Umayyad in Andalus There are two phases of the Umayyad era in Andalus.
The first phase is the period where the Umayyad as Amir
of Andalus or also known as the Umayyad Amirate of Andalus. This phase spanned around 156 years, from 756 until 912.
Meanwhile, the second phase is the period where the
Umayyad declared themselves as a rival caliph against the ‘Abbasid and the Fatimid. This Umayyad Caliphate of Andalus spanned for another 119 years, from 912 until its final collapsed in 1031. The Umayyad Amirate of Andalus
Scholars further divided this era into two phases:
The first phase, which is the establishment and consolidation period from 756 until 852. The second phase, which spanned from 852 until 912 had been considered by scholars as a turbulent/anarchy period which witnessed continuous conflicts and civil wars. This situation gradually weaken the power and influence of the Umayyads in Andalus until it had been revived under the charismatic reign of Abd al-Rahman III. He not only revived the amirate, but also declared it as a caliphate. The First Phase of Umayyad Amirate of Andalus (756-852)
Ruler Years
‘Abd al-Rahman I b. Mu‘awiya, 756-788
Abu al-Mutarrif al-Dakhil Hisham I b. ‘Abd al-Rahman I, 788-796 Abu al-Walīd al-Ḥakam I b. Hisham I, Abu al-‘As 796-822
‘Abd al-Rahman II b. al-Hakam I, 822-852
Abu al-Mutarrif al-Mutawassiṭ Abbasid Revolution and the arrival of Abd al- Rahman al-Dakhil in Andalus
In 750, the Abbasid Revolution happened. The Umayyad
was dethroned, its princes killed, and the caliphate took over by the Abbasids for the next five centuries. One of the Umayyad princes, the young Abd al- Rahman, successfully escaped from the arrest of the Abbasid’s agents. In disguise, he travelled to Egypt, North Africa, and finally settled and hid in Maghrib. He was supported and protected by several Berber tribes in Maghrib because his mother is a Berber. It seems that he understood the struggle occurred in Andalus and was aware of the possibility to gain support from some sections of the society, especially the Syrians as the clients of the Umayyads. Thus, he sent Badr, his freedman, to Andalus to get support for his entrance to the Peninsula. Gaining support from the Syrians and some other tribes, Abd al-Rahman entered Andalus in September 755. Yusuf al-Fihri wanted to arrest Abd al-Rahman, but prevented by several reasons. So he sent envoy to ensure that Abd al-Rahman would not claim governorship, but the negotiation failed. Abd al-Rahman’s supporters grew from time to time. They marched to Rayya region in Ramadan 138/ Feb-Mar 756. During Eid al-Fitr, the khatib and the people agreed to declare Abd al-Rahman as the amir of Andalus. As he proceeded to other cities, his army swelled into 3,000 horsemen. The two armies met in the banks of Guadalquivir and did battle in the early morning of Eid al-Adha, 15 May 756. Abd al-Rahman won and took Cordova and received the oath of allegiance from the people. Al-Fihri took refuge in Toledo and his supporters to other cities. He later made a peace agreement with Abd al-Rahman, acknowledged his leadership and to retain their property in return. In 758, al-Fihri revolted against Abd al-Rahman, but failed and he was killed while escaping to Toledo. Abd al-Rahman gradually replaced the officials and formed the army with the Umayyad-Syrian clients, his Umayyad relatives who started coming to the Peninsula, and also new Berbers from Maghrib, because he could not fully trust the early settlers. This would triggered many revolts during his reign, but he could handle all of them. Abd al-Rahman al-Dakhil ruled Andalusia for quite a long time, from 756 to 788. He became the founder of Umayyad Dynasty in Andalusia. In 761 the ‘Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur had the temerity to appoint one al-’Ala' ibn-Mughith as governor over Spain. Two years later al-’Ala' was decapitated and his head, preserved in salt and camphor and wrapped in a black flag and the diploma of appointment, was forwarded to al-Mansur while on a pilgrimage to Makkah. AI-Mansur, who on another occasion called ‘Abd al- Rahman "the falcon of Quraysh", now exclaimed, “Thanks be to Allah for having placed the sea between us and such a foe!