Structure of Atmosphere

16 June 2024 14:28

1. Troposphere
• Location: From the Earth's surface up to about 8-15 km (5-9 miles).
• Characteristics:
○ This is the layer where all weather events (clouds, rain, storms) occur.
○ Temperature decreases with altitude.
○ Contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass.
○ Airplanes fly in the lower part of this layer.
• Temperature: Drops about 6.5°C for every kilometer you go up.
2. Stratosphere
• Location: From the top of the troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles).
• Characteristics:
○ Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation.
○ Temperature increases with altitude due to absorption of radiation by the ozone
layer.
○ Commercial jet aircraft fly at the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence.
• Temperature: Increases with altitude due to the ozone layer absorbing UV radiation.
3. Mesosphere
• Location: From 50 km to about 85 km (53 miles).
• Characteristics:
○ Meteors burn up in this layer due to collisions with atmospheric particles.
○ Temperature decreases with altitude.
○ This is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
• Temperature: Drops as low as -90°C.
4. Thermosphere
• Location: From 85 km to about 600 km (373 miles).
• Characteristics:
○ Auroras occur in this layer due to interactions between solar wind and the Earth's
magnetic field.
○ Temperature increases significantly with altitude.
○ Space shuttles and the International Space Station orbit in this layer.
• Temperature: Can rise up to 2,500°C or higher, though it would feel cold due to low
density of air molecules.
5. Exosphere
• Location: From the top of the thermosphere to about 10,000 km (6,200 miles).
• Characteristics:
○ The outermost layer where the atmosphere thins out into space.
○ Air particles are extremely sparse and can travel hundreds of kilometers without
colliding.
○ Satellites orbit in this layer.
• Temperature: Highly variable, but it is very sparse and particles are so far apart they rarely
collide.
Important Concepts:
• Ozone Layer: Located in the stratosphere, it protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful
UV radiation from the Sun.
• Weather and Climate: Primarily influenced by the troposphere, where weather systems
and patterns are created.
• Temperature Gradient: Different layers have different temperature gradients (some
increase, some decrease with altitude).

Atmosphere Page 1
ISA Conditions
23 June 2024 14:41

Key ISA Conditions

• Sea Level Conditions:
○ Temperature: 15°C (59°F)
○ Pressure: 1013.25 hPa (hectopascals) or 29.92 inHg (inches of mercury)
○ Density: 1.225 kg/m³
○ Gravity: 9.80665 m/s²
○ Air Composition: Dry air with 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen

ISA Temperature Lapse Rate

• Troposphere: Temperature decreases at a rate of 6.5°C per kilometre (2°C per 1000 feet) up to
the tropopause (approximately 11 km or 36,000 feet).
• Tropopause: The temperature remains constant at -56.5°C from 11 km to 20 km.
• Stratosphere: Temperature increases from -56.5°C at 20 km to -2.5°C at 47 km.

ISA Pressure and Density Lapse Rates

• Pressure: Decreases exponentially with altitude.
• Density: Decreases with altitude, roughly following the pressure decrease.

ISA Altitude Parameters

• Altitude Bands:
○ Sea Level to 11 km: Standard lapse rate applies.
○ 11 km to 20 km: Constant temperature at the tropopause.
○ Above 20 km: Temperature increases in the stratosphere.

ISA Deviation = Actual - ISA

ISA Conditions at Sea Level

Parameter Value
Temperature 15°C (59°F)
Pressure 1013.25 hPa
Density 1.225 kg/m³
Gravity 9.80665 m/s²
Air Composition 21% O₂, 78% N₂

ISA Temperature Lapse Rates

Altitude Range Temperature Change
Sea Level to 11 km Decrease at 6.5°C per km
11 km to 20 km Constant at -56.5°C
20 km to 47 km Increase from -56.5°C to -2.5°C

ISA Pressure and Density

Altitude Range Pressure and Density Change
Sea Level to 11 km Exponential decrease
11 km to 20 km Exponential decrease
20 km to 47 km Gradual decrease

