Unit 1: Basics of Drones

Anatomy of aircraft and helicopter

Anatomy of a typical aircraft
Aircraft parts and their function
 Aircraft Axis Definition

Yaw

Roll

Vertical
(Yaw)

Pitch
Longitudinal
(Roll)
Lateral
(Pitch)
 Pitch Roll and Yaw Movements

Yaw Axis

Pitch Axis

Roll Axis

Pitch Movement Roll Movement Yaw Movement

(Through Elevator actuation) (Through Aileron actuation) (Through Rudder actuation)
Anatomy of a typical helicopter
 Helicopter parts and their functions

Counteract torque on body

due to main rotor
Lift and steering
Power to rotors

Generate lift force

Parts of UAV
Parts of fixed wing aircraft
Fuselage
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains
seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane. In
addition, the fuselage may also provide room for cargo and
attachment points for the other major airplane components.

Wings
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are
the main lifting devices that support the airplane in flight. Wings may
be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage.
These designs are referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing,
respectively

Empennage
The empennage (also called tail) is the rear part of the aircraft.
Usually it includes the stabilizers, rudder and elevator as many other
components.
Propeller :A propeller is a device which transmits power by converting
it into thrust for propulsion of a vehicle.The blades of a propeller act
as rotating wings, and produce force.

Engine: it provides the power to move the aircraft forward.the power

generation mechanism may vary based on the aircraft requirement.

Landing Gear:The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not

flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage.

Control surfaces
Aileron:Ailerons are moving surfaces usually placed near the tips of
the wings.it is used in rolling of aircraft left or right
Rudder:It is attached to trailing edge of Vertical stabilizer. The rudder
controls the Y-axis or Yaw of the plane.
Elevator:it is attached to trailing edge of horizontal stabiliser and is
useful in pitching of aircraft up and down.
Parts of rotorcraft
• Fuselage: The fuselage, the outer core of the airframe, is an aircraft’s main
body section that houses the cabin that holds the crew, passengers, and cargo.

• MainRotor System: The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which
generates lift. The rotor consists of a mast, hub, and rotor blades.

• Engine:it providesthe power to rotate the rotorblades.Reciprocating engines,

also called piston engines, are generally used in smaller helicopters.Turbine
engines are more powerful and are used in a wide variety of helicopters

• Landing Gear:The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying,
allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage.

• Antitorque System: Helicopters with a single, main rotor system require a

separate antitorque system. This is most often accomplished through a
variable pitch, antitorque rotor or tail rotor.

• Tailboom:it provides the arm to the tailrotor generated anti-torque force. The
tailrotor itself is housed at the end of the tailboom for this reason
Parts of multirotor aircraft
Telemetry: an automatic measurement and wireless transmission of data from remote
sources.
FPV stands for first person view, this means if you have a camera on your aircraft or robot and
you get a live feed remotely you will feel like you are on the vehicle and driving or flying it. For
this you need cameras, radio systems to send video feed back to you.
A quadcopter consists of the following
essential parts:
• Frame
• Motors
• ESC (electronic speed controller)
• Propeller
• Battery
• Flight Controller
• RC Receiver
Frames: It includes arms to hold motors and a chassis to hold the fl ight controller,
battery and other components on board.
Motors:4 motors are must for Quadcopter to lift it up.generally brushless DC
motor is used
Propeller:These spinning blades are the wings to your craft, the very part that
creates the air fl ow that lifts the machine into the air.
Battery :it is the power source that drives all the systems on your drone and
allows it to fl y.generally Lithium polymer battery is used.
Electronic speed controller:it converts the signals from Controller and send it to
motors to control its speed.
Flight controller: Its function is to direct the RPM of each motor in response to
input. A command from the pilot for the Quad-copter to move forward is fed
into the fl ight controller, which determines how to manipulate the motors
accordingly.
(Radiocontrolled) RC transmitter and receiver: Radio Transmitter is an electronic
device that controls the quadcopter manually.
Classification of UAV
Based on airframe
1) HTOL or horizontal take-off and
landing:
 (a) Main Wing Forward with Control Surface