“. ‘Abd al-Rahman is said even to have equipped a fleet to wrest Syria from ‘Abbasid hands but was forced by domestic problems to stay at home. He initiated the building of the Mosque of Cordova and built the Damascus Palace and al-Rusafah Garden. Abd al-Rahman never took the title of caliph, only of amir, but he did not give allegiance to and did not let the recitation of pray for the ‘Abbasid caliphs in the Friday khutbah since 757. The next ruler was Hisham ibn Abd al-Rahman or Hisham I (r. 789-796), who had to face his brother’s challenge for the throne in the first year of his rule. Actually, his reign was marked by a number of revolts, but he could subdue all of that. His army recaptured Narbonne after being taken by the Christians for few decades. They also attacked the Christian kingdom, Asturias. Success in the beginning, but were attacked back after that, leaving the Christian kingdom to have a more permanent footing in the northern peninsula. He is considered as a pious ruler. He dismissed corrupt officers, appointed pious and just officials and stopped the collection of unlawful tax. He endorsed the Maliki madhhab as the official madhhab of Andalus. He himself was actually a contemporary of Imam Malik ibn Anas (d. 795). He sent several students to learn directly from Imam Malik. Besides, he also a man of culture and supported the development of Arabic poetry and literature. After Hisham, his son, Hakam I (r. 796-822) or Abu-l-ꜥAs, became the ruler of Andalus. In the early part of his reign, he faced challenges from his uncles, Sulayman and Abd Allah, but abled to subdue them. Unlike his father, he was in conflict with the fuqaha. Seventy two fuqaha were executed because of a plot of rebellion in 817. After that, in 820, another revolt happened. People besieged the palace, but Hakam ordered his horsemen to burn the houses in the suburb, so the people withdrew to save their homes and the palace could crush the revolt. Many was executed and the rest were banished to North Africa. A group of fifteen thousand people migrated to Alexandria and occupied the city. However, they were driven out from Alexandria, moved to Crete island and established an emirate there for more than a century. Another serious challenge came from the north, from the Frankish region. The Frankish Emperor, Charlemagne, sent his army several times to attack the northern parts of Andalus. They were successful in seizing Barcelona in 801, and then Tarragona and other regions. Later most of the northern region was recaptured by the Muslims. The following ruler, Abd al-Rahman II (r. 822-852), the eldest son of Hakam I, was an able general and administrator. He also faced rebellions, especially from the Muwalladūn (the Muslims with Spanish ancestry) and the Christian subjects, but in general he was able to control the situation. He imported products and invited scholars from the orient, the most famous of whom was Ziryab, a well- known poet and singer from Baghdad. He enlarged the mosque of Cordova and built mosques in other cities and his relation with the Maliki fuqaha was good. He struck coins inscribing his name. In 844, the western coast of Andalus was invaded by a fleet of more than sixty ships, most probably of the Scandinavian people. They landed in Lisbon and directed for Seville, Sidonia and Cadiz, killing and looting everywhere. Abd al-Rahman’s army encountered them, destroyed the fleet and killed around sixteen thousands of these intruders. After this incident, Abd al-Rahman II expanded his navy. In 851, a number of extremist Christians started a movement instigated by cleric Eulogio and Alvaro. They openly insulted Prophet Muhammad, knowing of the consequence of the death penalty, and expected martyrdom for that action. The Second Phase of Umayyad Amirate of Andalus (852-912)
