ENG101 FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH

Course Contents:
Introductions Making introductions
Expressing requests and enquiries
Grammar Focus First-person and second-person pronouns
Descriptive adjectives and adjective or relative clauses
Simple and present continuous tenses
Use of modals can, could, would, and will
Conditional structures
Use of wh- questions for interviewing
Social Interaction Greetings
Gratitude
Invitations
Regrets
Grammar Focus Present and past tense, simple and progressive aspects
Use of modals can, could, and would
Tag questions
Prepositions
Sentence structure
Expressing past regrets using wish plus the past perfect
Giving and Following Directions
Difficulties in following directions and instructions
Effective oral directions
Instructional guides
Grammar Focus Present tense in simple, habitual, and progressive aspects
Using the imperative for instructions
Vocabulary related to transitions
Clarity of sentence structure
Sharing Experiences Sharing narratives
Sharing unique experiences
Imaginative texts
Grammar Focus Descriptive and narrative style
Simultaneous use of reporting speech and reported speech
Use of relevant vocabulary, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses
Use of past tenses
Types of Writing Writing styles
Writing mechanics
Descriptive and narrative style
Identifying run-on sentences and sentence fragments in a text
Grammar Focus Subject-verb agreement
Pronoun-reference agreement
Tense variation
Punctuation

Making introductions

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An introduction is a polite method of starting a conversation and establishing a connection between
yourself and someone else or between two or more people to each other, introducing a new idea or
concept in a meeting. It is an important social and professional skill, and everyone can benefit from
learning the proper way to do an introduction.
Importance of introductions
Introductions are important because they help people feel comfortable around each other. When you are
meeting someone you don't know for the first time, an introduction can help you start a conversation with
someone you don't know, expand your professional network and create a positive first impression of who
you are. When you are introducing two or more people to each other, a great introduction can lead to a
meaningful discussion and a lasting connection being built.

Tips for Introducing Someone

Look at the person you are speaking to first, then turn to the other person as you complete the
introduction.
Speak clearly. Mumbling defeats the purpose of the introduction.
Use courteous language. “I’d like to introduce…,” “May I introduce…,” “I’d like you to meet…” are all
good options. “May I present…” is the formal version.
Use preferred names and titles.
In more formal situations, or when there’s an obvious age difference, it’s best to use courtesy titles and
last names: “Mrs. Samson, I’d like you to meet Mr. Jacobs.” This lets Mrs. Sampson invite Mr. Jacobs to
use her first name, or not.
Even in informal situations or with contemporaries, it’s helpful to use first and last names: “Judy, this is
Tom Jacobs. Tom, this is Judy Samson.” You can use a nickname if you know the person prefers it.
Teach children to use adults’ titles, unless an adult specifically requests using his or her first name:
“Mrs. Samson, this is my nephew, Benji Rosen. Benji, this is Mrs. Samson.”
It’s fine to skip last names when introducing your spouse and children, unless they have a different last
name than yours.

How to do introductions
Follow these steps to deliver a great introduction:
State the name of the person you are making an introduction to.
1. Inform them of your intent.
2. State the name of the person who is being introduced.
3. Offer additional information, as appropriate.
1. State the name of the person you are making an introduction to
The polite way to begin an introduction is to start with the name of the person you are making the
introduction to. In most situations, this is the person who is older, has a higher-ranking position or that
you have known the longest. You can skip this step if you are introducing yourself to someone you are
meeting for the first time and you don't know the other individual's name.
2. Inform them of your intent
The next statement you make should inform both parties of your intent to introduce them to each other.
Here are a few examples of statements you can use to inform others you are making an introduction:
 "I would like you to meet..."
 "It's a pleasure to introduce..."
 "I would like to introduce..."

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  "I would like to present..."
 "May I introduce..."
 "May I present..."
 "This is..."
 "My name is..."
The statement you choose to use in this step may change based on the individuals you are introducing and
the setting where the introduction is taking place.
3. State the name of the person who is being introduced
After informing the parties of your intent to make an introduction, state the name of the person you are
introducing. In most situations, this is usually the younger person, has a lower-ranking title or who you
know the least about. If you are introducing more than two people to each other, state the name of each
person in ranking order beginning with the highest rank and working your way down.
4. Offer additional information, as appropriate
Finally, offer both parties information about each other that can help them establish a connection or begin
a conversation. You can use details such as common interests both parties share, your relation to each
party or how long you have known each person for.

