF3, AlCl3 etc, that do not donate protons are known to behave as acids.
7 Classify the following into Lewis acids and Lewis bases (Jun-20)
a) BF3 b) CO2 c) MgO d) CH3-
Lewis acids: a) BF3 b) CO2
Lewis bases: c) MgO d) CH3-
8 Indentify conjugate acid base pair for the following reaction in aqueous solution (Sep-20)
i) HS-(aq) + HF ⇋ F-(aq) + H2S(aq) ii) HPO42- + SO32- ⇋ PO43- + HSO3-
conjugate acid base pair conjugate acid base pair

HS-(aq) + HF(aq) ⇋ F-(aq) + H2S(aq)

HPO42- + SO32- ⇋ PO43- + HSO3-
base2 acid1 base! acid2
acid1 base2 base! acid2
conjugate acid base pair
conjugate acid base pair
iii) NH4+ + CO32- ⇋ NH3 + HCO3- iv) HCl + H2O ⇋ H3O+ + Cl-
conjugate acid base pair conjugate acid base pair
HCl + H2O ⇋ H3O+ + Cl-
NH4+ + CO32- ⇋ NH3 + HCO3-
acid1 base2 acid2 base!
acid1 base2 base! acid2
conjugate acid base pair
conjugate acid base pair

9 Account for the acidic nature of HClO4 in terms of Bronsted – Lowry theory, identify its
conjugate base.
HClO4 + H2O ⇋ H3O+ + ClO4-
HClO4 is a strong acid and its conjugate base is ClO4-.

10 When aqueous ammonia is added to CuSO4 solution, the solution turns deep blue due
to the formation of tetramminecopper (II) complex, [Cu(H2O)4]2+(aq) + 4NH3(aq)
[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq), among H2O and NH3 Which is stronger Lewis base.
In Coordination complexes, Central metal atom acts as Lewis acid due to accepting
electrons from the ligands and the ligands donate the electrons to the central metal atom acts
as Lewis base.
If a better Lewis base (ligand) is available, a Lewis acid (Central metal ion) will undergo
Ligand exchange reaction. In this reaction H2O is exchanged with NH3.
The Lewis acid Cu2+ exchanges the Lewis base H2O with better Lewis base NH3 to form
the complex. Hence, NH3 is a stronger Lewis base then H2O in this reaction.
11 Calculate the pH of 0.04 M HNO3 Solution.
Normality = Molarity x Basicity = 0.04 X 1 = 0.04 = 4 X 10-2
pH = -log [H+] = -log (4 X 10-2) = 2 -log 4 = 2 – 0.6021 = 1.3979
12 What is conjugate acid-base pairs? (Mar-23)
The chemical species that differ only by a Proton are called as conjugate acid-base pairs.

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13 The concentration of hydroxide ion in a water sample is found to be 2.5 ×10 -6M. Identify
the nature of the solution.
Given, [OH-] = 2.5 X 10-6 M
pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (2.5 X 10-6) = 6 - log 2.5 = 6 – 0.3979 = 5.6021
pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 5.6021 = 8.3979
pH > 7. Since pH is greater than 7, the solution is basic.
14 Define solubility product? Give its uses.
The solubility product of a compound is defined as the product of the molar concentration
of the constituent ions, each raised to the power of its stoichiometric co – efficient in a
balanced equilibrium equation.
Solubility product finds useful to decide whether an ionic compound gets precipitated
when solution that contains the constituent ions are mixed.
15 Define ionic product of water. Give its value at room temperature?
Kw = [H3O+][OH-]
250C ல் Kw = 1 x 10-14
16 Explain common ion effect with an example? (Sep-20, May-22, Mar-24)
When a salt of a weak acid is added to the acid itself, the dissociation of the weak acid is
suppressed further. For eg, the addition of sodium acetate to acetic acid solution leads to the
suppression in the dissociation of acetic acid which is already weakly dissociated. In this
case, CH3COOH and CH3COONa have the common ion, CH3COO-
17 Derive an expression for Ostwald’s dilution law?
Ostwald’s dilution law relates the dissociation constant of the weak acid (K a) with its
degree of dissociation (α) and the concentration (c). Degree of dissociation (α) is the fraction
of the total number of moles of a substance that dissociates at equilibrium.
Consider the dissociation of weak acid,
CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
[CH3COO− ][H+ ]
Ka =
[CH3COOH]

[CH3COOH] = (1 – α) C ; [CH3COO-] = αC ; [H+] = αC

(αC)(αC)
Ka =
(1− α)C

α2 C
Ka =
(1− α)

1 >>> α, (1 – α) = 1

Ka = α2C

Ka
α=√
C
when dilution increases, the degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte also increases. This
statement is known as Ostwald’s dilution Law.
18 Define pH?
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of base 10 of the molar
concentration of the hydronium ions present in the solution. pH = - log [H3O+]

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19 Calculate the pH values of
i) 0.1 M HCl pH = -log (0.1) = -log (10-1) = 1
ii) 0.01 M HCl pH = -log (0.01) = -log (10-2) = 2
iii) 0.001 M HCl pH = -log (0.001) = -log (10-3) = 3
iv) 0.1 M NaOH pOH = -log (10-1) =1 ; pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 1 = 13
v) 0.01 M NaOH pOH = -log (10-2) =2 ; pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 2 = 12
vi) 0.001 M NaOH pOH = -log (10-3) =3 ; pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 3 = 11
20 Relation between pH and pOH
pH = - log10 [H3O+]
pOH = - log10 [OH-]
pH + pOH = - log [H+] - log [OH-]
= - log [H+] [OH-]
We know that, Kw = [H+] [OH-]
pH + pOH = - log Kw
pH + pOH = pKw
ஃ pKw = - log Kw
at 25°C, the ionic product of water Kw = 1 x 10-14
pKw = - log (10-14) = 14 x log 10 =14
pH + pOH = 14
21 Calculate the pH of 1.5×10-3M solution of Ba(OH)2
Normality = Molarity x Acidity = 1.5 X 10-3 X 2 = 3 X 10-3
pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (3 X 10-3) = 3 - log 3 = 3 – 0.4771 = 2.5229
pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 2.5229 = 11.4771
22 The Ka value for HCN is 10-9 . What is the pH of 0.4M HCN solution?
[H+] = √K a C = √10−9 X 0.4 = 2 X 10-5
pH = - log [H+] = - log (2 X 10-5) = - (log 2 – 5 log 10) = 5 – 0.3010 = 4.6990
23 Solubility product of Ag2CrO4 is 1×10-12. 24) Ksp of AgCl is 1.8 ×10−10. Calculate
What is the solubility of Ag2CrO4 in 0.01M molar solubility in 1M AgNO3.
AgNO3 solution? AgCl(S) ⇋ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Ag2CrO4 ⇋ 2 Ag+ + CrO42- S S
(S) (2S) (S) AgNO3 Ag+ + NO3-
AgNO3 +
Ag + NO3 -
1M 1M 1M
0.01 M 0.01 M 0.01 M
+
[Ag+] = 2 [Ag ] = 1
[Ag+]eq = 2S [Ag+]eq = S
Due to addition of AgNO3, [Ag+] = 2S + 0.01 Due to addition of AgNO3, [Ag+] = S + 1
+ +
[Ag ] = 2S + 0.01; (2S<<0.01), [Ag ] ≅ 0.01
[Ag+] = S + 1; (S<<1), [Ag+] ≅ 1
[Ag+] = 1 X 10-2 ; [CrO42-] = S ; Ksp = 1 X 10-12
[Ag+] = 1 ; [Cl-] = S ; Ksp = 1.8 X 10-10
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [CrO42-]
Ksp = [Ag+] [Cl-]
1 X 10-12 = (1 X 10-2)2 X S
1x10−12 1.8 X 10-10 = 1 x S
S= = 1 x10-8 M S = 1.8 X 10-10
1x10−4
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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
25 Derive an expression for the hydrolysis constant and degree of hydrolysis of salt of
strong acid and weak base?
consider the reactions between a strong acid, HCl, and a weak base, NH4OH, to produce a
salt, NH4Cl, and water
HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4Cl(aq) NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NH4+ is a strong conjugate acid of the weak base NH4OH and it has a tendency to react with
OH- from water to produce unionised NH4OH shown below.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq)
There is no such tendency shown by Cl- and therefore [H+] > [OH- ]; the solution is acidic
[NH4 OH][H+ ]
and the pH is less than 7. Kh =
[NH+
4]
Dissociation of weak base (NH4OH) is,
NH4OH(aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (l)
[NH+ −
4 ][OH ]
Kb =
[NH4 OH]
we can establish a relationship between the Kh and Kb as,
[NH4 OH][H+ ] [NH+ −
4 ][OH ]
Kh x K b = x
[NH4+ ] [NH4 OH]

Kh . Kb = [H+] [OH-]
Kh . Kb = K w
Kw
Kh =
kb
From Ostwald’s dilution law, Kh may be written as,
Kh Kh KW
Kh = h2C (or) h2 = (or) h = √ (or) h = √
C C Kb .C

Kw .𝐶
So, [H+] = √K h . 𝐶 (or) [H+] = √
𝐾𝑏
1
K .𝐶 2 1 1 1
pH of the Solution: pH = -log [H+] = - log [ w ] =- log Kw - log C + log Kb
Kb 2 2 2
1 1
pH = 7 - pKb - log C
2 2
26 Derive an expression for the hydrolysis constant and degree of hydrolysis of salt of
strong base and weak acid?
consider the reactions between sodium hydroxide and acetic acid to give sodium
acetate and water.
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) +H2O(l)
In aqueous solution, CH3COONa is completely dissociated as below
CH3COONa(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + Na+ (aq)
CH3COO- is a conjugate base of the weak acid CH3COOH and it has a tendency to react with
H+ from water to produce unionised acid.
There is no such tendency for Na+ to react with OH-.

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CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
therefore [OH-] > [H+], in such cases, the solution is basic due to hydrolysis and the pH is
greater than 7.
we can establish a relationship between the Kh and Kb as,
[CH3 COOH][OH− ]
Kh = [H2 O] = 1
[CH3 COO− ][H2 O]
[CH3 COOH][OH− ]
Kh = ……..(1)
[CH3 COO− ]
CH3COOH(aq) ⇋ CH3COO-(aq) + H+(l)
[CH3 COO− ][H+ ]
Ka = ……..(2)
[CH3 COOH]
(1) X (2) Kh . Ka = [H+] [OH-] ; We know [H+] [OH-] = Kw
Kh . Ka = K w
Kw
Kh =
ka
From Ostwald’s dilution law, Kh may be written as,
Kh Kh KW
Kh = h2C (or) h2 = (or) h = √ (or) h = √
C C Ka .C

Kw .C
So, [OH-] = √K h . 𝐶 (or) [OH-] = √
Ka
pH of the Solution: pH + pOH = 14 ; pH = 14 – pOH ; pH = 14 – (-log [OH-])
1
K .C 2 1 1 1
pH = 14 + log [OH-] = 14 + log [ w ] = 14 + ( log Kw + log C − log Ka)
Ka 2 2 2
1 1
pH = 14 – 7 + log C + pKa ( Kw = 10-14)
2 2
1 1
pH = 7 + pKa + log C
2 2

27 Derive an expression for the hydrolysis constant and degree of hydrolysis of salt of
weak base and weak acid?
consider the hydrolysis of ammonium acetate.
CH3COONH4 (aq) CH3COO-(aq) + NH4+(aq)

In this case, both cation (NH4+) and anion (CH3COO−) have the tendency to react with water
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq)

The nature of the solution depends on the strength of acid (or) base i.e, if K a > Kb ; then
the solution is acidic and pH < 7, if Ka < Kb; then the solution is basic and pH > 7, if Ka =Kb;
then the solution is neutral.
The relation between the dissociation constant (Ka, Kb) and the hydrolysis constant is
given by the following expression.
Ka. Kb. Kh = Kw
1 1
pH of the Solution: pH = 7 + pKa - pKb
2 2

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28 Write the expression for the solubility Write the expression for the solubility
product of Ca3(PO4)2. product of Hg2Cl2.
2+
Ca3(PO4)2 (s) ⇋ 3Ca (aq) + 2PO4 (aq) 3- Hg2Cl2 (s) ⇋ Hg22+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
3S 2S S S
2+ 3 3- 2 K = [Hg 2+] [Cl-]2
Ksp = [Ca ] [ PO4 ] sp 2

Ksp = (3S)3 (2S)2 = 27 S3 x 4 S2 = 108 S5 Ksp = (S) (2S)2 = 4S3. (or)

Solubility Product Equation: Ksp = mmnnS(m+n)
1. Ca3(PO4)2 Ksp = mm . nn . (S)(m+n) = (33 x 22 x S(3+2)) = 27 x 4 x S5 = 108S5
2. Hg2Cl2 Ksp = mm . nn . (S)(m+n) = (11 x 22 x S(1+2)) = 1 x 4 x S3 = 4S3
3. BaSO4 Ksp = mm . nn . (S)(m+n) = (11 x 11 x S(1+1)) = 1 x 1 x S2 = S2
4. Ag2(CrO4) Ksp = mm . nn . (S)(m+n) = (22 x 11 x S(2+1)) = 4 x 1 x S3 = 4S3
29 A particular saturated solution of silver A saturated solution, prepared by
chromate Ag2CrO4 has [Ag ] = 5 ×10 and dissolving CaF2 (s) in water, has [Ca2+]= 3.3
+ -5