Atmosphere Page 2
 Pressure and pressure system
17 June 2024 14:49

Definition and Basics of Pressure

• Pressure: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. It is a scalar quantity.
• Atmospheric Pressure: This is the weight of the column of air above a given area on the
Earth's surface. It is typically measured in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).
Units of Pressure
• Pascal (Pa): The SI unit of pressure; 1 Pa = 1 N/m².
• Hectopascal (hPa): 1 hPa = 100 Pa.
• Millibar (mb): 1 mb = 1 hPa (commonly used in meteorology).
• Other Units: Inches of mercury (inHg) and millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Instruments for Measuring Pressure
• Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure. There are two main types:
○ Mercury Barometer: Uses a column of mercury in a glass tube.
○ Aneroid Barometer: Uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell.
• Altimeter: A type of aneroid barometer used in aviation to measure altitude by converting
atmospheric pressure into altitude.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
• Sea Level Standard Pressure: 1013.25 hPa (or mb) or 29.92 inHg.
• Standard Atmosphere: A model representing the average atmospheric pressure, temperature,
and density at different altitudes.
Pressure Variation with Altitude
• Decrease with Altitude: Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with an increase in
altitude.
• Standard Lapse Rate: Approximately 1 hPa for every 8 meters of ascent in the lower
atmosphere.
Factors Affecting Atmospheric Pressure
• Temperature: Warmer air is less dense and exerts lower pressure; colder air is denser and
exerts higher pressure.
• Altitude: Higher altitudes have lower pressure.
• Humidity: Moist air is less dense than dry air. Higher humidity can result in lower pressure.
• Weather Systems:
○ High-Pressure Systems (Anticyclones): Generally associated with clear weather.
○ Low-Pressure Systems (Cyclones): Generally associated with stormy weather.
Pressure Systems
• Isobars: Lines on a weather map connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure.
○ Tight Isobar Spacing: Indicates strong winds.
○ Wide Isobar Spacing: Indicates light winds.
• High-Pressure Systems: Air descends, leading to dry and clear conditions.
• Low-Pressure Systems: Air ascends, leading to cloud formation and precipitation.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
• Definition: The force that results from the pressure differences in the atmosphere. It causes
air to move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
• Relation to Wind: The greater the pressure difference, the stronger the wind.
Practical Applications for Aviation
• Altimeter Settings: Pilots adjust their altimeters based on the current pressure readings at
their location to ensure accurate altitude readings.
• Impact on Aircraft Performance: Lower pressure (at higher altitudes or in low-pressure
systems) can affect engine performance and lift.
Key Concepts for DGCA Exams
• Understand the units and measurement of pressure.
• Familiarity with the instruments used for measuring pressure.
• Comprehend how pressure varies with altitude and the factors influencing atmospheric

Pressure Page 3
• Comprehend how pressure varies with altitude and the factors influencing atmospheric
pressure.
• Interpret weather maps and pressure systems.
• Recognize the impact of pressure on aviation operations and safety.