Ruler Years Muhammad I b. ‘Abd al-Rahman II, 852-886 Abu ‘Abdallah al-Mundhir b. Muḥammad I, 886-888 Abu al-Hakam ‘Abdallah b. Muhammad I, 888-912 Abu Muhammad When Abd al-Rahman passed away, he was succeeded by his son Muhammad (r. 852-886). Trouble started to happen after the able chamberlain who already held the post since the previous period, Isa ibn Shuhayd, passed away and succeeded by an unwise chamberlain, Hisham ibn Abd al-Aziz. Revolts broke out again. This time the muwalladun made an alliance with the Christian kingdom of Asturias. Muhammad could handle the situation in the beginning, but it became worse in the later part of his reign. Strong men from the Muwallad rebels emerged in this period, Ibn Marwan al-Jilliqi of Merida and later of Badajoz and Ibn Hafsun of Bobastro, and continued their independence from the central government up to the time of their descendants. The next ruler, al-Mundhir ibn Abd al-Rahman (r. 886-888), tried to subdue the rebels but was not successful. The reign of al-Mundhir was only two years and he was succeeded by his brother, ‘Abdallah, a pious but weak ruler. During his time, the revolts spread in many other cities such as Seville, Granada, Saragossa, Badajoz, Merida, Jaen, Ecija and Murcia, generally led by Ibn Hafsun. His handling of this revolt was never conclusive and Ibn Hafsun remained a threat to the central government. Ibn Hafsun converted to Christianity in 899, losing many of his Muslim followers, but gaining sympathy from the Christians. In general, “the conquest of Spain was achieved with relative smoothness, but the conqueror failed to pacify and consolidate his domains” (Chejne, 1974, 23-27). The Umayyad Caliphate of Andalus The Umayyad Caliphate of Andalus (912-1031
Ruler Years ‘Abd al-Rahman III b. Muhammad, 912 Abu al-Mutarrif al-Nasir al-Hakam II b. ‘Abd al-Rahman III, 961 Abu al-Mutarrif al-Mustansir Hisham II b. al-Hakam II, 976 Abu al-Walid al-Mu’ayyad, first reign
Muhammad II b. Hisham II, al-Mahdi, first reign 1009
Sulayman b. al-Hakam, al-Musta‘in, first reign 1009 Hisham II, second reign 1010 Ruler Years
Sulayman, second reign 1013
‘Ali Ibn Hammud, al-Nasir, Hammudid 1016
‘Abd al-Rahmān IV b. Muhammad, al-Murtada 1018
al-Qasim Ibn Ḥammud, al-Ma’mun, 1018
Hammudid, first time Yahya b. ‘Ali, al-Mu‘tali, Hammudid, first time 1021
al-Qasim, Hammudid, second time 1023
‘Abd al-Rahman V b. Hisham, al-Mustazhir 1023
Muhammad III b. ‘Abd al-Rahman, al-Mustakfi 1024
Yahya, Hammudid, second time 1025
Hisham III b. Muhammad, al-Mu‘tadd 1027-1031
(The beginning of Muluk al-Tawa’if era) The next ruler, Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912-961), is the grandson of Abd Allah. He inherited a decline and chaotic kingdom, but would bring the Umayyad Spain to its peak. He defeated the rebels, developed agriculture, built palaces, and repulsed the infidels. Regarding the rebels, he subdued the Banu Hajjaj in Seville in 913. In the following year, he attacked Ibn Hafsun, who continued his opposition until his death in 917, and gradually undermined the possessions of the Hafsunids, until their last fortress in Babastro which fell to Abd al-Rahman in 928. By 932, Abd al-Rahman could pacify the whole Muslim regions of Andalus and gradually brought the kingdom to prosperity. He used one-third of the kingdom’s budget, around 6 million dinars, for development projects such as irrigation and canals. Abd al-Rahman III also faced a new threat coming from the new emerging power of the Shia Fatimid in North Africa that disturbed Andalusian territory. However, Abd al-Rahman could stop the encroaching Fatimid influence to the west. As a response to the ‘Abbasid decline and the claim of caliphate authority by the Fatimid, in 929, Abd al- Rahman III used the title of the caliph for himself. Hakam II
Abd al-Rahman was succeeded by his son, Hakam II (r. 961-
976). He could generally maintain the peaceful condition inherited from his father, mainly through diplomacy rather than through military means. He paid great attention to knowledge and books and also to poor people. However, he relied more on his high officials such as Ibn Abi ‘Amir, the vizier, al-Mushafi, the chamberlain, and Ghalib, the general. They were able officials, but also contributed to the problem that would end the Umayyad Dynasty after Hakam II passed away. His son and successor, Hisham II, was only seven years old when succeeding his father, while his able uncles were not considered for that position. Soon after Hakam II passed away, the Saqalibah (Slav) bodyguard tried to put Hakam’s brother to the throne, but failed by Ibn Abi Amir. Hisham II
Ibn Abi Amir enthroned Hisham II and acted as his guardian.