[CrO4]2- =4.4 × 10-4 M. What is the value of × 10-4 M What is the Ksp of CaF2 ?
Ksp for Ag2CrO4? CaF2(s) ⇋ Ca2+(aq) + 2F-(aq)
Ag2CrO4 (S) ⇋ 2 Ag+(aq) + CrO42- (aq) Ksp = [Ca2+] [F-]2 = (3.3x10-4) (2x3.3x10-4)2
Ksp = [Ag+]2 [CrO42-] = (5 x 10-5)2 (4.4 x 10-4) Ksp = (3.3x10-4) (6.6x10-4)2
= (25 x 10-10) (4.4 x 10-4) = 110 x 10-14 = (3.3x10-4)(43.56x10-8) = 143.748 x 10-12
Ksp = 1.1 x 10-12 Ksp = 1.44x10-10
30 Buffer Solution (Jul-22): Buffer is a solution which consists of a mixture of a weak acid and its
conjugate base (or) a weak base and its conjugate acid. This buffer solution resists drastic
changes in its pH upon addition of a small quantities of acids (or) bases.
There are two types of buffer solutions.
1. Acidic buffer solution: a solution containing a weak acid and its salt.
Eg: solution containing acetic acid (CH3COOH) and sodium acetate (CH3COONa).
2. Basic buffer solution: a solution containing a weak base and its salt.
Eg: Solution containing Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
31 Define Buffer capacity and buffer index () (Mar-24): It is defined as the number of gram
equivalents of acid or base added to 1 litre of the buffer solution to change its pH by unity.
dB
β=
d(pH)
32 Henderson – Hasselbalch equation
[acid]eq
In an acidic buffer solution, [H3O+] = Ka
[base]eq

Due to common ion effect, [acid]eq = [acid] ; [base]eq = [salt]

[acid]
[H3O+] = Ka
[salt]

Taking logarithm on both sides,

[acid]
log [H3O+] = log Ka + log
[salt]

reverse the sign on both sides,

[acid]
- log [H3O+] = - log Ka - log
[salt]

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but, pH = - log10 [H3O+]
pKa = - log Ka
[acid]
pH = pKa – log
[salt]
[salt]
pH = pKa + log
[acid]

Similarly for a basic buffer,

[salt]
pOH = pKb + log
[base]

33 How does ionic product and solubility product determine the precipitation of an ionic
compound?
1. Ionic product > Ksp, precipitation will occur and the solution is super saturated.
2. Ionic product < Ksp, no precipitation and the solution is unsaturated.
3. Ionic product = Ksp, equilibrium exist and the solution is saturated.

9. ELECTRO CHEMISTRY
1 Define anode and cathode?
Anode: The electrode at which reduction occurs by accepting electron.
Cathode: The electrode at which oxidation occurs by donating electron.
2 Why does conductivity of a solution decrease on dilution of the solution?
As dilution increases, the number of ions in unit volume decreases. so, the conductivity
decreases.
3 State Kohlrausch Law. How is it useful to determine the molar conductivity of weak
electrolyte at infinite dilution? (Sep-20)
Kohlrausch Law: At infinite dilution, the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte is equal to
the sum of the limiting molar conductivities of its constituent ions.
The molar conductance of a weak electrolyte cannot be calculated directly, but it can be
calculated using kohlrausch law.
Eg: The molar conductance of CH3COOH can be calculated using the experimentally
determined molar conductivities of strong electrolytes HCl, NaCl and CH3COONa.
Λ°CH3COONa = λ°Na+ + λ°CH3COO- …. (1)
Λ°HCl = λ°H+ + λ°Cl- …. (2)
Λ°NaCl = λ°Na+ + λ°Cl- …. (3)
Equation (1) + (2) - (3) gives,
(Λ°CH3COONa) + (Λ°HCl) – (Λ°NaCl) = λ°H+ + λ°CH3COO-
= Λ°CH3COOH

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4 Describe the electrolysis of molten NaCl using inert electrodes?
Electrodes: Two iron electrodes dipped in molten NaCl.
Cathode: the electrode attached to the negative end of the power supply
Anode: the electrode attached to the positive end of the power supply
Power source: DC power supply
Cathode (reduction) : 2Na+ + 2e- 2Na
Anode (oxidation) : 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-
The overall reaction : 2Na+ + 2Cl- 2Na + Cl2 E° = -4.07V
As Eo value is negative the above reaction is non-spontaneous. Hence a voltage greater
than 4.07V must be supplied to cause the electrolysis of molten NaCl.
5 State Faraday’s Laws of electrolysis? (Aug-21, Mar-23)
First Law:
The mass of the substance (m) liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of charge (Q) passed through the cell.
i.e m  Q (or) m  It (or) m = Z It
Second Law:
m∝Z
When the same quantity of charge is passed through the solutions of different
electrolytes, the amount of substances liberated at the respective electrodes are directly
proportional to their electrochemical equivalents.
6 Write a note on sacrificial protection. (Mar-20)
Cathodic protection – Metals such as Mg or zinc which is corroded more easily than iron can
be used as a sacrificial anode and the iron material acts as a cathode. So iron is protected, but
Mg or Zn is corroded.
7 Describe the construction of Daniel cell. Write the cell reaction.
Daniel cell is an example of Galvanic cell.
Oxidation half-cell - A metallic zinc strip dipped into an aqueous solution of zinc sulphate.
Reduction half-cell - A copper strip dipped into an aqueous solution of copper sulphate.
Joining the half-cells: The zinc and copper strips or externally connected using a wire
through a switch (k) and load (volt meter). The electrolytic solution in the cathodic and anodic
compartment are connected using an inverted U tube containing agar- agar Jel mixed with an
inert electrolyte like KCl, Na2SO4, etc. This acts as a Salt Bridge.
Anodic oxidation: zinc strip acts as the anode. Here oxidation occurs. Electrons are liberated
at zinc electrode and hence it is negative.
Zn(S) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Cathodic reduction: copper strip act as a cathode. Here reduction occurs. Cu2+ ions in the
solution accept electrons flowing through the circuit from zinc to copper strip and get deposited
on the copper metal. Here electrons are consumed and hence it is positive.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(S)
Salt Bridge: The electrolytes present in two half cells are connected using salt bridge. To
maintain electrical neutrality Cl- ions and K+ ions (from KCl) move from the salt bridge to
anodic and cathodic compartment.
Completion of circuit: Electrons flow from negatively charged zinc anode into positively
charged copper cathode through the external wire. At the same time anions move towards
anode and cations move towards cathode. This completes the circuit.

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Consumption of electrodes: As the Daniel cell operates, the mass of zinc electrode
gradually decreases, while the mass of copper electrode increases. Hence the cell will function
until the entire metallic zinc is converted into zn2+ ions or the entire Cu2+ ions are converted
into metallic copper.
Galvani cell notation is, Zn(S) | Zn2+(aq) ꟾꟾ Cu2+(aq) | Cu(S)
8 Why is anode in galvanic cell considered to be negative and cathode positive
electrode?
In galvanic cell, electrons are liberated and oxidation occurs at anode. Hene it is
negative. Electrons are consumed and redution occurs at cathode. Hene it is positive.
9 Arrange the following solutions in the decreasing order of specific conductance.
i) 0.01M KCl ii) 0.005M KCl iii) 0.1M KCl iv) 0.25 M KCl v) 0.5 M KCl
Specific conductance  concentration of the solution
• As concentration decreases specific conductance also decreases.
• Decreasing order of specific conductance is
0.5M KCl > 0.25M KCl > 0.1M KCl > 0.01M KCl > 0.005M KCl
10 Why is AC current used instead of DC in measuring the electrolytic conductance?
If DC current is used to measure electrolytic conductance, it will lead to the electrolysis of the
solution taken in the cell. So, AC current is used for this measurement to prevent electrolysis.
11 0.1M NaCl solution is placed in two different cells having cell constant 0.5 and 0.25 cm-1
respectively. Which of the two will have greater value of specific conductance.
𝑙
K=C( ) (or)
A
specific conductance = concentration x cell constant
i) K = 0.1 x 0.5 = 0.05 = 5 x 10-2 Scm-1
ii) K = 0.1 x 0.25 = 0.025 = 2.5 x 10-2 Scm-1
Hence, the cell with cell constant value 0.5 cm-1 will have greater value of specific conductance
12 Is it possible to store copper sulphate in an iron vessel for a long time?
Given: E°Cu2+  Cu = 0.34V and E°Fe2+  Fe = −0.44V.
The +ve emf values shows that iron will oxidise and copper will get reduced. i.e., the
vessel will dissolve. Hence it is not possible to store copper sulphate in an iron vessel.
13 Calculate the standard emf of the cell: CdCd2+  Cu2+  Cu and determine the cell
reaction. The standard reduction potentials of Cu2+  Cu and Cd2+  Cd are 0.34V and
-0.40 volts respectively. Predict the feasibility of the cell reaction.
Eocell = (Eo ox) anode + (Eo red) cathode = 0.4 + 0.34 = 0.74V
emf = +ve, so ΔG = -ve. Hence the reaction is feasible.
14 Two metals M1 and M2 have reduction potential values of -xV and +yV respectively.
Which will liberate H2 and H2SO4.
Metals having higher oxidation potential will liberate H2 from H2SO4. hence, the metal M1
having -xV oxidation potential will liberate H2 from H2SO4.
15 Reduction potential of two metals M1 and M2 are 𝐄°𝐌𝟐+ │ 𝐌𝟏 = -2.3V and 𝐄°𝐌𝟐+ │ 𝐌𝟐 = 0.2V.
𝟏 𝟐
Predict which one is better for coating the surface of iron. Given: 𝐄°𝐅𝐞𝟐+ │ 𝐅𝐞 = - 0.44V.

E°M2+ │ M1 = + 2.3V & E°M2+ │ M = - 0.2V

2
& E°Fe2+ │ Fe = + 0.44V.
1 2

Oxidation potential of M1 is more positive than the oxidation potential of Fe, which
indicates that it will prevent iron from rusting.

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16 Derive an expression for Nernst equation (Jun-20, May-22, Jul-22)
xA + yB lC + mD
[C]𝑙 [D]m
Q=
[A]x [B]y

ΔG = ΔG° + RTlnQ
ΔG = -nFE, ΔG° = -nFE°
[C]𝑙 [D]m
-nFE = -nFE° + RTln
[A]x [B]y

RT [C]𝑙 [D]m
÷ - nF E = E° - ln
nF [A]x [B]y
R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
2.303RT [C]𝑙 [D]m T = 298 K
E = E° - log 1 F = 96500 C mol-1
nF [A]x [B]y

0.0591 [C]𝑙 [D]m

E = E° - log
n [A]x [B]y

17 Derive a relationship between equilibrium constant and electrode potential (emf)?

ΔG° = -nFE°
ΔG° = -RTlnK
-nFE° = -RTlnK
RT
÷ - nF E° = ln K
nF
2.303RT
E° = log K
nF

18 A copper electrode is dipped in 0.1M copper sulphate solution at 25°C . Calculate the
electrode potential of copper. [Given: 𝐄°𝐂𝐮𝟐+ │ 𝐂𝐮 = 0.34 V].
[Cu2+] = 0.1M ; E°Cu2+ │ Cu= + 0.34V]
cell reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(S)
0.0591 [Cu]
Ecell = E° - log
n [Cu2+ ]
0.0591 1
= 0.34 - log
2 0.1
Ecell = 0.34 – 0.0296 = + 0.31V
26 Factors affecting electrolytic conductance? (Aug-21, May-22)
Factors increasing conductance,
1. inter ionic attraction
2. high dielectric constant
3. decrease in viscosity
4. increase in temperature
5. increase in dilution

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
19 Explain the function of H2 - O2 fuel cell.
• The galvanic cell in which the energy of combustion of fuels is directly converted into
electrical energy is called the fuel cell. It requires a continuous supply of reactant to keep
functioning. The general representation of a fuel cell is follows
Fuel | Electrode | Electrolyte | Electrode | Oxidant
• In this case, hydrogen act as a fuel and oxygen as an oxidant and the electrolyte is
aqueous KOH maintained at 200°C and 20 – 40 atm. porous graphite electrode containing
Ni and NiO serves as the inert electrodes.
• Hydrogen and oxygen gases are bubbled through the anode and cathode, respectively.
Oxidation at anode: 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4H2O(l) + 4e-
Reduction at cathode: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- 4OH-(aq)
Overall reaction: 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
The above reaction is the same as the hydrogen combustion reaction, however, they do
not react directly ie., the oxidation and reduction reactions take place separately at the anode
and cathode respectively.
20 Ionic conductance at infinite dilution of Al3+ and SO42- are 189 and 160 mho cm2 equiv-1.
Calculate the equivalent and molar conductance of the electrolyte Al2(SO4)3 at infinite
dilution.
Equivalent conductance:
1 1
λ∞ Al2(SO4)3 = 3 λ∞ Al3+ + 2 λ∞ SO2−
4

1 1
= ( X189) + ( X160) = 63 + 80 = 143 S cm2 g eq-1
3 2

Molar conductance:
μα Al2(SO4)3 = 2μα Al3+ + 3μα SO2−
4

= 2 (189) + 3 (160) = 378 + 480 = 858 S cm2 mol-1

21 Molar Conductance (Λm):
A conductivity cell in which the electrodes are separated by 1m and having V m 3 of
electrolytic solution which contains 1 mole of electrolyte. The conductance of such a system is
called the molar conductance (Λm). Unit: Sm2 mol-1.
22 Equivalent Conductance (Λ): (Aug-21)
The conductance of 'V' m3 of electrolytic solution containing one gram equivalent of
electrolyte in a conductivity cell in which the electrodes are one metre apart.
Unit: Sm2 gram equivalent-1.
23 Define electrochemical equivalent (Z)?
It is defined as the amount of substance deposited at the electrode by the passage of 1
coulomb charge. Unit: KgC-1.
24 Define specific conductance?
The specific conductance is defined as the conductance of a cube of an electrolytic
solution of unit dimensions. Unit: Sm-1.
25 Relation between the equivalent conductance and the specific conductance?

