IT 개론 03

Information
Representation

손 우형
whsohn61@cau.ac.kr
Where we are
• Part 1. Hardware • Part 3. Communications
• Computer 구조 • Internet
• Bit, Byte • WWW
• CPU • Security & Privacy

• Part 4. Other Issues

• Part 2. Software
• AI
• Algorithm
• Software Engineering & Agile
• OS
• Digital Transformation
• Programming Language
• Application & Cloud
fundamental ideas about how
computers represent information
• computers are digital processors

• computers represent information in bits.

• groups of bits represent larger thing

Bits, bytes, and
Representation of Information
• Digital representation means that everything is represented by numbers only

• The usual sequence:

• Something (sound, pictures, text, instructions, ...) is converted into numbers by some
mechanism
• The numbers can be stored, retrieved, processed, copied, transmitted
• The numbers might be reconstituted into a version of the original

• For sound, pictures, other real-world values

• Make accurate measurements
• And then convert them to numeric values
Analog vs. Digital
• Analog: "analogous" or "the analog of"
• Smoothly or continuously varying values
• Volume control, dimmer, faucet, steering wheel
• Value varies smoothly with something else
• No discrete steps or changes in values
• Small change in one implies small change in another
• Infinite number of possible values
• The world we perceive is largely analog

• Digital: discrete values

• Only a finite number of different values
• A change in something results in sudden change
from one discrete value to another
• Digital speedometer, digital watch, push-button radio tuner, …
• Values are represented as numbers
Transducers
• Devices that convert from one representation to another
• Microphone
• Loudspeaker / earphones
• Camera / scanner
• Printer / screen
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Touch screen
• etc.

• Something is usually lost by conversion (in each direction)

• The ultimate copy is not as good as the original
Why Digital instead of Analog?
• Easy for computers to work with
• Compressed by squeezing out
• Encrypted for security and privacy
• Copied exactly
• Shipped anywhere
• Stored in an endless variety of devices

• Easily extended
Digital Data Trends
Analog to Digital Conversion
Encoding sound
• Need to measure intensity/loudness often enough and accurately enough that we can reconstruct
it well enough.
• Higher frequency = higher pitch
• Human ear can hear ~ 20Hz to 20KHz
• Taking samples at twice the highest frequency is good enough (Nyquist)

• CD audio usually uses

• 44,100 samples / second
• Accuracy of 1 in 65,536 (= 216) distinct levels
• Two samples at each time for stereo
• Data rate is 44,100 x 2 x 16 bits/sample
• = 1,411,200 bits/sec = 176,400 bytes/sec ~ 10.6 MB/minute

• MP3 audio compresses by clever encoding and removal of sounds that won't really be heard
• Data rate is ~ 1 MB/minute
ASCII: American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
• An arbitrary but agreed-upon representation for USA.
• Widely used everywhere

• Unicode
• Multiple character-set standards in different geographic or linguistic regions
• Unicode.org
Important Ideas
• Number of items and number of digits are tightly related:
• One determines the other
• Maximum # of different items = base# of digits
• e.g., 9-digit SSN: 109 = 1 billion possible numbers
• e.g., To represent up to 100 “characters”: 2 digits is enough.
• But for 1000 characters, we need 3 digits

• Interpretation depends on context

• Without knowing that, we can only guess what things mean
• What's 810615 ?
A review of How decimal numbers work
• How many digits?
• We use 10 digits for counting: "decimal" numbers are natural for us
• Other schemes show up in some areas
• Clocks use 12, 24, 60; calendars use 7, 12
• Other cultures use other schemes

• What if we want to count to more than 10?

• 0123456789
• 1 decimal digit represents 1 choice from 10; counts 10 things; 10 distinct values
• 00 01 02 … 10 11 12 … 20 21 22 … 98 99
• 2 decimal digits represents 1 choice from 100; 100 distinct values
• We usually elide zeros at the front
• 000 001 … 099 100 101 … 998 999
• 3 decimal digits …

• Decimal numbers are shorthand for sums of powers of 10

• 1492 = 1 x 1000 + 4 x 100 + 9 x 10 + 2 x 1
• = 1 x 103 + 4 x 102 + 9 x 101 + 2 x 100

• Counting in "base 10", using powers of 10

Binary numbers: Using bits to represent numbers
• Just like decimal except there are only two digits: 0 and 1

• Everything is based on powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …)

• Instead of powers of 10 (1, 10, 100, 1000, …)

• Counting in binary or base 2:

• 01
• 1 binary digit represents 1 choice from 2; counts 2 things; 2 distinct values
• 00 01 10 11
• 2 binary digits represents 1 choice from 4; 4 distinct values
• 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
• 3 binary digits …

• Binary numbers are shorthand for sums of powers of 2

• 11011 = 1 x 16 + 1 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
• = 1 x 24 + 1 x 2 3 + 0 x 2 2 + 1 x 2 1 + 1 x 2 0

• Counting in "base 2", using powers of 2

Binary (base 2) arithmetic
• Works like decimal arithmetic, but simpler

• Addition:
• 0+0=0
• 0+1=1
• 1+0=1
• 1 + 1 = 10

• Subtraction, multiplication, division are analogous

Bytes
• "byte" = group of 8 bits
• On modern machines, the fundamental unit of processing and memory addressing
• Can encode any of 28 = 256 different values, e.g., numbers 0 .. 255 or a single letter like A or digit like 7 or
punctuation like $
• ASCII character set defines values for letters, digits, punctuation, etc.