• This is accepted as the conventional arrangement and

is by far the most ubiquitous.
• The aircraft centre of mass is forward of the wing
centre of lift and this is balanced by a download on the
tailplane, thus providing aerodynamic speed and
attitude stability in the horizontal plane
• A vertical fi n provides weathercock stability in yaw.
(b) Canard Configuration
• A canard configuration has the horizontal stabiliser, or foreplane,
mounted forward of the wing.
• The aircraft centre of mass is also forward of the wing and the balance is
achieved with the foreplane generating positive lift.
• An advantage of the canard system is that as both planes are generating
positive lift, it is aerodynamically more e ffi cient than the tail-aft
configuration
• disadvantage of the canard is that directional stability is less readily
achievable since, as the aircraft centre of mass is more rearward, the tail fi n
(or fi ns) do not have the leverage that the tail-aft arrangement has.
 c) Flying Wing or “Tailless Configurations

• This includes delta-wing aircraft which, as with

the above, have an effective ‘tail’.
• The wings have a ‘sweep-back’ This ensures that,
as the aircraft nose rises, the centre of lift of the
wing moves rearwards, thus returning the aircraft to
its original attitude
2) VTOL or vertical take-off and landing:
(a) Single-main-rotor
• Here the torque of the main
rotor, which tends to turn the
aircraft body in the opposite
rotational direction to the
rotor, is counteracted by a
smaller, side-thrusting, tail
rotor which typically adds
about a further 10% onto the
main rotor power demands.
• Single Main rotor provides
both lift and thrust.
• a disadvantage is that the
aircraft is extremely
asymmetric in all planes
which adds to the
complication of control and
complexity of the algorithms
of the fl ight control system
(b) Tandem Rotor
• itis more e ffi cient to fi t
two smaller rotors one
behind other than one
large one to aircraft with
more weight
• Here the rotors rotate in
opposite manner(front
rotor in anticlockwise
direction and rear rotor in
clockwise direction)
 c) Coaxial Rotor
Coaxial rotors or coax rotors are a
pair of helicopter rotors mounted
one above the other on concentric
shafts, with the same axis of
rotation, but turning in opposite
directions.
It is not more generally popular
due to its greater height compared
with that of the other
configurations.
The advantages of the
configuration include an almost
perfect aerodynamic symmetry,
compactness with no vulnerable
tail- rotor
It can present disadvantages
in maintenance and in
hangarage(Accommodation for
aircraft in a hangar.)
d)multirotor
• A quadcopter is a multirotor
drone with four arms or
booms, each with a rotor
(hence “quad copter”).
Multirotor drones are
unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAV) with multiple rotors that
are used to generate lift to
enable the aircraft to fly.
• The working principle is that
one pair of rotors turns
clockwise and the other
anti- clockwise, and by
varying the speeds it is
possible to generate thrust
as well as turning motions.
 3)Flapping wing aircraft