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27 Write a note on standard hydrogen electrode (SHE)?
• Standard Hydrogen Electrode is used as a reference electrode.
• Its emf is assigned as an arbitrary value of zero volt.
• It consists of a platinum electrode in contact with 1M HCl and 1 atm hydrogen gas.
• SHE can act as a cathode as well as an anode.
• If she is used as an anode, the oxidation reaction is
H2 2H+ + 2e- E° = 0V
• If SHE is used as cathode, the reduction reaction is
2H+ + 2e- H2 E° = 0V

28 Write a note on Lechlanche cell

Lechlanche cell is a primary battery. (non-rechargeable)
Anode: zinc container
Cathode: graphite rod in contact with MnO2.
Electrolyte: NH4Cl and ZnCl2 in water
emf: 1.5 V
Oxidation at anode: Zn(S) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Reduction at cathode: 2NH4+(aq) + 2e- 2NH3 (aq) + H2 (aq)
Hydrogen gas is oxidised to water by MN 42
H2 (aq) + 2MnO2 (S) Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)
Overall reaction: Zn(S) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2 (S) Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l) + 2NH3
Ammonia produced at the cathode combines with zn2+ to form a complex ion [Zn(NH3)4]2+.
As reaction proceeds, the concentration of NH4+ will decrease and the aqueous NH3 will
increase which lead to the decrease in the emf of the cell.
29 Write about Mercury button cell?
Mercury button cell is a primary battery (non-rechargeable)
Anode: Zinc amalgamated with Mercury.
Cathode: HgO mixed with graphite.
Electrolyte: paste of KOH and ZnO.
emf: 1.35V
Oxidation at anode: Zn(S) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(S) + H2O(l) + 2e-
Reduction at cathode: HgO(S) + H2O(l) + 2e- Hg(l) + 2OH-(aq)
Overall reaction: Zn(S) + HgO(S) ZnO(S) + Hg(l)
Uses: In pacemakers, electronic watches, camera, etc.
30 Write a note on Lead Storage battery?
Lead Storage battery is a secondary battery (rechargeable). Secondary battery is a
battery in which the electrochemical reaction takes place maybe reversed by applying a
potential slightly greater than the emf generated by the cell to regenerate the original
reactants.
Anode: Spongy lead.
Cathode: lead plate bearing PbO2.
Electrolyte: 38% by mass of H2SO4 with density 1.2g/ml.
emf: emf of a single cell is 2V. Usually 6 cells are combined in series to produce 12 volts.

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Oxidation at anode: Pb(S) Pb2+(aq) + 2e-
Pb2+ ion combine with SO42- form PbSO4 precipitate.
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4 (S)
Reduction at cathode: PbO2 (aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Pb2+ ions combine with SO42- from H2SO4 to form PbSO4 precipitate.
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4 (S)
Overall reaction: Pb(S) + PbO2 (aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq) 2PbSO4 (S) + 2H2O(l)
emf of the cell depends on the concentration of H2SO4. As the cell reaction uses SO42-
ions, the concentration of H2SO4 decreases.
When the cell potential decreases to about 1.8V, the cell has to be recharge.
During recharge the role of anode and cathode is reversed.
2PbSO4 (S) + 2H2O(l) Pb(S) + PbO2 (aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq)
Uses: In automobiles, trains, inverters, etc.
31 Write a note on lithium- ion battery?
Lithium- ion battery is a secondary battery (rechargeable)
Anode: Porous graphite.
Cathode: transition metal oxide such as CoO2.
Electrolyte: Lithium salt in an organic solvent.
Oxidation at anode: Li(S) Li+(aq) + e-
Reduction at cathode: Li+ + CoO2 (S) + e- LiCoO2 (S)
Overall reaction: Li(S) + CoO2 (S) LiCoO2 (S)

Both electrodes allow Li2+ ions to move in and out of the structure.
During discharge process Li+ ions produced at the anode move towards cathode through
the non- aqueous electrolyte.
During recharge process the potential greater than the emf produced by the cell is
applied across the electrode, the cell reaction is reversed.
Li+ ions move from cathode to anode where they become embedded on the porous
electrode. This is known as intercalation.
Uses: In cellular phones, laptop, computers, digital cameras.
32 Explain the different types of protection methods for metals from corrosion?
This can be achieved by the following methods.
1. Coating metal surface by paint.
2. Galvanizing - by coating with another metal such as zinc. zinc is stronger reducing agent
than iron and hence it can be more easily corroded than iron. i.e., instead of iron, the zinc is
oxidised.
3. Cathodic protection - In this technique, unlike galvanising the entire surface of the metal
to be protected need not be covered with a protecting metal. Instead, metals such as Mg or
zinc which is corroded more easily than iron can be used as a sacrificial anode and the
iron material acts as a cathode. So iron is protected, but Mg or Zn is corroded.

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4. Passivation - The metal is treated with strong oxidising agents such as concentrated
HNO3. As a result, a protective oxide layer is formed on the surface of metal.
5. Alloy formation - The oxidising tendency of iron can be reduced by forming its alloy with
other more anodic metals. Example: stainless steel - an alloy of Fe and Cr.
33 Explain the electrochemical mechanism of corrosion?
• The redox process which causes deterioration of metal by oxygen and moisture is called
corrosion. Corrosion or rusting of iron is an electrochemical process. It requires both
oxygen and water.
• Iron surface and a droplet of water on the surface form a galvanic cell.
• The region enclosed by water is exposed to low amount of oxygen and it acts as an anode.
• The remaining area has high amount of oxygen and it acts as cathode. Based on the
oxygen content and electrochemical cell is formed. Corrosion occurs at the anode ie., the
region covered by water.
Oxidation at anode: iron dissolves in the anode region.
2Fe(S) 2Fe2+(aq) + 4e-
• Electrons move through the iron metal from the anode to the cathode area.
Reduction at cathode: O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l)
Overall reaction: 2Fe(S) + O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Fe2+ ions are further oxidized to Fe3+, which on further reaction with oxygen form rust.
4Fe2+(aq) + O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) 4Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l) Fe2O3.H2O(S) + 6H+(aq)
34 Explain Debye - Huckel and Onsager equation?
The influence of ion-ion interactions on the conductivity of strong electrolytes was studied
by Debye and Huckel. They considered that each ion is surrounded by an ionic atmosphere of
opposite sign, and derived an expression relating the molar conductance of strong electrolytes
with the concentration by assuming complete dissociation. Later, the equation was further
developed by Onsager. For a uni – univalent electrolyte the Debye Huckel and Onsager
equation is given below.

Where A and B are the constants which depend only on the nature of the solvent and
temperature. The expression for A and B is

Here, D is the dielectric constant of the medium, η the viscosity of the medium and T the
temperature in Kelvin.
35 What is electrochemical series? How is it useful to predict corrosion?
The standard electrode potential at 298K for various metal - metal ion electrodes are
arranged in the decreasing order of their standard reduction potential values is called as
electrochemical series.
The standard reduction potential (E°) is a measure of the oxidising tendency of the
species. The greater the E° value, greater is the tendency shown by the species to accept
electrons and undergo reduction. So higher the (E°) Value, lesser is the tendency to undergo
corrosion.

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36 Define Intercalation?
In lithium – ion Battery during discharge, the Li+ ions produced at the anode move
towards cathode through the non – aqueous electrolyte. When a potential greater than the emf
produced by the cell is applied across the electrode, the cell reaction is reversed and now the
Li+ ions move from cathode to anode where they become embedded on the porous graphite
electrode. This is known as intercalation.
37 Can Fe3+ oxidises bromide to bromine under standard conditions?
Given: E°Fe3+  Fe2+ = 0.771 E° Br2  Br− = 1.09 V. (Mar-24)
E°cell = (E° Oxi) + (E° Red)
= -1.09 + 0.771

= - 0.319 V (or) E°cell = - ve

E°cell = - ve so, ΔG is +ve and the cell reaction is non spontaneous. Hence, Fe3+ cannot
oxidize Br - to Br2.
38 Explain about Galvanic cell notation? (Mar-24)

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10. SURFACE CHEMISTRY
1 Differentiate chemisorption and physisorption (Mar-20)
Chemisorption Physisorption
1 It is very slow It is instantaneous
It is very specific depends on nature of
2 It is non-specific
adsorbent and adsorbate
Chemical adsorption is fast with increase when pressure increases
3
pressure, it cannot alter the amount (Mar-24) the extent of adsorption increases (Mar-24)
When temperature is raised chemisorption Physisorption decreases with increase in
4
first increases and then decreases (Mar-24) Temperature (Mar-24)
involves transfer of electrons between the
5 No transfer of electrons
adsorbent and adsorbate
6 Heat of adsorption is high Heat of adsorption is low
7 Monolayer of the adsorbate is formed Multilayer of the adsorbate is formed
8 occurs at fixed sites called active centres It occurs on all sides
It involves the formation of activated
9 Activation energy is insignificant
complex with appreciable activation energy
2 Explain the factors affecting adsorption? (Jun-20)
1. Surface area of adsorbent:
higher the surface area, higher is the amount adsorbed.
2. Nature of adsorbate
Gases like SO2, NH3, HCl and CO2 are easily liquefiable as they have greater van der
waal’s force of attraction. On the other hand, permanent gases like H2, N2 and O2 cannot be
liquefied easily.
3. Effect of temperature
When temperature is raised chemisorption first increases and then decreases. whereas
physisorption decreases with increase in temperature.
4. Effect of pressure:
chemical adsorption is fast with increase in pressure, it cannot alter the amount of
adsorption. In Physisorption the extent of adsorption increases with increase in pressure.
3 In case of chemisorption, why adsorption first increases and then decreases with
temperature?
Chemisorption first increases with temperature due to the requirement of activation of the
surface for adsorption. This is due to the formation of activated complex requires certain
energy. Chemisorption decreases at high temperature due to desorption.
4 Which will be adsorbed more readily on the surface of charcoal and why? NH3 or O2?
NH3 is more readily adsorbed.
Reason: The critical temperature of NH3 is higher than O2. So NH3 is easily liquefiable and
has greater inter molecular forces of attraction.
5 Heat of adsorption is greater for chemisorptions than physisorption. Why?
In chemisorption the attractive forces between gas molecules and solid surface are due
to the formation of chemical bonds. Hence heat of adsorption for chemisorption is greater.
Whereas, attraction between the gas and the solid surface are due to weak vanderwaal’s
forces. Hence heat of adsorption for physisorption is smaller.

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6 Peptising agent is added to convert precipitate into colloidal solution. Explain with an
example.
Dispersion of a precipitate into colloidal solution by the addition of an electrolyte is called
peptisation. The added electrolyte is called peptising agent or dispersing agent.