Examples of introductions
Here are a few examples of good introductions you can use in a variety of situations:
a. Introducing professionals or colleagues of different ranks
b. Introducing a business professional or yourself to a customer or client
c. Introducing people in casual and social settings
d. Introducing one person to a group of people
E. Introduce other family members

a. Introducing professionals or colleagues of different ranks

When you are introducing business professionals or colleagues of different ranks to each other, it is
usually best to introduce the person who has the least amount of experience or who has the lower-ranking
title within the organization or industry to the person who has the most amount of experience or who has
the higher-ranking title. If you are introducing yourself in a professional setting, it is usually best to state
your first and last name along with your title. Here are a few examples:
 "Mr. Roberts, I would like you to meet Ms. Catherine Lee. Ms. Lee is joining our organization as
an administrative assistant. Catherine, Mr. Roberts has been with our organization since its
founding eight years ago. He started in an entry-level position and is now our sales director."
 "Hello, Mrs. Lewis, my name is Peter Mendoza. I am interning as an account executive in the
recruiting department. It is a pleasure to meet you."
As these examples show, the additional information you provide during a professional introduction
usually relates to each person's title or amount of time spent within the organization or industry.
b. Introducing a business colleague or yourself to a customer or client
When you are introducing a business colleague or yourself to a customer or client, always begin by
addressing the customer or client first. This is the professional standard even when you are introducing
clients or customers to high-ranking members within your organization. For example:
 "Miss Nelson, I am pleased to introduce you to our head of account management, Mrs. Morgado.
Mrs. Morgado, Miss Nelson has just signed a one-year contract with our organization for social

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 media management and content creation for the local restaurant she owns, Trendy Meals and
Treats."
 "Mr. Gomez, it is my pleasure to introduce you to Ms. Taylor King. Ms. King is the
certified personal trainer you will work with to achieve your goals. Ms. King, this is Mr. Gomez.
His goal is to create a healthy meal plan and find a safe and effective exercise plan to help him
lose excess weight and build his muscles."
Introducing yourself or your colleague to the client is a sign of respect and understanding of the
customer's importance to the organization's success.
c. Introducing people in casual and social settings
When you are introducing friends, colleagues or family members to each other in a casual or social
setting, it is usually best to introduce the person you have known for the least amount of time or that you
know the least about to the person you have known the longest or with whom you have a stronger
personal connection. If you are introducing yourself in a casual or social setting, it is usually acceptable to
state only your first name or the name most people use to address you. Here are a few examples:
 "Grandpa, I would like you to meet my friend, Heather. We met in our after-school Junior
Chemists Club and have become good friends since. Heather, this is my grandfather, Mr. Ward
Adams. He has been a Chemist for 40 years and is the person who inspired my passion for
Chemistry."
 "Douglas, I would like to introduce you to Victoria and Arthur. I met them at a recent football
game. Victoria is a cheerleader and Arthur is a linebacker for my school's team. Victoria and
Arthur, Douglas has been my best friend for seven years. Football is his favorite sport and I'm
sure he would enjoy talking to you both about the game."
 "Hi Kevin, my name is Antonio. I've heard a lot of good things about you from our mutual friend,
Tiffany. It is a pleasure to finally meet you."
These examples show how providing additional information about your relationship with the people you
are introducing to each other can help them identify a topic of conversation they can share an interest in.
D. Introducing one person to a group of people
When you are introducing one person to a group of people, the order of introduction may not begin with
the highest-ranking person. Instead, it is common to begin these introductions by first addressing the
group and then introducing them to the individual person. For example:
 "Ladies and gentlemen, without further ado, it is my pleasure to introduce you to the Founder
and CEO of Tasty Sweets, Mrs. Rachel Malloy."
 "Emily, Luis and Trent, I would like to introduce you to my grandmother, Mrs. Joan O'Malley."
In each of the above examples, the person who is being introduced is the higher-ranking individual. But
beginning the introductions by addressing the group first allows the person making the introduction to
ensure they have the attention of the entire group before they make the introduction.
E. Introduce other family members by their full names, unless they request otherwise. It’s also a good
idea to mention the family relationship: “Uncle Arthur, may I introduce Mark Weston. Mark, this is my
great-uncle, Arthur Pearson.”