Pressure Page 4
Temperature
18 June 2024 19:55

Definition and Basics of Temperature

• Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. It
determines how hot or cold the substance is.
• Temperature Scales: Commonly used scales include Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin
(K).
Temperature Scales
• Celsius (°C): Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure.
• Fahrenheit (°F): Water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F.
• Kelvin (K): The absolute temperature scale, where 0 K is absolute zero. Water freezes at
273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K.
Temperature Variations
• Diurnal Variation: Temperature changes from day to night due to solar radiation. Typically,
the warmest part of the day is in the afternoon, and the coolest is just before sunrise.
• Seasonal Variation: Changes in temperature over the year due to the tilt of the Earth's axis
and its orbit around the sun.
Factors Affecting Temperature
• Latitude: Locations closer to the equator generally experience higher temperatures than those
near the poles.
• Altitude: Higher altitudes generally have cooler temperatures due to the decrease in
atmospheric pressure.
• Land and Water: Land heats and cools more rapidly than water. Coastal areas have milder
temperatures than inland areas.
• Cloud Cover: Clouds can trap heat, leading to warmer night temperatures and cooler day
temperatures.
• Wind and Air Masses: The movement of different air masses can bring changes in
temperature.
Temperature Lapse Rate
• Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR): The rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with
an increase in altitude. The average rate is about 6.5°C per kilometer.
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate: The rate of temperature change of an air parcel as it moves up or down
without exchanging heat with its surroundings.
○ Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR): Approximately 10°C per kilometer.
○ Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR): Varies but averages about 6°C per kilometer due to
the release of latent heat during condensation.
Temperature Inversions
• Definition: A situation where temperature increases with altitude, contrary to the normal
lapse rate.
• Types:
○ Radiation Inversion: Occurs during clear nights when the ground loses heat rapidly.
○ Advection Inversion: Happens when warm air moves over a cooler surface.
○ Frontal Inversion: Occurs at the boundary between two air masses of different
temperatures.
○ Subsidence Inversion: Results from air descending in high-pressure systems.
Temperature and Aviation
• Density Altitude: The altitude relative to the standard atmosphere conditions at which the air
density would be equal to the indicated air density at the place of observation. Higher
temperatures lead to higher density altitudes, which can affect aircraft performance.
• Engine Performance: High temperatures can reduce engine efficiency and power output.
• Lift: Warmer air is less dense, reducing the lift generated by the wings.
Practical Applications for Pilots
• Pre-flight Planning: Understanding the temperature profile for the route and destination helps
in flight planning, fuel calculation, and performance assessment.

Temperature Page 5
 in flight planning, fuel calculation, and performance assessment.
• Temperature and Altimeter Settings: Accurate temperature readings are crucial for setting
altimeters correctly.
• Weather Forecasting: Interpreting temperature variations and patterns helps in predicting
weather changes and potential hazards.

Temperature Page 6
 Temperature Instruments
18 June 2024 20:00

• Stevenson Screen

✓ The Stevenson Screen is an elevated box 4 feet above the

Ground
✓ It shows the dry bulb and the wet bulb temperature and
must
face opposite the sun so as to not show any deflection due to
direct sunrays

• Radiosonde
✓ Upper atmosphere temperature readings are taken by using
a
RADIOSONDE device commonly used in weather balloons

• Note - Dry bulb is immediate temperature

- Wet bulb is the lowest temperature that can be attained
by evaporating water into it at a constant pressure

Temperature Page 7
Method Of Heat Transfer
23 June 2024 20:14

1. Conduction
• Definition: The transfer of heat through a substance without the movement of the substance
itself. It occurs at the molecular level where kinetic energy is passed from one molecule to
another.
• Mechanism: Heat is transferred through direct contact. Molecules in a hotter part of a
substance vibrate faster and transfer their energy to neighbouring, cooler molecules.
• Examples in Meteorology:
○ The ground heating the air in direct contact with it.
○ The transfer of heat from warm ocean water to cooler air above.
• Factors Affecting Conduction:
○ Thermal Conductivity: Materials with high thermal conductivity (like metals) transfer
heat more efficiently.
○ Temperature Gradient: The greater the temperature difference between two areas, the
faster the heat transfer.
○ Cross-Sectional Area and Distance: Heat transfer is proportional to the area through
which it is conducted and inversely proportional to the distance it has to travel.
2. Convection
• Definition: The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas). It involves the
physical movement of the fluid carrying heat energy with it.
• Mechanism: Warm fluid rises and cooler fluid sinks, creating a circulation pattern that
transfers heat.
• Types of Convection:
○ Natural Convection: Caused by buoyancy differences due to temperature variations
within the fluid.
○ Forced Convection: Occurs when an external force, such as wind or a pump, moves the
fluid.
• Examples in Meteorology:
○ Atmospheric convection currents, where warm air rises and cool air descends, forming
clouds and storms.
○ Ocean currents transferring heat from equatorial regions to polar regions.
• Factors Affecting Convection:
○ Temperature Difference: Greater temperature differences between fluid layers enhance
convection.
○ Fluid Properties: Density, viscosity, and thermal capacity of the fluid affect convection
rates.
○ External Forces: Wind and pressure differences can drive forced convection.
3. Radiation
• Definition: The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without involving particles or
matter. It can occur in a vacuum.
• Mechanism: All objects emit radiant energy based on their temperature. The sun is the
primary source of radiant energy for the Earth.
• Characteristics:
○ Wavelength and Frequency: Heat energy is often transferred via infrared radiation.
○ Stefan-Boltzmann Law: The amount of radiation emitted is proportional to the fourth
power of the object's absolute temperature (E = σT^4).
• Examples in Meteorology:
○ Solar radiation heating the Earth’s surface.
○ Earth’s surface radiating heat back into the atmosphere.
○ Radiative cooling at night when the Earth's surface loses heat.
• Factors Affecting Radiation:
○ Surface Temperature: Higher temperatures increase radiation emission.
Surface Characteristics: Dark, rough surfaces absorb more radiation than light, smooth