Eg: AgCl (precipitate) HCl AgCl (colloid)

7 What happens when a colloidal sol of Fe(OH)3 and As2S3 are mixed?
Fe(OH)3 is possitive charged sol and As2s3 is negative charged sol . So, neutralization
takes place and precipitate forms.
8 What is the difference between a sol and a gel?
SOL GEL
Dispersion medium Liquid Solid
Dispersed phase Solid Liquid
Example Ink, Paint Butter, Cheese
9 Why are lyophillic colloidal sols are more stable than lyophobic colloidal sol.
In lyophillic colloidal sols, definite attractive force exists between dispersion medium
and dispersed phase. (Eg: sols of starch) which does not exist in lyophobic colloidal sols (Eg:
sols of gold, silver).
10 Addition of alum purifies water. Why?
Water containing suspended impurities are negatively charged. The Al3+ present in alum
coagulates the suspended impurities in water. These impurities settle down and are removed
by filtration to purify the water.
11 What are enzymes? Write a brief note on the mechanism of enzyme catalysis.
• Enzymes are complex protein molecules with three dimensional structures.
• They catalyse the chemical reaction in living organisms.
• They are often present in colloidal state and extremely specific in catalytic action.
Mechanism of enzyme catalysed reaction
The following mechanism is proposed for the enzyme catalysis
E+S ES P+E
Where E - enzyme, S - substrate (reactant), ES - activated complex, P - products.
12 What do you mean by activity and selectivity of catalyst?
Activity:
Ability of a catalyst to alter the rate of a reaction is called activity of catalyst. It depends
on chemisorption.
Pt
Ex: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Selectivity:
Ability of a catalyst to direct the reaction to give particular products.
Ni
Ex: CO(g) + 3H2(g) → CH4 + H2O
Cu
CO(g) + H2 (g) → HCHO

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13 What are the factors which influence the adsorption of a gas on a solid?
1. Natural of adsorbent
2. Nature of adsorbate
3. Pressure
4. Concentration
5. Temperature
14 Describe some feature of catalysis by Zeolites.
•zeolites are microporous, crystalline, hydrated, alumino silicates made of silicon and
aluminium tetrahedra.
• There are about 50 natural zeolites and 150 synthetic zeolites.
• As silicon is tetravalent and aluminium is trivalent, the zeolite matrix carries extra negative
charge.
• To balance the negative charge, there are extra frame work cations like H+ and Na+ ions.
• Zeolites carrying protons are used as solid acid catalyst in petrochemical industry for
cracking heavy hydrocarbon fractions into gasoline, diesel, etc.
• Zeolites carrying Na+ ions are used as basic catalyst
• One of the most important applications of zeolites is their shape selectivity.
• In zeolites, the active sites namely protons are lying inside their pores. So, reactions occur
only inside the pores of the zeolites.
• Reactant selectivity: When bulkier molecules in a reactant mixture are prevented from
reaching the active sites within the zeolite crystal, it is called reactant shape selectivity.
• Transition state selectivity: If the transition state of a reaction is large compared to the
pore size of the zeolite, no product will be formed and it is called transition state selectivity.
• Product selectivity: It is encountered when certain product molecules are too big to
diffuse out of the zeolite pores.
15 Give three uses of emulsions.
In washing: The cleansing action of soap is due to the formation of emulsion of soap
molecules with dirt and grease.

Food: Food stuffs like milk cream, butter, etc are present in colloidal form.

Rubber industry: Latex is the emulsion of natural rubber with negative particles. By heating
rubber with sulphur, vulcanized rubbers are produced for tyres, tubes, etc.
16 Why does bleeding stop by rubbing moist alum?
Ions present in moist alum neutralizes the colloidal protein present in blood and
coagulate it by forming a clot. Thus, bleeding stops by rubbing with moist alum.
17 Why is desorption important for a substance to act as good catalyst?
Desorption is important for a substance to act as a good catalyst because, after the
reaction, the products formed on the surface of the catalyst should be the desorbed to create
free surface on the catalyst for more reactants to be adsorbed to form the product.
18 Comment on the statement: Colloid is not a substance but it is a state of substance.
A colloid is formed when the size of the solute particle lies between 1nm to 200nm. So,
colloid is not a substance but it is a state of substance, it depends on the size of the particle.
19 Define coagulation?
The flocculation and settling down of the sol particles are called coagulation.

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20 Explain any one method for coagulation?
Various method of coagulation is
(i) Addition of electrolytes: A negative ion causes the precipitation of positively charged sol
and vice versa. When the valency of ion is high, the precipitation power is increased. For eg,
the precipitation power of some cations and anions varies in the following order

(ii) Electrophoresis: In the electrophoresis, charged particles migrate to the electrode of

opposite sign. It is due to neutralization of the charge of the colloids. The particles are
discharged and so they get precipitated.
(iii) Mixing oppositively charged sols: When colloidal sols with opposite charges are
mixed mutual coagulation takes place. It is due to migration of ions from the surface of the
particles.
(iv) Boiling: When boiled due to increased collisions, the sol particles combine and settle
down.
21 Define Electrophoresis? (May-22)
When electric potential is applied across two platinum electrodes dipped in a hydrophilic
sol, the dispersed particles move toward
one or another electrode. The migration
of sol particles under the influence of
electric field is called electrophoresis or
cataphoresis. If the sol particles migrate
to the cathode, then they possess
positive (+) charges, and if the sol
particles migrate to the anode, then they
have negative charges (-). Thus, from
the direction of migration of sol particles
we can determine the charge of the sol
particles. Hence electrophoresis is used
for detection of presence of charges on
the sol particles.
22 Write a note on electro osmosis? (Aug-21)
A sol is electrically neutral. Hence the medium carries an equal but opposite charge to that of
dispersed particles. When sol particles are prevented from moving, under the influence of
electric field the medium moves in a direction opposite to that of the sol particles. This
movement of dispersion medium under the influence of electric potential is called electro
osmosis.

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23 Write a note on catalytic poison (Mar-23)
Certain substances when added to a catalysed reaction either decreases or completely
destroys the activity of a catalyst and they are often known as catalytic poisons.
Fe
Eg: N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3
H2 S
24 What is the difference between homogenous and hetrogenous catalysis?
Homogenous catalysis (May-22) Hetrogenous catalysis (Jul-22)
The reactants, products and catalyst are The reactants, products and catalyst are
present in the same phase present in the different phase
NO(g) Pt(s)
Eg: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g) Eg: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
25 Explain intermediate compound formation theory of catalysis with an example?
This theory explains homogeneous catalysed reactions. A catalyst may combine with one
or more reactant to form an intermediate which reacts with other reactant or decompose to
give products and the catalyst is regenerated.
1
A+B AB எ.கா. H2 + O2 H2 O
2
1
A+C AC (Intermediate) 2Cu + O2 Cu2O (Intermediate)
2
AC + B AB + C (Catalyst) Cu2O + H2 H2O + 2Cu (Catalyst)
26 Limitations of intermediate compound formation theory?
(i) The intermediate compound theory fails to explain the action of catalytic poison and
activators (promoters).
(ii) This theory is unable to explain the mechanism of heterogeneous catalysed reactions.
27 Describe adsorption theory of catalysis. (Aug-21, Jul-22)
This theory explains heterogeneous catalysis. The reactants are adsorbed on the catalyst
surface to form an activated complex which subsequently decomposes and gives the product.
The various steps involved in a heterogeneous catalysed reaction are given as follows:
1. Reactant molecules diffuse from bulk to the catalyst surface.
2. The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst.
3. The adsorbed reactant molecules are activated and form activated complex which is
decomposed to form the products.
4. The product molecules are desorbed.
5. The product diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst.

28 Write note on Freundlich adorption isotherm?

1 1
𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑘𝑝 𝑛 = 𝑘𝑐 𝑛
𝑚 𝑚
X - amount of adsorbate adsorbed
m - gram of adsorbent
P - pressure,
k and n - constants. (n>1)

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29 Limitations of Freundlich adorption isotherm?
1. Freundlich equation is purely empirical and valid over a limited pressure range.
2. The values of constants ‘k’ and ‘n’ also found vary with temperature. No theoretical
explanations were given.
30 Write the characteristics of catalysts? (Sep-20, May-22)
1. It is needed in very small quantity. Generally, a pinch of catalyst is enough for a reaction.
2. The catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition in a chemical reaction.
3. A catalyst itself cannot initiate a reaction.
4. A solid catalyst will be more effective if it is taken in a finely divided form.
5. They are said to be specific in nature.
6. It does not affect the position of equilibrium and the value of equilibrium constant.
7. A catalyst is highly effective at a particular temperature called as optimum temperature.
8. Presence of a catalyst generally does not change the nature of products
31 Define Positive catalysis?
The rate of a reaction is increased by the presence of catalyst.
Pt 1
Eg: H2O2 H2O + 2 O2

32 Define Negative catalysis?

The rate of reaction is decreased by the presence of a catalyst.
Glycerol
Eg: 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2
33 Define promoters?
The substance which increases the activity of a catalyst in a reaction is called promoters.
𝐹𝑒
Eg: N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3
𝑀𝑜

34 Define Auto catalysis?

In some reactions one of the products formed acts as a catalyst to the reaction. It is
called as auto catalysis.
Eg: CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH
In the above reaction acetic acid (CH3COOH) formed, acts as autocatalyst.
35 Write notes on active centers?
• The surface of a catalyst is not smooth.
• It bears steps, cracks and corners.
• Hence atoms on such locations of the surface are co-ordinatively unsaturated.
• They have much residual force of attraction. Such sites are called active centres.
36 Explain the various methods of preparing colloids by dispersion method?
Mechanical Dispersion:
Using a colloid mill, the solid is ground to colloidal dimension. The colloid mill consists of
two metal plates rotating in opposite direction at very high speed of nearly 7000 revolution/min.
The colloidal particles of required colloidal size is obtained by adjusting the distance between
two plates. Eg: colloidal solutions of ink and graphite.
Electro Dispersion:
An electrical arc is struck between electrodes dispersed in water surrounded by ice.
When a current of 1 amp/100 V is passed an arc produced forms vapours of metal which
immediately condense to form colloidal solution. By this method colloidal solution of many
metals like copper, silver, gold, platinum, etc. can be prepared. Alkali hydroxide is added as a
stabilising agent for the colloidal solution.

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Ultrasonic dispersion:
Sound waves of frequency more than 20kHz (audible limit) could cause transformation of
coarse suspension to colloidal dimensions. mercury sol by subjecting mercury to sufficiently
high frequency ultrasonic vibrations. The ultrasonic vibrations produced by generator spread
the oil and transfer the vibration to the vessel with mercury in water.
Peptisation:
By addition of suitable electrolytes, precipitated particles can be brought into colloidal
state. The process is termed as peptisation and the electrolyte added is called peptising or
dispersing agent.
HCl
AgCl(Precipitate) → AgCl(Colloid)
37 Define Ultrafiltration?
The pores of ordinary filter papers permit the passage of colloidal solutions. In ultra
filtrations, the membranes are made by using collodion cellophane or visiking. When a
colloidal solution is filtered using such a filter, colloidal particles are separated on the filter and
the impurities are removed as washings.
38 Explain the various methods of preparing colloids by Condensation Methods or
chemical methods?
Oxidation: 2H2Se + O2 2H2O + 2Se (கூழ்ெம்)

Reduction: 2AuCl3 + 3HCHO + 3H2O 2Au (கூழ்ெம்) + 6HCl + 3HCOOH

Hydrolysis: FeCl3 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
Double decomposition: As2O3 + 3H2S As2S3 + 3H2O
Decomposition: S2O32- + 2H+ S (கூழ்ெம்) + H2O + SO2
39 Classification of colloids
Dispersion Dispersed Name of the
Examples
medium phase colloid
1 Gas Liquid Liquid Aerosol Fog, Aerosol spray
2 Gas Solid Solid Aerosol Smoke, Air pollutants like fumes, dust.
Whipped cream, Shaving cream, Soda
3 Liquid Gas Foam
water, Froth.
4 Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Cream, Mayonnaise
5 Liquid Solid Sol Inks, Paints, colloidal gold.
6 Solid Gas Solid foam Pumice stone, Foam rubber bread.
7 Solid Liquid Gel Butter (Mar-20), cheese
Pearls, opals coloured glass alloys colloidal
8 Solid Solid Solid sol
dispersed eutetics.
40 No gas-gas colloid is formed. Why?
Gases mix with each other to form a homogeneous mixture. A colloid does not form as a
gas in a gas combination because it forms a true solution.
41 Define Collodion?
Collodion is 4% solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and water.

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42 Define Tyndall effect? (Sep-20)
Colloids have optical property. When a homogeneous solution is seen in the direction of
light, it appears clear but it appears dark, in a perpendicular direction. But when light passes
through colloidal solution, it is scattered in all directions. It is called as Tyndall effect.
The colloidal particles absorb a portion of light and the remaining portion is scattered
from the surface of the colloid. Hence the path of light is made clear.
43 Define Brownian movement?
When colloidal particles were viewed through ultra microscope, they
showed a random, zigzag ceaseless motion. This is called Brownian
movement of colloidal particles.
The colloidal sol particles are continuously bombarded with the
molecules of the dispersion medium and hence they follow a zigzag, random,
continuous movement.
44 Define Helmholtz electrical double layer? (Mar-23)
The surface of colloidal particle adsorbs one type of ion due to preferential adsorption.
This layer attracts the oppositely charged ions in the medium and hence at the boundary
separating the two electrical double layers are setup. This is called as Helmholtz electrical
double layer.
45 Define flocculation value?
The precipitation power of electrolyte is determined by finding the minimum concentration
(millimoles/lit) required to cause precipitation of a sol in 2 hours. This value is called
flocculation value. The smaller the flocculation value greater will be precipitation.
46 Define Gold number? (Mar-24)
Gold number is defined as the number of milligrams of hydrophilic colloid that will just
prevent the precipitation of 10ml of gold sol on the addition of 1ml of 10% NaCl solution.
Smaller the gold number greater the protective power.
Colloid Gold number
Gelatin 0.005 – 1
Egg albumin 0.008 - 0.10
Gum Arabic 0.1 - 0.15
Potato starch 25

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11. HYDROXY DERIVATIVES AND ETHERS
1 What is Baeyer’s reagent? How it is useful to prepare glycol?
Cold alkaline solution of potassium permanganate is called as Baeyer’s reagent

2 Explain Lucas test of differentiating three types (1°, 2°, 3°) of alcohols? (Aug-21, Mar-24)

3 Victor meyer’s test

This test is based on the behaviour of the different nitro alkanes formed by the three
types of alcohols with nitrous acid and it consist of the following steps.
1. Alcohols are converted into alkyl iodide by treating it with I2 / P.
2. Alkyl iodide so formed is then treated with AgNO2 to form nitro alkanes.
3. Nitro alkanes are finally treated with HNO2 (mixture of NaNO2 / HCl) and the resultant
solution is made alkaline with KOH.
Result:
• Primary alcohol gives red colour.
• Secondary alcohol gives blue colour.
• No colouration will be observed in case of tertiary Alcohol.