Gradually, he concentrated the power into his hand by eliminating other potential contenders. Long before, he was raised to power because of the support of Hisham’s mother, Subh, a woman of Basque descent that played a great political influence since the reign of her husband. Later, this lady was isolated from any political involvement. Al-Mushafi who was first his main ally, later was charged of treason and imprisoned in 977 and finally was killed in 982. His relationship with general Ghalib, who became his father-in-law, was also deteriorated and developed into war. However, Ghalib passed away in 981, made Ibn Abi Amir controlling all the power, while the Umayyad family had to bury their dissatisfaction. Formally, Hisham II was the sultan/caliph, but de facto, Ibn Abi Amir ruled the kingdom. Ibn Abi Amir used the surname al-Mansur (the Victorious) for himself. He made his name printed on coins and mentioned during Friday prayer, along with the caliph. Even he obliged high officials to kiss his hand. In general he was a strong leader of Andalus, though led the kingdom with an iron hand. For this, he extensively recruited the Berbers to strengthen the army. He maintained the unity and extended the prosperity of the kingdom. He was also known as a religious person and did not like philosophy, astrology and religious debate. Before he passed away in 1002, he appointed his son, Abd al-Malik, for the post of chamberlain. Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar could also gain the trust of Hisham II, who did not interested to perform direct responsibility other than pleasure of the palace, and maintained the stability of the kingdom until his death in 1008. He was succeeded by his brother, ‘Abd al-Rahman. Both Ibn Abi Amir and Abd al-Malik respected the symbolic meaning of the Umayyad political leadership, though only nominally. However, Abd al-Rahman was different. He compelled Hisham II and other high officials to nominate himself as the successor to the throne. This, along with his disrespectful toward others and his open indulging in wine and women, would led to the bitterness and bloody revolts. The first revolt occurred when Abd al-Rahman went out from Cordova with his army for a raid against the Christians. Muhammad ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Jabbar ibn Abd al- Rahman III started the rebellion in 1009, took the caliphal palace in Cordova, and forced Hisham II to give the caliphal position to him. He was successful in gaining this. However, he is not a wise and capable leader and supported by a mob that created havoc in the capital city. When hearing what had happened, Abd al-Rahman decided to go back to Cordova, along with his ally Garcia Gomez, but was killed before arriving at the city. Another pretender from the Umayyad family, Sulayman, then appeared, supported by the Berbers. This created a civil war for several years that became a precursor of the petty kingdoms. Change of leadership and riot occurred again and again in Cordova and the caliphs of this period most of the time had no direct control to the other provinces. Beside the internal conflict among the Umayyad noblemen, the Hammudid from Ceuta and Tangier were also involve in the usurpation of the throne between 1016 and 1023. But they also soon became immersed in internal conflicts and killings. The throne now became very hot, easily caused bloodshed, and could not effectively knit Andalusian unity. Between 1023 and 1031, the people of Cordova again tried to put the Umayyad on the throne. However, no one of them proven to be able to hold the position. There were no more stock of strong leaders like Abd al- Rahman al-Dakhil or Abd al-Rahman III within the Umayyad Dynasty. The instability and chaos in the city remained. Thus, at the end, the city leaders were agree to end the Umayyad Dynasty and they elected Abu Hazm ibn Jawhar as their leader. The last Umayyad caliph, Hisham III (1027-1031), was first imprisoned along with his family member, but was then freed without ever being close to power again.