• The ornithopter or “flapping wing” utilizes bird flying

mechanics as the power source of the UAV. This
technology has been used by the military to develop
a small “bird-like” UAV capable of surveillance.
Based on size
1)Very Small
UAVs
• very small UAVs” range from “micro” sized, which
are about the size of a large insect up to an AV with
dimensions of the order of a 30 – 50 cm (12 – 20 in.).
• There are two major types of small UAVs. One type
uses flapping wings to fl y like an insect or a bird
and the other uses a more or less conventional
aircraft configuration, usually rotary wing for the
micro size range.
2)Small UAVs
• “small UAVs” have at least one dimension
of greater than 50 cm (19.7 in.) and go up
to dimensions of a meter or two.
• Many of these UAVs have the confi guration of a
fixed-wing model airplane and are hand-launched
by their operator by throwing them into the air
much as we launch a toy glider.
3)Medium UAVs
• They have typical wingspans of the order of
5 – 10 m (16 – 32 ft) and carry payloads of
from 100 to more than 200 kg (220 – 440 lb).
There are a large number of UAVs that fall
into this size group.
• There are also a large number of rotary-wing
UAVs in this size class. A series of
conventional helicopter with rotor diameters
of the order of 2 m (6.4 ft)
4)Large UAVs
• This includes, in particular, a group of UAVs
that can fl y long distances from their bases,
loiter for extended periods to perform
surveillance functions. They also are large
enough to carry weapons in significant
quantities
 Classifi cation by Range and Endurance
1) HALE – High altitude long endurance.
• Over 15 000 m altitude and 24+ hr endurance.
• They carry out extremely long-range (trans-global)
reconnaissance and surveillance and increasingly are being
armed. They are usually operated by Air Forces from fixed
bases.
2) MALE – Medium altitude long endurance.
• 5000 – 15 000 m altitude and 24 hr endurance.
• Their roles are similar to the HALE systems but generally
operate at somewhat shorter ranges, but still in excess of
500 km. and from fixed bases.
3)TUAV – Medium Range or Tactical UAV with range of
order. between 100 and 300 km.
These air vehicles are smaller and operated within simpler
systems than are HALE or MALE and are operated also by
land and naval forces
Applications of UAS
Difference between UAVs and Drones
There are three kinds of aircraft excluding missiles, that fly without pilots.
• Unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs)
• Remotely piloted vehicles(RPVs)
• Drones

• RPVs are remotely controlled/steered from a remote location.

• UAVs performs autonomous or preprogrammed mission.
• Drone is an pilotless aircraft controlled by radio signals. The term drone must be
used for vehicles having limited flexibility for accomplishing sophisticated missions
and fly in a persistently dull, monotonous and indifferent manner.

• UAVs, RPVs and Drones are unmanned but UAVs is a generic term.
• RPVs is UAV but UAVs may not be an RPVs because UAV is autonomous.

• UAVs used by millitary have autopilots and navigation system that maintain altitude,
attitude and ground track automatically.

• Manual control means adjusting heading, altitude and speed by

switches/joystick/trackball located in ground control station but allowing autopilots
to stabilize the vehicle.
Terms related to drones
Drone/Unmanned aerial vehicle :An unmanned aerial vehicle,
commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human
pilot, crew, or passengers on board.
Range :it is defined as the total distance (measured with
respect to ground) traversed by the airplane on a full tank of fuel.
Endurance:it is defined as the total time that an airplane stays in
the air on a full tank of fuel.
Wingspan:The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is
the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip.
Center of gravity (C.G):it is the average location of all the weight
of an object.
Center of lift(C.L) :it is the point where the sum total of all lift
generated by parts
Angle of Attack:Angle of attack is the angle between a
reference line on a body and the vector representing the relative
motion between the body and the fl uid through which it is
moving.
• Altitude:Altitude is the heightof an object above
the surface of the ground or sea level.
• Hovering:To remain in one place in the air.
• Maneuver:An intended and controlled variation from
a straight and level fl ight path in the operation of an
airplane.
• Surveillance:Act of watching a person or a place,
especially a person believed to be involved with
criminal activity or a place where criminals
gather.
• Reconnaissance:the process of obtaining
information about enemy forces or positions by
sending out small groups of soldiers or by using
aircraft.
• Unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV):It is an
unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV), also
known as a combat drone, or battlefi eld UAV, is an
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that is used for
intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and
reconnaissance and carries aircraft ordnance such
as missiles, ATGMs, and/or bombs in hardpoints for
drone strikes.
Motion of aircraft
• Vertical axis, or yaw axis — an axis drawn from top to
bottom, and perpendicular to the other two axes,
parallel to the fuselage station.
• Transverse axis, lateral axis, or pitch axis — an axis
running from the pilot's left to right in piloted aircraft,
and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft, parallel to
the buttock line.
• Longitudinal axis, or roll axis — an axis drawn through
the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the normal
direction of flight, or the direction the pilot face
• Pitch:The rotation of aircraft about lateral axis (Nose
up or Nose down)
• Roll:The rotation of aircraft about longitudinal
axis. (BankiBanking left or right)
• Yaw:The rotation of aircraft about Vertical
axis(Turning left or right)
Forces acting on Aircraft
• Thrust—the forward force produced by the
powerplant/ propeller or rotor. It opposes
or overcomes the force of drag.
• Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by
disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage,
and other protruding objects
• Lift—is a force that is produced by the
dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil,
and acts perpendicular to the fl ight path
• Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself,
the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage
In the case of Rotorcrafts, rotor serves for both lift
force for gaining altitude and thrust force for
moving forward
 How do they work?