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4 What is saponification?

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5 Define Saytzeff’s rule?
During intramolecular dehydration, if there is a possibility to form a carbon – carbon
double bond at different locations, the preferred location is the one that gives the more
(highly) substituted alkene i.e., the stable alkene.
6 Is it possible to oxidise t – butyl alcohol using acidified dichromate to form a carbonyl
compound.
Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation reactions under normal conditions, but at
elevated temperatures, under strong oxidizing agent cleavage of C - C bond takes place to
give a mixture of carboxylic acid.
7 Swern oxidation

8 Preparation of dioxane

9 Define Biological oxidation?

• The fermentation of the food consumed by an animal produces alcohol.
• To deoxify the alcohol, the liver produces an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH)
• Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide (NAD) present in the animal act as an oxidizing agent
and ADH catalyses the oxidation of toxic alcohols into non-toxic aldehyde.

10 Preparation of Trinitroglycerine (TNG)?

11 Uses of Ethanaol?
• It is used in the preparation of paints, varnishes, dice, transparent soaps, etc.
• It is used as a preservative for biological specimens.
• It is used as a substitute for petrol under the name power alcohol as fuel for aeroplane.
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12 Preparation of acrolein?

13 How is phenol prepared from

i) chloro benzene (Dows process)

ii) isopropyl benzene

14 Williamson ether synthesis:

15 Preparation of picric acid? (Nitration of phenol)

16 Schotten-Baumann reaction:

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17 Write Kolbe’s (or) Kolbe’s Schmit reaction: (Preparation of Salicylic acid) (Mar-24)

18 Riemer – Tiemann Reaction: (Preparation of Salicylaldehyde)

19 Preparation of Phenolphthalein

20 Coupling reaction:

21 Explain the test to differentiate phenol and alcohols.

Test Phenol Alcohol
With Benzene diazonium forms a red orange dye no reaction
chloride
With neutral ferric chloride purple colour Do not give such colouration
With NaOH gives sodium phenoxide no reaction
22 Why is the C-O-C bond angle in ether either slightly greater than the tetrahedral bond
angle? (Sep – 2020)

C-O-C bond angle Is slightly greater than the tetrahedral bond angle due to the repulsive
interaction between the two bulkier alkyl groups.

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23 Reaction of 1 mole HI with methoxy ethane
CH3OCH2CH3 + HI CH3I + CH3CH2OH
Reaction of excess HI with methoxy ethane
Excess HI
CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2I

24 Identify the reaction mechanism of the following reactions

1. Reaction of 1 mole of HI with methoxy ethane - SN2
2. Reaction of 1 mole of HI with 2-methoxy-2-methyl propane - SN1
25 Reaction of diethyl ether with
i) With PCl5
PCl5
CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 → 2 CH3-CH2-Cl
−POCl3
ii) With Cl2 in presence of light
10 Cl2
CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 → CCl3-CCl2-O-CCl2-CCl3
light
iii) With anhydrous ZnCl2 / CH3COCl
𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 ZnCl2
CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 → CH3-CH2-Cl + CH3COOCH2CH3
CH3 COCl
iv) With dil. H2SO4
𝑑𝑖𝑙.H2 SO4
CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 → 2 CH3CH2OH
H2 O

26 Uses of diethyl ether

• It is used as surgical anaesthetic agent
• Good solvent for organic reactions and extraction
• It is used as a refrigerant
• It is used as a volatile starting fluid for Diesel and gasoline engines.
27 Uses of Anisole
• It is a precursor to the synthesis of perfumes and insecticide pheromones
• It is used as a pharmaceutical agent
28 Identify the product (s) is / are formed when 1 – methoxy propane is heated with excess
HI. Name the mechanism involved in the reaction

CH3 – O – CH2CH2CH3 + HI CH3I + CH3CH2CH2–OH

1 – Methoxy propane Methyl Iodide 1 - Propanol

HI

CH3CH2CH2–I + H2O
1 – Iodopropane
Ethers having primary alkyl group undergo SN2 reaction
29 Draw the major product formed when 1-ethoxyprop-1-ene is heated with one equivalent
of HI
CH3 CH = CH – O – CH2CH3 + HI CH3 CH = CH–OH + CH3 CH2 I
1–ethoxyprop-1-1ene Prop-1-en-1-ol Iodoethane

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30 Suggest a suitable reagent to prepare secondary alcohol with identical group using
Grignard reagent.

31 What is the major product obtained when two moles of ethyl magnesium bromide is
treated with methyl benzoate followed by acid hydrolysis.

Methyl Ethyl magnesium

benzoate bromide
3-phenyl-3-pentanol
32 Predict the major product, when 2-methyl but -2-ene is converted into an alcohol in
each of the following methods.
(i.) Acid catalysed hydration (ii.) Hydroboration
(iii.) Hydroxylation using Baeyer's reagent

33 Arrange the following in the increasing order of their boiling point and give a reason
for your ordering
(i.) Butan – 2- ol, Butan -1-ol, 2 –methylpropan -2-ol
Answer: 2 –methylpropan -2-ol < Butan -2-ol < Butan -1-ol
Reason: among isomeric alcohol, primary alcohol have a boiling point and the treasury
alcohol have low boiling points. 3° < 2° < 1°.
(ii.) Propan -1-ol, propan -1,2,3-triol, propan -1,3 – diol, propan -2-ol
Answer: propan -2-ol < propan -1-ol < propan -1,3 – diol < propan -1,2,3-triol
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Reason: propan -2-ol and propan -1-ol are isomeric 2° & 1° alcohols respectively with
one - OH group. Hence 2° < 1°.
As the number of - OH group increases tendency to form H - bond increases and boiling
point increases. Hence propan -1,3 – diol (2-OH groups) < propan -1,2,3-triol (3-OH groups).
34 Can we use nucelophiles such as NH3, CH3O− for the Nucleophilic substitution of
alcohols
• No, NH3, CH3O− cannot be used as nucleophile for the nucleophilic substitution reaction of
alcohols.
• Because -OH group of alcohol must be protonated before it can be displaced by a
nucleophile.
• Only weak basic nucleophiles like Br-, Cl- can be used.
• Moderately, strongly basic nucleophiles like NH3, CH3O− cannot be used.
35 Is it possible to oxidise t – butyl alcohol using acidified dichromate to form a carbonyl
compound.
• Tertiary butyl alcohol contains no  - hydrogen atoms and is not oxidised.
• However, an acidic oxidising agent can dehydrate the alcohol to an alkene and then
oxidize.

36 What happens when 1-phenyl ethanol is treated with acidified KMnO4.

Benzoic Formic
acid acid
1 – phenylethanol Acetophenone
37 Write the mechanism of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.

38 Write the structure of the aldehyde, carboxylic acid and ester that yield
4- methylpent -2-en-1-ol.
Structure of aldehyde Structure of carboxylic acid

Structure of ester

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39 What is metamerism? Give the structure and IUPAC name of metamers of 2-methoxy
propane
Metamerism is a special isomerism in which molecules have same formula, same functional
group but differ only in the nature of the alkyl groups attached to the metro atom like N, O.

2 – methoxy propane
Metamers:
CH3 – O – CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH2 – O – CH2CH3
1 – methoxy propane Ethoxy ethane
40 How are the following conversions effected
i) benzylchloride to benzylalcohol
NaOH(aq)
C6H5CH2Cl → C6H5CH2OH + NaCl
Benzyl chloride Benzyl alcohol
ii) benzyl alcohol to benzoic acid
H + / K 2 Cr2 O7 H + / K 2 Cr2 O7
C6H5CH2OH → C6H5CHO → C6H5COOH
Benzyl alcohol Benzaldehyde Benzoic acid
41 Complete the following reactions

PBr2 aq. NaOH Na

CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2Br → CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2ONa
−𝑁𝑎𝐵𝑟
Ethanol Ethyl bromide (A) Ethanol (B) Sodium ethoxide (C)

Zn dust CH3 Cl KMnO4

C6H5OH → C6H6 → C6H5CH3 → C6H5COOH
anhydrous AlCl3 H+
Phenol (A) Benzene (B) Toluene (C) Benzoic acid (D)

anisole

4-tert-butyl 4-tert-butyl-2- 4-tert-butyl-2-

anisole (A) chloro anisole (B) bromo phenol (C)

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1-(1-methyl 1-(1-methyl cyclohexyl) 1-methyl

cyclohexyl) enol ethene (A) cyclohexane-1-al (B)

42 Complete the following reactions

Phenol Phenyl (minor product)

benzoate (A)
p-nitro phenyl benzoate (B)
(major product)

According to saytzeff’s rule, during intra molecular dehydration, if there is a possibility to

form C = C bond at different locations, the preferred location is the one that gives the more
substituted alkene that is the stable alkene.
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43 Phenol is distilled with Zn dust followed by Friedel – Crafts alkylation with propyl
chloride to give a compound A, A on oxidation gives (B). Identify A and B.

Zn 𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 CH3 CH2 CH2 Cl

→ →
anhydrous AlCl3

Phenol Benzene Propyl benzene (A) Benzoic acid (B)

44

Identify A,B,C,D and write the complete equation

Methyl
magnesium
bromide
1-methyl cyclo 1-bromo-1-methyl
Cyclo hexan-1-ol (A) cyclo hexane (B)
hexanone

Mg / Ether

1-methyl cyclo 1-methyl cyclo hexane

hexane methanol (D) magnesium bromide (C)

45 What will be the product (X and A) for the following reaction

Acetyl Methyl magnesium Acetone Acetic acid

chloride bromide (X) (A)

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46 How will you convert acetylene into n-butyl alcohol.

Acetylene Acetaldehyde Aldol

n-butyl alcohol Crotonaldehyde

47 Predict the product A, B, X and Y in the following sequence of reaction

Answer:

Butan-2-ol 2-chloro butane (A) 2°-butyl magnesium

chloride (B)

2-Butanone (X)

2-Butanone (X)
3,4-dimethyl-3-hexanol (Y)

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48 3,3 – dimethylbutan -2-ol on treatment with conc. H2SO4 to give tetramethyl ethylene as
a major product. Suggest a suitable mechanism

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12. CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1 Rosenmund reduction (Mar-20, Jul-22)

In this reaction, barium sulphate act as a catalytic poison to palladium catalyst, so that
aldehyde cannot be further reduced to alcohol.
2 Stephen's reaction
SnCl2 /HCl H3 O+
CH3CN → CH3CH=NH → CH3CHO + NH3
(H)

3 Gattermann – Koch reaction

4 Friedel – Crafts acylation (Acetophenone from acetylchloride )

5 Etard reaction

6 Preparation of Urotropine? (Sep-20)

6HCHO + 4NH3 (CH2)6N4 + 6H2O
Formaldehyde Hexamethylene tetramine
Uses:
1. It is used as a medicine to treat urinary infection.
2. Nitration of Urotropine under controlled condition gives an
explosive RDX.
7 Define Popoff ’s rule?
It states that during the oxidation of an unsymmetrical ketone, a (C – CO) bond is
cleaved in such a way that the keto group stays with the smaller alkyl group.

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8 Aldol condensation (Jun-20)

Step – 1:

Step – 2:

Step – 3:

9 Crossed aldol condensation

10 Claisen – Schmidt Condensation

11 Clemmensen reduction

12 Wolf Kishner reduction

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13 Cannizaro reaction
50% NaOH
C6H5CHO + C6H5CHO → C6H5CH2OH + C6H5COONa
Benzaldehyde Benzyl alcohol Sodium Benzoate
Step – 1:

Step – 2:

Step – 3:

14 Crossed Cannizaro reaction

15 Benzoin condensation (May-22, Jul-22)

16 Schiff’s base

17 Perkins’ reaction (Cinnamic acid from benzaldehyde) (May-22)

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18 Knoevenagal reaction (May-22, Mar-24)

19 Esterification reaction

Acetic acid Ethanol Ethyl acetate

Mechanism of esterification:

20 Kolbe’s electrolytic decarboxylation (Ethane from sodium acetate)

21 Malachite green dye (Malachite green from benzaldehyde) (May-22, Mar-23)

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22 Hell – Volhard – Zelinsky reaction (HVZ reaction)

23 Preparation of acid anhydride (Acetic anhydride from acetic acid)

24 Tests for carboxylic acid group? (Sep-20, Aug-21, Jul-22)

i) In aqueous solution carboxylic acid turn blue litmus red.
ii) Carboxylic acids give brisk effervescence with sodium bicarbonate due to the evolution
of carbon-di -oxide.
iii) When carboxylic acid is warmed with alcohol and Con H2SO4 it forms an ester, which
is detected by its fruity odour.
25 Reducing action of Formic acid (Mar-20, May-22)
Formic acid contains both an aldehyde as well as an acid group. Hence, like other
aldehydes, formic acid can easily be oxidised and therefore acts as a strong reducing agent.

Aldehyde group Carboxylic acid group

i) Formic acid reduces Tollen’s reagent (ammonical silver nitrate solution) to metallic silver.

ii) Formic acid reduces Fehlings solution. It reduces blue coloured cupric ions to red
coloured cuprous ions.