Expressing requests and enquiries

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A request is a formal or informal solicitation made by an individual or entity to obtain a specific action,
information, or assistance from another party. It involves expressing a desire or need for something to be
done, provided, or fulfilled.
Requests can take various forms, ranging from simple and straightforward appeals to more complex and
detailed inquiries. Whether it is a personal request for a favor or a professional request for a service, the
underlying purpose remains the same: to seek a specific outcome or response.
When making a request, it is crucial to be clear, concise, and considerate in order to increase the
likelihood of a positive response. Effective requests often articulate the desired outcome, provide
necessary context, and offer a compelling rationale for why the request should be granted.

An enquiry refers to an act of seeking information, clarification, or advice from a person or organization.
It involves posing questions or seeking insights to gain a deeper understanding of a particular subject or
matter. Enquiries can be driven by curiosity, a need for additional knowledge, or a desire to resolve
uncertainties. They can be initiated in various contexts, such as academic research, customer support, or
investigative journalism. Regardless of the purpose, enquiries are characterized by a quest for information
or clarification.
When formulating an enquiry, it is essential to be specific, focused, and respectful. Well-crafted enquiries
often demonstrate a genuine interest in the topic, highlight any existing knowledge or research, and pose
concise and relevant questions to elicit the desired information or insights.
Requests are direct and assertive, conveying a sense of urgency and expectation. They are commonly used
in formal or professional settings when a specific action or response is desired. By clearly stating what is
needed and when, requests leave little room for ambiguity and demonstrate confidence.
On the other hand, enquiries are more open-ended and exploratory in nature. They are often used to gather
information or seek clarification on a particular topic. Enquiries tend to be less formal and allow for a
more conversational tone, fostering a collaborative and friendly atmosphere.
By understanding the nuances between these two terms, individuals can tailor their communication style
to suit the context and achieve their desired outcomes. Whether making a request or an enquiry, it is
important to consider the appropriate level of formality, tone, and clarity to ensure effective and respectful
communication
How To Use “Request” In A Sentence
When using the word “request” in a sentence, it is important to convey a formal or polite appeal for
something. Here are some examples that demonstrate the proper usage:
 She politely requested an extension on the deadline for her project.
 The customer requested a refund for the faulty product.
 He requested his colleagues’ assistance in completing the task.
Notice how the word “request” is used to express a specific desire or need. It is often followed by a direct
object, indicating what is being asked for. Additionally, the word is typically used in a formal or
professional context.
How To Use “Enquiry” In A Sentence
“Enquiry” is a term commonly used to indicate an act of seeking information or clarification. Here are
some examples that illustrate the correct usage:
 The customer made an enquiry about the availability of the product.
 She sent an enquiry to the company’s customer support team to resolve her issue.
 He received an enquiry from a potential client regarding the services offered.
Similar to “request,” the word “enquiry” is often used in formal or professional contexts. It implies a
search for knowledge or further details. It is important to note that “enquiry” is more commonly used in
British English, while “inquiry” is the preferred spelling in American English.

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By understanding the appropriate usage of “request” and “enquiry” in a sentence, you can effectively
convey your intentions and communicate with clarity.
Examples of Using Request in a Sentence
 I kindly request that you provide me with the necessary documents.
 The customer submitted a formal request for a refund due to the defective product.
 Could you please request a meeting with the project team to discuss the upcoming deadlines?
 She made a request to her manager for additional training opportunities.
 The CEO sent out a company-wide email requesting employees’ input on the new strategic plan.
Examples of Using Enquiry in a Sentence
 The research team conducted an enquiry to investigate the effects of the new medication.
 He submitted an enquiry to the customer service department regarding the delayed delivery.
 Our organization received an enquiry from a potential client interested in our services.
 She made an enquiry at the reception desk to inquire about the hotel’s check-out policy.
 The committee launched an enquiry into the alleged financial misconduct within the company.