Discussion of spinning due to counter acting torque

Comparing torque and counter acting torque with rotor and stator
Discussion of no spinning due to torque and counter acting torque
Comparing maneuverability and endurance with no of props
Discussion of counter acting torque of 3 rd propeller leads to spinning of drone
Discussion of X-Type or H- shape
How spinning of drone is avoided?
Discussion on counter acting torque
Hovering
Airfoil in lift production
Discussion of bernouli principle for lift production, paper lift , lift production based on
Newton 3rd law of motion.
Application of Bernoulli’s principle to aircraft wing
Lower pressure is created by the increased speed of air over the wing

Lift force

Higher pressure is created by the slower speed of air under the wing

Low Pressure
Lift force

High Pressure
Based on Newton 3rd law of motion: lift production
Discussion of imbalance of forces due to variation in speeds of prop between front props and
rear props leading to pitching motion.
Pitch up/pitch down/ pitching along any direction works on the same principle.
Discussion of rotation of props at
same speed after pitching, so that
same vertical forces are generated.
vertical lift generated exactly
balances the weight leading to
unbalanced force in the horizontal
direction leading to forward motion
Reminding the pitch, roll and yaw in airplane
1.Discussion on cancellation of
counter acting torque when props
are same speed- avoids spinning
of drone,
2. Discussion on varying speeds of
prop diagonally (any one pair)
leading to counter acting torque –
causing yawing motion.
Note: Yawing direction should be on
the other side
If there is a sudden winds/ any obstruction to drone, Human intervention may
not efficiently control drone, flight controller play a key role.
Accelerometer,gyroscopic sensor and
magnetometer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqXm78
OXjYQ
Aircraft attitude: Position of nose and wings of an aircraft relative to the horizon

Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0NMc7uSEOs
If the forward speed is less, same nose up attitude may suggest aircraft may be climbing or
steady or pitching down/stall.
 Overview of UAV Systems
As a minimum, a
typical UAV system
is composed of
• Air vehicles,
• One or more
ground control
station (GCS) and/
or mission
planning and
control stations
(MPCS),
• Payload, and
• Data link
 Air Vehicle
• The air vehicle is the airborne part of the
system that includes the airframe, propulsion
unit, fl ight controls, and electric power
system.
• The air data terminal is mounted in the
air vehicle, and is the airborne portion of
the communications data link
• The air vehicle can be a fixed-wing
airplane, rotary wing, or a ducted fan
 Mission Planning and Control
Station
• The MPCS, also called the GCS,
is the operational control center
of the UAV system where video,
command, and telemetry data
from the air vehicle are
processed and displayed.
• The MPCS shelter incorporates a
mission planning facility, control
and display consoles, video and
telemetry instrumentation, a
computer and signal processing
group, the ground data terminal,
communications equipment, and
environmental control and
survivability protection
equipment.
 Launch and Recovery Equipment
• Launchand recovery can be accomplished by a number of
techniques ranging from conventional takeoff and landing on
prepared sites to vertical descent using rotary wing or fan
systems.
Contd….
• Catapults using either
pyrotechnic (rocket)
or a combination of
pneumatic/hydraulic
arrangements are also
popular methods for
launching air vehicles.
Some small UAVs are
launched by hand,
essentially thrown into
the air like a toy glider.
Payloads
• Payloads often
include video
cameras, either
daylight or night
(image-intensif i
ers or thermal
infrared), for
reconnaissance
and
surveillance
missions.
Payloads
• ArmedUAVs carry weapons to be fired, dropped, or
launched. “Lethal” UAVs carry ex-plosive or other types of
warheads and may be deliberately crashed into targets
 Contd…
• Radar sensors,
often using
Moving Target
Indicator (MTI)
and/or
synthetic
aperture radar
(SAR)
technology, are
also important
payloads for
UAVs
conducting
recon-
naissance
missions.
Electro-Optical and Infrared Sensors (EO/IR)
• As depicted in Figure 1, an EO/IR-capable UAV has a limited search capability.
• In contrast, an MTI-capable UAV has a 360-degree search capability, including Ground
Moving Target Indication (GMTI) and Maritime Moving Target Indication (MMTI).
• If these two types of UAVs are jointly operated, a successful detection-tracking-
identification process could be implemented even with low-cost tactical UAVs.
• The MTI-capable UAV detects moving targets on the surface, and then then Ground
Control Station (GCS) can automatically direct the EO/IR-capable UAV to the detection
location for identification.
• Another alternative is for a UAV to have both an onboard EO/IR sensor and MTI radar,
which should be selected in accordance with the tactical UAV’s payload capacity. The
MTI to EO/IR cueing mechanism is triggered by the sensor operator on the GCS.
• COURTESY: https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/2021/02/sar-
mti-radar-for-common-operating-picture-in-uav-operations/

Inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR)

SAR/ISAR Features(synthetic aperture radar (SAR) )
• Unlike MTI, SAR can provide information on stationary targets for intelligence
personnel regardless of weather conditions.
• Image resolution of EO/IR sensors decreases with increasing range, but SAR radar
imagery has a constant resolution that is independent of range.
• Submetric resolution for an area of interest tens of kilometers away from the
surveillance platform provides the ability to gather imagery intelligence at stand-
off range under all weather conditions, as seen in Figure 2.
• Countries with maritime borders have to establish and maintain Recognized
Maritime Picture for maritime security.
• ISAR can help operators identify ships offshore even under low visibility
conditions where EO/IR sensors fall short.

Inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) AND synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
Another major category of payloads is electronic warfare (EW) systems.
They include the full spectrum of signal intelligence (SIGINT) and
jammer equipment.

Courtesy:
https://defence.nridigital.com/global_defence_technology_mar21/electronic
_warfare_latest
 Contd…
• SIGINT is intelligence derived from electronic
signals and systems used by foreign targets,
such as communications systems, radars, and
weapons systems that provides a vital window
for our nation into foreign adversaries'
capabilities, actions, and intentions.
 CONTD…
• In technology, you will come across the term
Data Link, especially in companies or
structures which deal with communication
setups. In simple language, a data link refers
to the connection of one area to another. The
main aim of these connections is to send or
receive digital information.
 CONTD….
• Uplink frequency is
the frequency at
which, the first earth
station is
communicating with
satellite.
• The satellite
transponder converts
this signal into
another frequency and
sends it down to the
second earth station.
This frequency is
called as Downlink
frequency.
For Reference: The data link may also be called upon to
measure the position of the air vehicle by determining
its azimuth and range from the ground-station antenna.