26 Hoff mann’s degradation?

Amides reacts with bromine in the presence of caustic alkali to form a primary amine
carrying one carbon less than the parent amide.

Acetamide Methyl amine

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27 Write the test for Aldehydes?
Tollen’s reagent test:
When an aldehyde is warmed with tollens reagent, a bright silver mirror is produced due
to the formation of Silver. It is known as silver mirror test.

Fehlings solution test:

When an aldehyde is warmed with a mixture of fehlings A and B solutions deep blue
colour solution is changed to red precipitate of cuprous oxide.

Benedict’s solution test:

Benedict’s solution is a mixture of CuSO4 + sodium citrate + NaOH. An aldehyde reduces
Cu2+ ion into red precipitate of cuprous oxide.

Schiff’s reagent test:

Schiff’s reagent is Rosaniline hydrochloride dissolved in water and its red colour is
decolourised by passing SO2. Aldehydes restore the red colour of Schiff’s reagent.
28 What is Transesterification?
Esters of an alcohol can react with another alcohol in the presence of a mineral acid to
give the ester of second alcohol. The interchange of alcohol portions of the esters is termed
Transesterification

The reaction is generally used for the preparation of the esters of a higher alcohol from
that of a lower alcohol.
29 Define Claisen Condensation? (Mar-23)
Esters containing at least one ∝- hydrogen atom undergo self-condensation in the
presence of a strong base such as sodium ethoxide to form b- keto ester.

30 Explain the Amphoteric character of acetamide?

• Amides behave both as weak acid as well as weak base and thus show amphoteric
character.
• This can be proved by the following reactions.
• Acetamide (as base) reacts with hydrochloric acid to form salt

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Acetamide Acetamide hydrochloride

• Acetamide (as acid) reacts with sodium to form sodium salt and hydrogen gas is liberated.

Acetamide Sodium acetamide

31 What is Formalin? Give its uses? (Mar-20)
40% aqueous solution of formaldehyde is called formalin.
Uses: It is used for preserving biological specimens, for tanning process and production of
bakelite.
32 Uses of Acetaldehye.
• Acetaldehyde is used for silvering of mirrors
• Paraldehyde is used in medicine as a hypnotic.
• Acetaldehyde is used in the commercial preparation of number of organic compounds
• like acetic acid, ethyl acetate etc.,
33 Uses of Acetone.
• Acetone is used as a solvent, in the manufacture of smokeless gun powder (cordite)
• It is used as a nail polish remover.
• It is used in the preparation of sulphonal, a hypnotic.
• It is used in the manufacture of thermosoftening plastic Perspex.
34 Benzaldehyde is used
• as a flavoring agent
• in perfumes
• in dye intermediates
• as starting material for the synthesis of several other organic compounds like
cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid, benzoyl chloride etc.
35 Uses of Aromatic Ketones.
• Acetophenone has been used in perfumery and as a hypnotic under the name hypnone.
• Benzophenone is used in perfumery and in the preparation of benzhydrol eye drop.
36 How acetic acid is prepared from Grignard reagent? (Mar-24)

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37 How is propanoic acid is prepared starting from (a) an alcohol (b) an alkylhalide (c) an
alkene
KMnO4 [O]
a) CH3-CH2-CH2-OH → CH3-CH2-CHO → CH3-CH2-COOH
n-propyl alcohol propanoic acid
KCN H3 O +
b) CH3-CH2-Cl → CH3-CH2-CN → CH3-CH2-COOH
Ethyl chloride propanoic acid
Cl2 Mg CO2
c) CH3-CH3 → CH3-CH2-Cl → CH3-CH2-MgCl → CH3-CH2-COOMgCl
sun light Ether
Ethane H3O+
CH3-CH2-COOH
propanoic acid
38 A Compound (A) with molecular formula C2H3N on acid hydrolysis gives (B) which
reacts with thionyl chloride to give compound (C). Benzene reacts with compound (C)
in presence of anhydrous AlCl3 to give compound (D). Compound (D) on reduction with
Zn/Hg and Conc.HCl gives (E). Identify (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E). Write the equations.

Compound Name Formula

A Methyl cyanide CH3CN
B Acetic acid CH3COOH
C Acetyl chloride CH3COCl
D Acetophenone C6H5COCH3
E Ethyl alcihol C6H5CH2CH3
39 Identify X and Y.

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40 Identify A, B and C

Compound Name Formula

A Benzoyl chloride C6H5COCl
B Benzophenone C6H5COC6H5
C Ethyl benzoate C6H5COOC2H5
41 Identify A, B, C and D

Compound Name Formula

A Acetyl chloride CH3COCl
B Acetaldehyde CH3CHO
C 3-Hydroxy butanal CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO
D Crotonaldehyde CH3CH=CHCHO
42 An alkene (A) on ozonolysis gives propanone and aldehyde (B). When (B) is oxidised
(C) is obtained. (C) is treated with Br2/P gives (D) which on hydrolysis gives (E). When
propanone is treated with HCN followed by hydrolysis gives (E). Identify A, B, C, D and
E.
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Compound Name Formula

A 2,4-dimethyl pent-2-ene

B 2-methyl propanal

C 2-methyl propanoic acid

D 2-bromo-2-methyl propanoic acid

E 2-hydroxy-2-methyl propanoic acid

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43 How will you convert benzaldehyde into the following compounds?
(i) benzophenone

(ii) benzoic acid

(iii) -hydroxyphenylaceticacid.

44 What is the action of HCN on

(i) propanone

(ii) 2,4-dichlorobenzaldehyde.

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(iii) ethanal

45 A carbonyl compound A having molecular formula C5H10O forms crystalline precipitate

with sodium bisulphite and gives positive iodoform test. A does not reduce Fehling
solution. Identify A.
• Compound (A) does not reduce Felling solution. So, it is a ketone.
• Also undergoes iodoform reaction, so it is a methyl ketone.
• Hence, (A) is 2-pentanone. (CH3CH2CH2COCH3)
46 Write the structure of the major product of the aldol condensation of benzaldehyde
with acetone.
Claisen – Schmidt Condensation

47 How are the following conversions effected

(a) propanal into butanone

(b) Hex-3-yne into hexan-3-one.

(c) phenylmethanal into benzoic acid

phenylmethanal

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(d) phenylmethanal into benzoin (Benzoin condensation)

phenylmethanal

48 Complete the following reaction.

49 Identify A, B and C

Compound Name Formula

A Benzyl cyanide C6H5CH2CN
B Benzyl magnesium bromide C6H5 CH2MgBr
C Phenyl acetic acid C6H5 CH2COOH

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50 Oxidation of ketones involves carbon – carbon bond cleavage. Name the product (s) is
/ are formed on oxidising 2,5 – dimethylhexan – 3- one using strong oxidising agent.

2,5 – dimethylhexan – 3- one 2 – methyl propanoic acid

• The reaction proceeds according to popoff’s rule.
• Popoff’s rule states that during the oxidation of an unsymmetrical ketone, the (C-CO)
bonds cleaved in such a way that the keto group stays with the smaller alkyl group.
51 How will you prepare
i) Ethylacetate from methylacetate

Methyl acetate Ethanol Ethyl acetate

ii) Acetamide from methylcyanide
Partial hydrolysis of alkyl cyanides with cold con HCl gives amides

iii) Lactic acid from ethanal

Ethanal Lactic acid

iv) Benzoic acid from toluene

v) Acetaldehyde from ethyne

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13. ORGANO NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
1 What is chloropicrin? How it is prepared and give its uses. (Mar-20)
Trichloronitromethane is called as chloropicrin.
NaOH
CH3NO2 + 3Cl2 → CCl3NO2 + 3HCl
Trichloronitromethane
Uses: Nitromethane is suspected to cause genetic damage and be harmful to the nervous
system.
2 Mendius reaction
Na(Hg) / C2 H5 OH
CH3CN → CH3CH2NH2
4[H]
Ethanenitrile ethanamine
Na(Hg) / C2 H5 OH
CH3NC → CH3CH2NH2
4[H]
Methyl isocyanide N-methylmethanamine
3 Hoffmann’s degradation reaction

amide (R = Alkyl or Aryl) Primary amine

4 Hoffmann’s ammonolysis

5 Schotten – Baumann reaction

6 Gabriel phthalimide synthesis (Sep-20, May-22)

7 Ethylamine is soluble in water whereas aniline is not. Why?

Ethylamine forms hydrogen bond with water. Hence it is soluble in water.
Aniline does not form hydrogen bond with water due to the presence of a large hydrophobic
C6H5 - group. Hence it is insoluble in water.
8 pKb of aniline is more than that of methylamine. Why?
The loan pair of electrons on nitrogen atom in aniline gets delocalised over the benzene ring.
so aniline is less basic than methylamine and pKb of Aniline is more than that of methylamine.
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9 Amines are more basic than amides. Why?
In amines the alkyl groups being electron releasing groups, the electron pair on amine
nitrogen is readily available to accept a proton. Whereas, the carbonyl group in amide is
highly electronegative and draws the electrons towards it. This makes the lone pair of amide
nitrogen less available to accept proton. Hence amides are less basic than amines.
10 Arrange the following
i) In increasing order of solubility in water, C6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH2, C2H5NH2
increasing order of solubility in water, C6H5NH2 < (C2H5)2NH2 < C2H5NH2
Reason: Aromatic amine < aliphatic amine
1
Solubility 
molar mass

ii) In increasing order of basic strength

a) aniline, p- toludine and p – nitroaniline

p – nitroaniline < aniline < p- toludine

b) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, p-Cl-C6H4-NH2

p-Cl-C6H4-NH2 < C6H5NH2 < C6H5NHCH3
iii) In decreasing order of basic strength in gas phase
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N மற்றும் NH3
(C2H5)3N > (C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > NH3
iv) In increasing order of boiling point, C2H5OH, (CH3)2NH, C2H5NH2
(CH3)2NH < C2H5NH2 < C2H5OH
v) In decreasing order of the pKb values, C2H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2
C6H5NHCH3 > CH3NH2 > C2H5NH2 > (C2H5)2NH
Reason: Basic character increases, pKb value decreases.
vi) Increasing order of basic strength, C6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2
C6H5NH2 < C6H5N(CH3)2 < CH3NH2 < (C2H5)2NH
vii. In decreasing order of basic strength, CH3CH2NH2, , CH3-NH2

CH3CH2NH2 > CH3-NH2 > >

11 Carbylamine reaction (test used to identify the primary amines) (May-22)

12 Diazotisation

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13 Write the reaction of primary amine with carbon disulphide (CS2). (Mustard oil reaction)
(Jun-20, Jul-22, Mar-24)

(or)

14 Gattermann reaction

15 Sandmeyer reaction

16 Replacement of fluorine (Baltz – schiemann reaction)

17 Gomberg reaction (Mar-20)

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18 Although amino group is o – and p – directing in aromatic electrophilic substitution
reactions, aniline on nitration gives a substantial amount of m – nitroaniline. Why?
In strong acid medium aniline is protonated to form anilinium which is m-directing. Hence
a substantial amount of m-nitroaniline is formed during nitration of aniline.
19 Levine and Hauser acetylation reaction

20 Coupling reactions

21 Why Aniline does not undergo Friedel – Crafts reaction? (Sep-20, Mar-23)
Aniline is basic in nature. It donates its lone pair to the Lewis acid to form an adduct
which inhibits further electrophilic substitution reaction.
22 Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic amines.
Why?
The stability of diazonium salts of aromatic amines is due to the dispersal of the positive
charge over the benzene ring.
23 Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is preferred for synthesising primary amines not for
aniline. Why?
Aniline cannot be prepared by this method, because the arylhalides do not undergo
nucleophilic substitution with the anion formed by phthalimide
24 Name the reducing agent used in the reduction of nitrobenzene to the following
compounds. (Jun-20)
1) Aniline 2) Phenylhydroxylamine 3) Nitrosobenzene
1) Sn / HCl 2) Zn / NH4Cl 3) Fe / H2O (steam)

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25 Thorpe nitrile condensation (Mar-23)

26 How will you distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary alphatic amines.

Reaction 1o amine 2o amine 3o amine

1 With HNO2 forms alcohol forms N-nitroso amine forms salt

With CHCl3 /
2 forms carbylamine no reaction no reaction
KOH
With CS2 / forms alkyl
3 no reaction no reaction
HgCl2 isothiocyanate
With acetyl forms N,N - dialkyl
4 forms N-alkyl acetamide no reaction
chloride acetamide
With Diethyl forms solid forms liquid N,N -
5 no reaction
oxalate dialkyloxamide dialkyl oxamic ester
forms quarternary forms quarternary forms quarternary
With Alkyl ammonium salt with ammonium salt with ammonium salt with
6
halide three moles of alkyl two moles of alkyl one moles of alkyl
halide halide halide
27 Write down the possible isomers of the C4H9NO2 give their IUPAC names
Structure IUPAC Name
1 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-NO2. 1-nitro butane

2 2-nitro butane

3 2-methyl-1-nitropropane

4 2-methyl-2-nitropropane

5 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-O-N=O 1-nitroso oxybutane

6 2-methy propylnitrite

7 2-aminobutanoic acid

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28 There are two isomers with the formula CH3NO2. How will you distinguish between
them?
Primary and secondary nitroalkanes, having -H, also show an equilibrium mixture of two
tautomer’s namely nitro – and aci – form
Tertiary nitro alkanes do not exhibit tautomerism due to absence of -H atom.