Mistake 1: Using “Request” When Making an Inquiry

One common mistake is using the word “request” when the intention is to make an inquiry or seek
information. While both “request” and “enquiry” involve seeking something, they are distinct in their
purpose. The term “request” implies a desire for a specific action or response, while “enquiry” refers to
seeking information or clarification.
For instance, imagine you want to ask a colleague for information about a project. Instead of saying, “I
request you to provide details about the project,” it would be more accurate to say, “I would like to make
an enquiry about the project.” This correction aligns the intention of seeking information with the
appropriate term.
Mistake 2: Using “Enquiry” When Making a Request
Conversely, another common mistake occurs when people use the term “enquiry” when their intention is
to make a request. This mistake often arises due to a lack of understanding of the nuances between the
two words. While both “request” and “enquiry” involve seeking something, the focus of each term differs.
For example, suppose you want to ask a vendor for a price quote. Instead of saying, “I have an enquiry
about the price,” it would be more accurate to say, “I would like to request a price quote.” By using the
appropriate term, you convey your intention clearly and avoid any confusion that may arise from using
the incorrect term.
Mistake 3: Failing To Consider the Context
Another mistake to avoid is failing to consider the context in which you are using either “request” or
“enquiry.” These terms can have different connotations depending on the situation, and using them
interchangeably without considering the context can lead to miscommunication.
For instance, in a formal business setting, using “request” may be more appropriate when seeking a
specific action from someone. On the other hand, “enquiry” might be better suited for a more casual or
informational inquiry. Understanding the appropriate context for each term helps ensure your message is
conveyed accurately and professionally.

Mistake 4: Neglecting the Tone and Formality

One crucial aspect to consider when using “request” and “enquiry” is the tone and formality of your
communication. Each term carries its own level of formality, and neglecting to match the appropriate tone
can undermine your message.

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For example, if you are writing a formal email to a potential client, using the word “enquiry” can convey
a more professional tone. On the other hand, if you are making a casual request to a colleague, using the
term “request” may be more appropriate. Adapting the tone and formality of your language to align with
the intended message enhances clarity and professionalism in your communication.
Context Matters
When it comes to choosing between the words “request” and “enquiry,” it is essential to consider the
context in which they are used. The decision between these two terms can greatly impact the tone and
intention of your communication. Let’s explore how the choice between “request” and “enquiry” can vary
depending on different contexts:
1. Formal Business Correspondence
In formal business settings, such as professional emails or letters, the choice between “request” and
“enquiry” can reflect the level of formality and seriousness in your communication. When making a
formal request, the term “request” is typically preferred. It conveys a direct and assertive tone, indicating
a clear expectation for action or response. For instance:
 I kindly request that you provide me with the updated financial report by Friday.
 Please submit your request for leave through the official HR channels.
On the other hand, “enquiry” is commonly used when seeking information or clarification in a formal
manner. It implies a more polite and inquisitive tone. Consider these examples:
 I am writing to enquire about the availability of the conference room on the 15th of July.
 We would like to enquire about the warranty coverage for the recently purchased product.
2. Customer Service Interactions
When dealing with customer service interactions, the choice between “request” and “enquiry” can
influence the level of empathy and assistance conveyed. In this context, “request” is often used to denote
a specific action or solution desired by the customer. For instance:
 I kindly request a refund for the defective product I received.
 Please request a technician to fix the issue with my internet connection.
On the other hand, “enquiry” is employed when customers seek information or seek assistance without
explicitly demanding a resolution. It conveys a more open-ended and exploratory tone. Consider these
examples:
 I would like to enquire about the available payment options for this service.
 Could you please provide an enquiry number for tracking the status of my order?
3. Academic or Research Context
In academic or research contexts, the choice between “request” and “enquiry” can depend on the nature of
the inquiry and the level of formality required. “Request” is often used when seeking permission,
approval, or assistance from academic authorities. For example:
 I hereby request permission to access the restricted archives for my research project.
 Please request an extension for submitting your assignment through the designated online
platform.
However, “enquiry” is employed when seeking information, clarification, or guidance in an academic or
research setting. It conveys a more scholarly and exploratory tone. Consider these examples:
 I am writing to enquire about the availability of research grants for graduate students.
 We would like to enquire about the methodology used in your study for our research project.
As demonstrated in these various contexts, the choice between “request” and “enquiry” can significantly
impact the tone, formality, and intention of your communication. It is crucial to consider the specific
context and desired outcome when deciding which term to use.