The azimuth is the angle between North, measured

clockwise around the observer's horizon, and a celestial
body (sun, moon). It determines the direction of the
celestial body. For example, a celestial body due North
has an azimuth of 0º, one due East 90º, one due South
180º and one due West 270º.
The air data terminal is the airborne part of the data link. It includes the transmitter and
antenna for transmitting video and air-vehicle data and the receiver for receiving commands
from the ground
https://www.slideshare.net/vsmlingam/unman
ned-aerial-vehicles-239442295
 Ground Support Equipment
• GSE may include: test and maintenance equipment, a
supply of spare parts and other expendables, a fuel
supply and any refueling equipment required by a
particular air vehicle, handling equipment to move air
vehicles around on the ground if they are not man-
portable or intended to roll around on landing gear, and
generators to power all of the other support equipment.
• The GSE must include transportation for all of the things
listed earlier, as well as transportation for spare air
vehicles and for the personnel who make up the ground
crew, including their living and working shelters and food,
clothing, and other personal gear.
India and Drones
• The UAV fl eet of the Indian armed forces
predominantly consists of the searcher, Heron2
and Harop UAV, which are imported from Israel.
• The UAV fl eet of the Indian armed forces
predominantly consists of the searcher, Heron2 and
Harop UAV, which are imported from Israel.
• India’s indigenous UAVs are still in the
development phase
• Its indigenous target drone and UAV development
programme is led by the Aeronautical Development
Agency (ADA) of the Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO), which is primarily
directed towards meeting the requirements of the
Indian armed forces.
• India has developed target drones and micro and mini
UAVs and is aspiring to develop bigger and more
capable Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE), High
Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) and armed UAVs and
Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAVs)
indigenously
Courtesy: https://vajiramias.com/current-affairs/rustom-
2/6350ce0211afb0065812c373/
 DRDO aura Or GHATAK UCAV OR
DRDO SWIFT
• AURA is an
autonomous stealthy unmann
ed combat air
vehicle (UCAV) developed by
the DRDO for the Indian Air
Force.
• The design work on
the UCAV is to be carried out
by the Aeronautical
Development Agency (ADA).
• The UCAV will be capable of
releasing missiles, bombs
and precision-guided
munitions.
 DRDO Imperial Eagle
• EAGLE is an Indian light-weight mini-unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed by
the DRDO alongside Aeronautical Development Establishment, and the National
Aerospace Laboratories and supported by private vendors.
• Its primary users will be the National Security Guard and the military services.
• The Imperial Eagle weighs 2.5 kg and can carry either a daylight camera or thermal
night vision camera.
• Designed to be carried in soldier’s backpack, be hand-launched and recoverable
through a soft landing.
• It is completely autonomous with navigational way-points, which can be changed
in-flight by the ground control.
• It is capable of providing continuous imagery of the onboard camera irrespective
of the attitude of the aircraft.
• The primary advantage of the vehicle is that it functions on autopilot.
• Its orientation can be controlled using a dedicated real-time operating system
(RTOS).
 DRDO Netra
• The DRDO Netra is an Indian, light-weight, autonomous UAV for
surveillance and reconnaissance operations.
• The DRDO Research and Development Establishment (R&DE), and
IdeaForge, a Mumbai-based private firm developed Netra.
• Netra can also is launched from a small clearing, and it can fly up to
a distance of 2.5 km from its take-off point.
• The operational altitude of the UAV is 200 m.
• It can carry out surveillance in an area of 1.5 km Line of Sight (LOS)
at the height of 300 m, for 30 minutes on a single battery charge.
• It has a high-resolution camera with zoom to facilitate more
comprehensive surveillance and can also carry a thermal camera for
night operations.
• The zoom-in camera can identify human activity up to 500 m away
and can send a live video feed of objects within a radius of 5 km.
 DRDO Rustom
• It is a Medium Altitude Long
Endurance uncrewed air
vehicle (UAV) developed by
DRDO for the Armed forces.
• Rustom has three variants
like Rustom-I, Rustom-H,
Rustom-II.
• Payload capacity of 95 kgs
and have a length around
5.12m.
• Rustom-II can attain max
speed up to 150kmps and
operated along LOS.
 DRDO Nishant
• It is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by India's ADE (Aeronautical
Development Establishment), a branch of DRDO for the Indian Armed Forces.
• The Nishant UAV is primarily tasked with intelligence gathering over enemy
territory and also for reconnaissance, training, surveillance, target designation,
artillery fire correction, damage assessment.
• The UAV has an endurance of four hours and thirty minutes.
• The 380 kg Nishant UAV requires rail-launching from a hydro-pneumatic launcher
and recovered by a parachute system.
• Launches at a velocity of 45 m/s are carried out in 0.6 seconds with 100 kW power,
and subsequent launches can be carried out in intervals of 20 minutes.
• Nishant is one of the few UAVs in the world in its weight-class capable of being
catapult-launched and recovered by using a parachute
• this eliminates the need for a runway as in case of the conventional take-off and
landing with wheels.
 AURA IMPERIAL EAGLE

NETRA
RUSTOM

NISHANT