29 What happens when

i. 2 – Nitropropane boiled with HCl
HCl / H2 O
2(CH3)2CH – NO2 → 2(CH3)2C = O + N2O + H2O
2 – Nitropropane Acetone Nitrous oxide
ii. Nitrobenzene undergo electrolytic-reduction in strongly acidic medium.

iii. Oxidation of tert – butylamine with KMnO4

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iv. Oxidation of acetoneoxime with trifluoroperoxy acetic acid.

Acetoneoxime 2-nitropropane
30 How will you convert nitrobenzene into
i. 1,3,5 - trinitrobenzene

ii. o and p- nitrophenol

o – nitrophenol p - nitrophenol
iii. m – nitro aniline

iv. azoxybenzene

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v. hydrozobenzene

vi. N – phenyl hydroxylamine

vii. aniline

31 Identify compounds A, B and C in the following sequence of reactions.

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32 How will you prepare propan – 1- amine from

i) butane nitrile

Butane nitrile propan – 1- amine

ii) propanamide

Propenamide propan – 1- amine

iii) 1- nitropropane

1- nitropropane propan – 1- amine

33 Identify A, B and C.

(A) (B) (C)

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Compound Name
A Methyl amine
B N-ethyl-N-methyl ethanamine
C Diethyl methyl ammonium hydrogen sulphate
34 How will you convert diethylamine into
i) N, N – diethyl acetamide

Diethylamine acetyl chloride N, N – diethyl acetamide

ii) N – nitroso diethylamine

Diethylamine N – nitroso diethylamine

35 Identify A, B and C

Compound Name
A Pentane dioylchloride
B Pentane diamide
C Pentan-1,5-diamine

36 Identify A. aniline + benzaldehyde A

C6H5NH2 + C6H5CHO C6H5–CH = N – C6H5.
Schiff’s base (A)
37 Complete the following reaction

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38 Predict A, B, C and D for the following reaction

39 A dibromo derivative (A) on treatment with KCN followed by acid hydrolysis and
heating gives a monobasic acid (B) along with liberation of CO2. (B) on heating with
liquid ammonia followed by treating with Br2 /KOH gives (C) which on treating with
NaNO2 and HCl at low temperature followed by oxidation gives a monobasic acid (D)
having molecular mass 74. Identify A to D.

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40 Identify A to E in the following sequence of reactions.

Compound Name
A Toluene
B o – nitro toluene
C o – amino toluene
D o – methyl benzene diazonium chloride
E o – cyano toluene

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14. BIOMOLECULES

1 What type of linkages hold together monomers of DNA?

Monomers of DNA are linked together by phosphor di ester bond between 5’OH group of
one nucleotide and 3’OH group on another nucleotide.
2 What are reducing and non – reducing sugars?
Reducing sugars: it contains aldehyde and ketonic group
Eg: Glucose, lactose, maltose
Non reducing sugar: it does not contain aldehyde and ketonic group
Eg: Sucrose
3 Name the vitamins which causes the following deficiency? (Sep-20)
i) rickets - Deficiency of Vitamin D
ii) scurvy - Deficiency of Vitamin C
4 Give the differences between primary and secondary structure of proteins.
Primary structure Secondary structure
1 The relative arrangement of the The amino acids in the polypeptide chain forms
amino acids in the polypeptide chain highly regular shapes through the hydrogen bond
is called the primary structure of the between the carbonyl oxygen and the
protein neighbouring amine hydrogen of the main chain
2 Even a small change in the chain α-Helix and β-strands or sheets are two most
have potential to alter the overall common sub-structures formed by proteins
structure and function of a protein
5 Write a note on α-Helix structure of proteins?
• In the α-helix sub-structure, the amino acids are arranged in a right-handed helical (spiral)
structure
• It is stabilised by the hydrogen bond between the carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid (nth
residue) with amino hydrogen of the fifth residue (n+4th residue)
• The side chains of the residues protrude outside of the helix.
• Each turn of an α-helix contains about 3.6 residues and is about 5.4 A° long.
• The amino acid proline produces a kink in the helical structure and often called as a helix
breaker due to its rigid cyclic structure.
6 Write a note on β-strands structure of proteins?
• β-Strands are extended peptide chain rather than coiled.
• The hydrogen bonds occur between main chain carbonyl group one such strand and the
amino group of the adjacent strand resulting in the formation of a sheet like structure.
This arrangement is called β-sheets.
7 Write a note on tertiary structure of proteins?
• The secondary structure elements (α-helix & β-sheets) further folds to form the three-
dimensional arrangement. This structure is called tertiary structure of the protein.
• This structure is stabilised by the interactions between the side chains of the amino acids.
• These interactions include the disulphide bridges between cysteine residues, electrostatic,
hydrophobic, hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions.
8 Write a note on quaternary structure of proteins?
• Some proteins are made up of more than one polypeptide chains.
• In these proteins the individual polypeptide chains interacts with each other to form the
multimeric structure which are known as quaternary structure.
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9 Write the Zwitter ion structure α – D(+)-Glucopyranose  – D(+)-Glucopyranose
of alanine (J-22, M-23) (Mar-24) (Mar-24)

10 Give any three differences between DNA and RNA (Aug-21)

DNA RNA
It is mainly present in nucleus, It is mainly present in cytoplasm, nucleolus and
1
mitochondria and chloroplast ribosomes
2 It contains deoxyribose sugar It contains ribose sugar
3 Its life time is high It is Short lived
It is stable and not hydrolysed easily by
4 It is unstable and hydrolyzed easily by alkalis
alkalis
5 Double stranded molecules Single stranded molecules
6 Base pair A = T. G ≡ C Base pair A = U. C ≡ G
7 It can replicate itself It cannot replicate itself. It is formed from DNA.
11 Write a short note on peptide bond? (Aug-21, Mar-24)
The carboxyl group of the first amino acid react with the amino group of the second
amino acid to give an amide linkage between these amino acids. This amide linkage is called
peptide bond. The resulting compound is called a dipeptide.

12 Why carbohydrates are generally optically active?

• Almost all carbohydrates are optically active because they have one or more chiral
carbons.
• The number of optical isomers depends on the number of chiral carbons
• The number of optical isomers = 2n isomers, where n is the total number of chiral carbons.
• Eg: Glucose has 4 chiral carbons and can produce 16 isomers
13 Give two differences between Hormones and vitamins
Hormones vitamins
It is an organic substance that is Vitamins are small organic compounds
secreted by one tissue in the blood that cannot be synthesised by our body but
1
stream and induces a physiological are essential for certain functions. Hence,
response in other tissues. they must be obtained through diet
Vitamins are essential for the normal
2 It is an intercellular signalling molecule.
growth and maintenance of our health.
3 Eg: insulin Eg: Vitamin A, B1, B2, C, D
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14 Classify the following into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
i) Starch ii) Fructose Iii) Sucrose Iv) Lactose Iv) Maltose v) Glucose vi) Cellulose
1. Monosaccharides – Glucose, Fructose
2. Oligosaccharides – Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
3. Polysaccharides – Starch, Cellulose
15 Write a note on denaturation of proteins? (Jun-20)
• Each protein has a unique three-dimensional structure
• It is formed by interactions such as disulphide bond, hydrogen bond, hydrophobic and
electrostatic interactions.
• These interactions can be disturbed when the protein is exposed to a higher temperature,
by adding certain chemicals such as urea, alteration of pH and ionic strength etc.,
• It leads to the loss of the three-dimensional structure partially or completely.
• The process of a losing its higher order structure without losing the primary structure, is
called denaturation.
• When a protein denatures, its biological function is also lost.
• Since the primary structure is intact, this process can be reversed in certain proteins. This
can happen spontaneously upon restoring the original conditions or with the help of
special enzymes called cheperons
• Eg: coagulation of egg white by action of heat.
16 How are vitamins classified?
Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their solubility either in water or in fat.
Fat soluble vitamins: These vitamins absorbed best when taken with fatty food and are
stored in fatty tissues and livers. These vitamins do not dissolve in water. Hence, they are
called as fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin A, D, E & K are fat-soluble vitamins.
Water soluble vitamins: Vitamins B (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9 and B12) and C are readily
soluble in water. On the contrary to fat soluble vitamins, these can’t be stored. The excess
vitamins present will be excreted through urine and are not stored in our body.
17 What are hormones? Give examples? (Mar-23)
• Hormone is an organic substance that is secreted by one tissue in the blood stream Eg. A
peptide or a steroid
• It induces a physiological response in other tissues Eg. Growth and metabolism.
• It is an intercellular signalling molecule.
• Every process in a living organism is regulated by one or more hormones like
maintenance of blood pressure, blood volume and electrolyte balance, embryogenesis,
hunger, eating behaviour, digestion, etc.
• Eg: Insulin, Estrogen
18 Define enzymes?
• There are many biochemical reactions that occur in our living cells.
• These reactions are catalysed by special proteins called enzymes.
• These biocatalysts accelerate the reaction rate in the orders of 10 5 and also make them
highly specific.
• Eg: Sucrase, Lactase
19 Why sucrose is called as invert sugar?
During hydrolysis of sucrose the optical rotation of the reaction mixture changes from
dextro rotatory to levo rotatory.
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20 Write the structure of all possible dipeptides which can be obtained from glycine and
alanine?

21 What are the different types of RNA which are found in cell? (Sep-20)
i. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• rRNA is mainly found in cytoplasm and in ribosomes
• it contains 60% RNA and 40% protein.
• Ribosomes are the sites at which protein synthesis takes place.
ii. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
The function of tRNA is to carry amino acids to the sites of protein synthesis on
ribosomes.
iii. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
They are single stranded, and their synthesis takes place on DNA. The synthesis of
mRNA from DNA strand is called transcription. mRNA carries genetic information from DNA
to the ribosomes for protein synthesis. This process is known as translation
22 Elucidate the structure of Glucose and Fructose?
Glucose Fructose (Jul-22)
Elemental analysis and molecular weight Elemental analysis and molecular weight
determination show that the molecular determination show that the molecular formula of
formula of glucose is C6H12O6. glucose is C6H12O6.
On reduction with HI / P gives a mixture On reduction with HI / P gives a mixture of n-
of n-hexane indicating that the six hexane indicating that the six carbon atoms are
carbon atoms are bonded linearly. bonded linearly.
Glucose forms penta acetate with acetic Fructose forms penta acetate with acetic
anhydride suggesting the presence of anhydride suggesting the presence of five
five alcohol groups. alcohol groups.
Glucose reacts with NH2OH to form Fructose reacts with hydroxylamine (NH2OH)
oxime and with HCN to form and HCN. It shows the presence of a carbonyl
cyanohydrin. These reactions indicate groups in the fructose.
the presence of carbonyl group in
glucose.
Glucose reduces Tollen’s reagent and Fructose is not oxidized by bromine water. This
Fehling’s solution confirm the presence shows absence of an aldehyde (-CHO) group.
of an aldehyde group
Glucose gets oxidized to gluconic acid Partial reduction of fructose with sodium
with bromine water suggesting that the amalgam and water produces mixtures of
carbonyl group is an aldehyde group sorbitol and mannitol which are epimers at the
and it occupies one end of the carbon second carbon. New asymmetric carbon is
chain. formed at C-2. This confirms the presence of a
keto group.
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When oxidised with conc. nitric acid On oxidation with nitric acid, it gives glycollic
gives glucaric acid (saccharic acid) acid and tartaric acids. This shows that a keto
suggesting the other end is occupied by group is present in C-2. It also shows that 1°
a primary alcohol group. alcoholic groups are present at C- 1 and C- 6.

23 Disaccharides:

Sucrose α-D-glucose, β -D-fructose α-1,2 glycosidic bond

Lactose β -D–galactose and β-D–glucose β -1,4 glycosidic bond
Maltose two molecules of α-D-glucose α-1,4 glycosidic bond
24 What are the functions of lipids in living organism? (Jun-20)
1. Lipids are the integral component of cell membrane. They are necessary of structural
integrity of the cell.
2. The main function of triglycerides in animals is as an energy reserve. They yield more
energy than carbohydrates and proteins.
3. They act as protective coating in aquatic organisms.
4. Lipids of connective tissue give protection to internal organs.
5. Lipids help in the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.
6. They are essential for activation of enzymes such as lipases.
7. Lipids act as emulsifier in fat metabolism.
25 Is the following sugar, D – sugar or L – sugar?