Temperature Page 8
○ Surface Characteristics: Dark, rough surfaces absorb more radiation than light, smooth
surfaces.
○ Atmospheric Conditions: Clouds and greenhouse gases can absorb and re-radiate heat,
affecting temperature.

Temperature Page 9
Density
20 June 2024 20:08

Definition and Basics of Density

• Density: Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. In the context of
meteorology, it specifically refers to the density of the air.
• Formula: Density (ρ) = Mass (m) / Volume (V)
Units of Density
• SI Unit: Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
• Other Units: Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).
Importance of Air Density in Meteorology and Aviation
• Aircraft Performance: Air density affects engine power, lift, and drag. Lower air density
reduces engine performance and lift while increasing takeoff distances.
• Weather Patterns: Variations in air density influence weather patterns and phenomena,
including wind, pressure systems, and cloud formation.
Factors Affecting Air Density
1. Temperature
○ Inversely Proportional: As temperature increases, air density decreases because warm
air expands and occupies more volume.
○ Impact on Aircraft: High temperatures reduce air density, affecting aircraft performance
negatively.
2. Pressure
○ Directly Proportional: Higher atmospheric pressure compresses air, increasing its
density.
○ Altitude Considerations: At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure decreases, leading to
lower air density.
3. Humidity
○ Inversely Proportional: Moist air is less dense than dry air because water vapor
molecules are lighter than nitrogen and oxygen molecules.
○ Impact on Performance: High humidity can further reduce air density, affecting aircraft
lift and engine efficiency.
Standard Atmosphere and Density
• Standard Atmospheric Conditions: Defined at sea level as:
○ Temperature: 15°C
○ Pressure: 1013.25 hPa
○ Density: 1.225 kg/m³
• International Standard Atmosphere (ISA): A model used for calibrating instruments and
designing aircraft. It provides a standard reference for pressure, temperature, and density at
various altitudes.
Density Altitude
• Definition: The altitude at which the air density is equivalent to the standard atmospheric
conditions at a given height.
• Calculation: Density altitude can be calculated using the actual atmospheric pressure,
temperature, and humidity.
• Practical Use: Pilots use density altitude to assess aircraft performance. High density altitude
(due to high temperature, low pressure, or high humidity) indicates thinner air, which can
adversely affect performance.
Instruments for Measuring Density
• Hygrometers: Measure humidity, which is used to calculate air density.
• Barometers: Measure atmospheric pressure, crucial for density calculations.
• Thermometers: Measure air temperature, another key factor in determining air density.
• Aircraft Instruments: Modern aircraft use sensors and onboard computers to continuously
monitor and calculate density altitude.
Practical Applications in Aviation
• Pre-Flight Planning: Pilots assess density altitude to ensure the aircraft can safely take off,

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• Pre-Flight Planning: Pilots assess density altitude to ensure the aircraft can safely take off,
climb, and land.
• Performance Calculations: Accurate density measurements are essential for determining
engine performance, fuel consumption, and payload capacity.
• Weather Forecasting: Meteorologists use density data to predict weather patterns and
atmospheric stability.

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