• Group 2 bytes together to hold larger entities

• Two bytes (16 bits) holds 216 = 65536 values
• A bigger integer, a character in a larger character set
• Unicode character set defines values for almost all characters anywhere

• Group 4 bytes together to hold even larger entities

• Four bytes (32 bits) holds 232 = 4,294,967,296 values
• An even bigger integer, a number with a fractional part (floating point), a memory address

• Recent machines use 64-bit integers/addresses (8 bytes)

• 264 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,616
Interpretation of bits depends on context
• Meaning of a group of bits depends on how they are interpreted:
• e.g. 1 byte could be
• 1 bit in use, 7 wasted bits (e.g., M/F in a database)
• 8 bits storing a number between 0 and 255
• An alphabetic character like W or + or 7
• Part of a character in another alphabet or writing system (2 bytes)
• Part of a larger number (2 or 4 or 8 bytes, usually)
• Part of a picture or sound
• Part of an instruction for a computer to execute:
• Instructions are just bits, stored in the same memory as data.
• Different computers use different bit patterns for their instructions.
• Laptop, cellphone, game machine, etc., all potentially different.
• Part of the location or address of something in memory
• ...

• One program's instructions are another program's data

• When you download a new program from the net, it's data
• When you run it, it's instructions
Powers of two, powers of ten
• 1 bit = 2 possibilities
• 2 bits = 4 possibilities
• 3 bits = 8 possibilities
• ...
• n bits = 2n

• 210 = 1,024 is about 1,000 or 1K or 103

• 220 = 1,048,576 is about 1,000,000 or 1M or 106
• 230 = 1,073,741,824 is about 1,000,000,000 or 1G or 109
• The approximation is becoming less good but it's still good enough for estimation

• Terminology is often imprecise:

• "1K" might mean 1000 or 1024 (103 or 210)
• "1M" might mean 1000000 or 1048576 (106 or 220)
Converting binary to decimal
• From right to left:
• If bit is 1 add corresponding power of 2, i.e. 20, 21, 22, 23 (Rightmost
power is zero)

• 11012 = 1 x 20 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 23
• =1x1+0x2+1x4+1x8
• = 1310
Converting decimal to binary
• Repeat while the number is > 0:
• Divide the number by 2
• Write the remainder (0 or 1)
• Use the quotient as the number and repeat
• The answer is the resulting sequence in reverse (right to left)
order
• e.g. 1310
Divide 13 by 2, write "1", number is 6
Divide 6 by 2, write "0", number is 3
Divide 3 by 2, write "1", number is 1
Divide 1 by 2, write "1", number is 0
Answer is 11012
Hexadecimal notation

• Binary numbers are bulky

• Hexadecimal notation is a shorthand combining

• 4 bits into a single digit, written in base 16
• A more compact representation of the same information

• Hex uses the symbols A B C D E F for the digits 10 .. 15

• 0123456789ABCDEF
ASCII again
Color
• TV & computer screens use Red-Green-Blue (RGB) model

• Each color is a combination of red, green, blue components

• R+G = yellow, R+B = magenta, B+G = cyan, R+G+B = white

• For computers, a pixel is usually specified by three numbers

giving amount of each color, on a scale of 0 to 255 (i.e. 24 bits)

• This is often expressed in hexadecimal so the three components

can be specified separately (in effect, as bit patterns)
• 000000 is black, FFFFFF is white

• Printers, etc., use cyan-magenta-yellow[-black] (CMY[K])

[Example] Representation of numbers
• 정수의 표현
• 부호-크기 방식
• 제일 왼쪽 비트(MSB: Most Significant Bit): 정수의 부호
• 나머지 비트: 정수의 절대값
[Example] Representation of numbers
• 실수의 표현
• 정규화 부동소수점실수
[Example] Representation of characters
• ASCII 코드
• 미국 표준국(ANSI)에서 영어 문자를 위해 제정한 코드
• 알파벳, 숫자, 문법 기호, 제어 부호로 원래 7 비트
• ISO에서 1 비트 추가하여 8 비트
• 예) “Happy!”

• 한글: 초성, 중성, 종성

• ASCII와 같이 8 비트로는 불가능
• 조합형 및 완성형 코드
• UTF-8, UTF-16
[Example] Representation of Multimedia
• 멀티미디어 정보의 특성
• 멀티미디어 데이터: 숫자, 문자, 사운드, 이미지, 그래픽, 동영상 등, 동일한 바이너리 데이터를
다르게 해석

• 특성: 데이터 용량이 매우 크다 à 데이터의 압축

용도와 환경에 따라 다양한 형태로 표현
[Example] Representation of Multimedia
• 이미지(Image)의 표현
• 실 세계 장면은 아날로그 형태로 존재
• 디지털 이미지는 픽셀(Pixel)로 구성
• 수직, 수평 방향의 픽셀
• 예) 수직, 수평 방향으로 각각 1000개의 픽셀
1000 x 1000 = 1,000,000 픽셀
• RGB 컬러 모델
• 각 픽셀을 표현하기 위해 (Red, Green, Blue) 각 컬러가 1 바이트
• 예) 1,000,000 픽셀 x 3 바이트 = 3백만 바이트(3Mbytes)
• 대표적 이미지 압축: JPEG
The End of Lecture