Ans: L – sugar

This indicates L – sugar

26 Write the types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed further
and are also called simple sugars. Eg: Glucose, Fructose.
Oligosaccharides: Disaccharides (Oligosaccharides) are sugars that yield two molecules of
monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Eg: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides consist of large number of monosaccharide units bonded
together by glycosidic bonds. Eg: Starch, Cellulose

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27 Define Anomers?
Isomers differ only in the configuration of C1 carbon is called as anomers.
Eg: α– D(+) glucose and β– D(+) glucose.
28 Define mutarotation?
when a pure form of any one sugar is dissolved in water, slow interconversion of α -D
glucose and β -D glucose via open chain form occurs until equilibrium is established giving a
constant specific rotation + 53º. This phenomenon is called mutarotation.
29 Epimers (May-22): Sugar differing in configuration at an asymmetric centre is known as
epimers. Eg: D(+) glucose, D(+) galactose
Epimerisation: The process by which one epimer is converted into other is called
epimerisation and it requires the enzymes epimerase.
30 What is glycosidic linkage? (Mar-20)
The oxide linkage by which two monosaccharides are linked in disaccharides is called as
glycosidic linkage.
31 Invert sugar: During hydrolysis of sucrose the optical rotation of the reaction mixture changes
from dextro to levo. Hence, sucrose is also called as invert sugar.
32 Define isoelectric point?
At a specific pH the net charge of an amino acid is neutral and this pH is called
isoelectric point.
33 Importance of Carbohydrates:
1. Glucose acts as an immediate energy source.
2. Glycogen is stored in the human body as starch in plants.
3. Cellulose is used to get paper and cotton clothes.
4. Act mainly as energy sources and structural polymers.
5. Ribose sugars are major constituents of nucleic acids.
34 Explain the types of proteins?
Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
They have spherical shape. The polypeptide
1 Linear molecules similar to fibres
chain is folded into a spherical shape
2 Generally insoluble in water Usually soluble in water
They are held together by disulphide
bridges and weak intermolecular They have many functions including
3
hydrogen bonds. The proteins are often catalysis.
used as structural proteins
4 Eg: Keratin, Collagen etc… Eg: myoglobin, insuline
35 Nucleosides and nucleotides:
Sugar + Base Nucleoside
Nucleoside + Phosphoric acid Nucleotide
nNucleotide Polynucleotide (Nucleic Acid)
36 Nitrogen base:
Purine base Pyrimidine base
DNA adenine (A) and guanine (G) cytosine (C), thymine (T)
RNA adenine (A) and guanine (G) cytosine (C), uracil (U)

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 Dr.R.Karthic M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A(Edu)., M.Phil., Ph.D. P.G Assistant, GHSS – vallipattu, 9943119933
37 Define transcription?
The synthesis of mRNA from DNA strand is called transcription.
38 Define translation?
The process of mRNA carrying genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for
protein synthesis.
39 List out the diseases caused by the deficiency of vitamins?
Vitamins Deficiency Disease
Vitamin A (Retinol) Night blindness, Xerophthalmia, Keratinisation of skin
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Beri – Beri (peripheral nerve damage)
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Cheilosis (lesions of corner of mouth, lips and tongue)
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Inadequate growth
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Convulsions
Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Depression, Hair loss, muscle pain.
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Megaloblastic anaemia
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Pernicious Anaemia
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy (bleeding gums)
Vitamin D Rickets (children), Osteomalacia (adults)
Muscular dystrophy (muscular weakness) and
Vitamin E (Tocopherols)
neurological dysfunction
Vitamin K Increased blood clotting time, Haemorrhagic diseases

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15. CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE

1 Which chemical is responsible for the antiseptic properties of dettol?

Chloroxylenol and -terpineol.
2 What are antibiotics? (Mar-24)
The medicines that have the ability to kill the pathogenic bacteria are called as antibiotics.
Eg: Amoxicillin, Erythromycin
3 Name one substance which can act as both analgesic and antipyretic?
Paracetamol, Asprin
4 Write a note on synthetic detergents?
Synthetic detergents are formulated products containing either sodium salts of alkyl
hydrogen sulphates or sodium salts of long chain alkyl benzene sulphonic acids. There are
three types of detergents.
1. Anionic detergent – Sodium Lauryl sulphate
2. Cationic detergent – n-hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride
3. Non-ionic detergent – Pentaerythrityl stearate
5 How do antiseptics differ from disinfectants? (Jun-20)
• Antiseptics applied to living tissue which stop or slow down the growth of microorganisms
• Disinfectants generally used on inanimate objects which stop or slow down the growth of
microorganisms
6 What are food preservatives? (Mar-23)
Preservatives are capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation,
acidification or other decomposition of food by growth of microorganisms. Eg: Acetic acid,
Sodium metabisulphite
7 Why do soaps not work in hard water?
Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. When soaps dissolved in hard water,
the calcium and magnesium ions replace sodium or potassium ions present in the soap forming
insoluble calcium or magnesium salts of fatty acid. These insoluble salts separate as scum. so,
soaps do not work in hard water
8 What are drugs? How are they classified.
A drug is a substance that is used to modify or explore physiological systems or
pathological states for the benefit of the recipient. It is used for the purpose of diagnosis,
prevention, cure/relief of a disease. Drugs are classified based on their properties such as i)
chemical structure
Drugs with a common chemical skeleton are classified into a single group.
ii) pharmacological effect
The drugs are grouped based on their biological effect that they produce on the recipient.
iii) target system
The drugs are grouped based on the biological system/process, that they target in the
recipient.
iv) site of action
The drug molecule interacts with biomolecules such as enzymes, receptors etc,, which
are referred as drug targets. We can classify the drug based on the drug target with which it
binds.
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9 How the tranquilizers work in body.
• They are neurologically active drugs.
• Acts on the central nervous system by blocking the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain
i) Major tranquilizers: Haloperidol, clozapine
ii) Minor tranquilizers: Diazepam (Valium), alprazolam
Uses: Treatment of stress, anxiety, depression, sleep disorders and severe mental diseases
like schizophrenia
10 Explain the mechanism of cleansing action of soaps and detergents
• Let us consider sodium palmitate an example of a soap.
• The cleansing action of soap is directly related to the structure of carboxylate ions
(palmitate ion) present in soap.
• The structure of palmitate exhibits dual polarity. The hydrocarbon portion is non polar
and the carboxyl portion is polar.
• The nonpolar portion is hydrophobic while the polar end is hydrophilic. The hydrophobic
hydro carbon portion is soluble in oils and greases, but not in water. The hydrophilic
carboxylate group is soluble in water.

• The dirt in the cloth is due to the presence of dust particles intact or grease which stick.
When the soap is added to an oily or greasy part of the cloth, the hydrocarbon part of
the soap dissolve in the grease, leaving the negatively charged carboxylate end
exposed on the grease surface.
• At the same time the negatively charged carboxylate groups are strongly attracted by
water, thus leading to the formation of small droplets called micelles and grease is
floated away from the solid object.
• When the water is rinsed away, the grease goes with it. As a result, the cloth gets free
from dirt.
• The cleansing ability of a soap depends upon its tendency to act as a emulsifying agent
between water and water insoluble greases.
• The cleansing action of detergents are similar to the cleansing action of soaps.
11 What are Anti fertility drugs? Give examples.
These synthetic hormones that suppresses ovulation/ fertilisation.
Uses: Used in birth control pills.
Eg: Synthetic oestrogen - Ethynylestradiol, Menstranol
Synthetic Progesterone - Norethindrone, Norethynodrel
12 Write the structural formula of aspirin.

Aspirin
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13 What are narcotic and non – narcotic drugs. Give examples
Opioids (Narcotic Analgesics):
• Relive pain and produce sleep.
• These drugs are addictive.
• In poisonous dose, these produce coma and ultimately death.
Uses:
• Used for either short term or long-term relief of severe pain.
• Mainly used for post operative pain, pain of terminal cancer.
Eg: Morphine, codeine
Analgesics (Non – narcotic):
• Analgesics reduce the pain without causing impairment of consciousness.
• They alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses
Uses:
Used for short-term pain relief and for modest painlike headache, muscle strain, bruising, or
arthritis.hey alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses
Eg: paracetamol, Asprin
14 Which sweetening agent are used to prepare sweets for a diabetic patient?
• Those compounds that are used like sugars (glucose, sucrose) for sweetening, but are
metabolised without the influence of insulin are called sugar substituents. Eg. Sorbitol,
Xylitol, Mannitol.
• Synthetic compounds which imprint a sweet sensation and possess no or negligible
nutritional value are called artificial sweeteners. Eg. Saccharin, Aspartame, sucralose,
alitame etc…
15 Write a note on co–polymer?
A polymer containing two or more different kinds of monomer units is called a copolymer.
Eg: Buna-S, Buna-N
16 What are bio-degradable polymers? Give examples. (Mar-24)
The materials that are readily decomposed by microorganisms in the environment are
called biodegradable.
Eg: PHB, PHBV, PGA, PLA, PCL
Uses: Used in medical field such as surgical sutures, plasma substitute etc…
17 How is terylene prepared?

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18 Differentiate thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics?

Thermoplastic Thermosetting plastic

1 Linear polymers Cross linked polymer
When heated, they become hard and infusible
When heated, they melt and form a fluid
2 due to the cross linking between the polimer
which sets into a hard mark on cooling
chains
3 They can be remoulded and reused They cannot be remoulded
4 Eg: Polythene, Polystyrene, PVC Eg: Bakelite, Formaldehyde resin
19 Write a note on vulcanization of rubber? (Mar-20)
• By heating a mixture of natural rubber and sulphur makes rubber strong and elastic. This
process is called vulcanization of rubber.
• Natural rubber is mixed with 3-5% sulphur and heated at 100-150˚C causes cross linking of
the cis-1,4-polyisoprene chains through disulphide (-S-S-) bonds.
• The physical properties of rubber is determined by the amount of sulphur used for
vulcanization.
Amount of sulphur properties
1-3% soft and stretchy
3-10% harder but flexible
20 Classify the following as linear, branched or cross-linked polymers
a) Bakelite - Cross-Linked Polymers
b) Nylon-6,6 - Linear Polymers
c) LDPE - Linear Polymers
d) HDPE - Branched Polymers
21 Define therapeutic index?
It is defined as the ratio between the maximum tolerated dose of a drug (above which it
become toxic) and the minimum curative dose (below which the drug is ineffective).

maximum tolerated dose of the drug

Therapeutic index =
minimum curative dose of the drug

Higher the value of therapeutic index, safer is the drug.

22 What are Antipyretics?
These drugs are used for reducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing platelet coagulation.
Due to this property, aspirin finds useful in the prevention of heart attacks
23 What are Anaesthetics?
i) Local anaesthetics: It causes loss of sensation, in the area in which it is applied without
losing consciousness. They block pain perception that is transmitted via peripheral nerve fibres
to the brain.
Uses: They are often used during minor surgical procedures.
Eg: Procaine, Lidocaine
ii) General anaesthetics: Cause a controlled and reversible loss of consciousness by affecting
central nervous system
Uses: They are often used for major surgical procedures.
Eg: Propofol, Isoflurane
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24 Define Antacids?
Antacids are the substance which neutralizes the acid in the stomach that causes acidity.
Uses: To relieve symptoms such as burning sensation in the chest/throat area (heart burns)
caused by acid reflux. Eg: Milk of Magnesia
25 Define Antimicrobials?
Inhibits bacterial biosynthesis
Uses: To treat skin infections, dental infections, ear infections, respiratory tract infections,
pneumonia, urinary tract infections. Eg: Erythromycin, Ampicillin
26 Define Antiseptics?
Stop or slow down the growth of microorganisms – Applied to living tissue
Uses: To reduce the risk of infection during surgery and other procedures
Eg: Hydrogen peroxide, povidone-iodine
27 Define Disinfectants?
Stop or slow down the growth of microorganisms – Generally used on inanimate objects
Eg: Chlorine compounds, alcohol, Hydrogen peroxide.
28 What are the Advantages of food additives? (Mar-20)
1. Uses of preservatives reduce the product spoilage and extend the shelf-life of food
2. Addition of vitamins and minerals reduces the mall nutrient
3. Flavouring agents enhance the aroma of the food
4. Antioxidants prevent the formation of potentially toxic oxidation products of lipids and other
food constituents
29 Define Antioxidants? (Sep-20)
• Antioxidants are substances which retard the oxidative deteriorations of food.
• To prevent the oxidation of the fats and oils, chemical like BHT (butylhydroxy toluene), BHA
(Butylated hydroxy anisole) is added as food additives. They are generally called
antioxidants.
• These materials readily undergo oxidation by reacting with free radicals generated by the
oxidation of oils, thereby stop the chain reaction of oxidation of food.
30 Define TFM?
• The quality of a soap is described in terms of total fatty matter (TFM value).
• It is defined as the total amount of fatty matter that can be separated from a sample after
splitting with mineral acids.,
• Higher the TFM quantity in the soap better is its quality.
• As per BIS standards, Grade-1 soaps should have 76% minimum TFM, while Grade-2 and 3
must have 70 and 60%, minimum respectively
31 Explain the preparation of polythene?

32 Explain the preparation of Orlon (polyacrylonitrile – PAN)?

Uses: It is used as a substitute of wool for making blankets, sweaters etc…

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33 Explain the preparation of Teflon?

34 Explain Free radical polymerisation?

35 Explain the preparation of Nylon – 6?

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of tyrecards fabrics etc….

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36 Explain the preparation of Nylon– 2-Nylon -6? (Mar-23)

37 Explain the preparation of Nylon – 6,6?

Uses: It is used in textiles, manufacture of cards etc…

38 Explain the preparation of Neoprene? (Jun-20)

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of chemical containers, conveyer belts.

39 Explain the preparation of Buna-N?

Uses: It is used in the manufacture of hoses and tanklinings.

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40 Explain the preparation of Buna-S?

Don’t wait for the opportunity, create one – Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

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