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Exceptions to The Rules
While the general rules for using “request” and “enquiry” are quite straightforward, there are a few key
exceptions where these rules might not apply. It is important to be aware of these exceptions to ensure
accurate and effective communication. Let’s explore some of these exceptions along with brief
explanations and examples for each case:
1. Legal Context
In legal contexts, the use of “request” and “enquiry” can sometimes differ from their general usage. In
legal terminology, “request” is often used to refer to a formal demand made by one party to another, while
“enquiry” is used to describe an investigation or inquiry conducted by a legal authority.
For example, in a legal setting, a lawyer may request certain documents from the opposing party as part of
the discovery process. On the other hand, a judge may initiate an enquiry to gather additional information
before making a decision.
2. British English
In British English, the distinction between “request” and “enquiry” is sometimes less strict compared to
American English. In British English, “enquiry” is often used more broadly to encompass both the act of
asking for information and making a formal request.
For instance, in British English, a customer might make an enquiry about the availability of a product at a
store, which would be considered a request in American English.
3. Technical or Specialized Jargon
In certain technical or specialized fields, the usage of “request” and “enquiry” might deviate from their
general definitions. These fields may have their own specific terminology that defines the act of asking
for information or making a formal request.
For example, in the field of computer programming, developers often use the term “request” to describe a
client’s call for data from a server, while an “enquiry” might refer to a specific query made to retrieve
information from a database.
4. Cultural Differences
Cultural differences can also play a role in how “request” and “enquiry” are used. In some cultures, the
distinction between the two words may be less significant or even nonexistent.
For instance, in certain Asian cultures, the term “request” might be used interchangeably with “enquiry”
when seeking information or making a formal appeal.
5. Contextual Variations
Lastly, it is important to note that there can be variations in the usage of “request” and “enquiry”
depending on the specific context in which they are used. Different industries, professions, or even
individual preferences may influence how these terms are employed.
For instance, in the customer service industry, a company may choose to use “request” when referring to
customer inquiries, while another company may prefer the term “enquiry” for the same purpose.
By understanding these exceptions to the general rules, you can navigate the usage of “request” and
“enquiry” more effectively, ensuring clear and accurate communication in various contexts.

Social Interaction Greetings, Gratitude, Invitations, Regrets

Greeting
Greeting is an act of communication in which human beings intentionally make their presence known to
each other, to show attention to, and to suggest a type of relationship (usually cordial) or social status
(formal or informal) between individuals or groups of people coming in contact with each other.

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Informal Greetings
Some of the most common informal greetings in English. These can be used amongst friends or family,
or even in an informal setting.
1. Hi!
Simple and straightforward, “hi” is often used as a quick greeting in English amongst friends, coworkers,
and even family.
2. Hey, Heya or Hey there!
This is another one of the best greetings to use amongst friends or acquaintances.
3. Morning!
A more casual way of saying “Good morning.”
4. How are things?
This is one of the more casual greeting phrases used in an exchange.
5. What’s new?
Similar to “how are things?”, “what’s new?” is simply a way of saying hello to someone you haven’t
talked to in a while.
6. Its good to see you
As you may have assumed, this one is used when you haven’t seen someone in a while.
7. G’day!
This is short for “Good day,” typically used in Australia.
8. Howdy!
No list of English greetings vocabulary is complete without some unique variations. This is one that’s
commonly used in the southern regions of the United States.
9. What’s up?
This can also be shortened to “‘Sup?”
10. How’s it going?
This is one of those types of greetings that doesn’t always need to be taken literally.
11. What’s happening?
Although a question, this type of greeting can be used in place of “hello!”
12. What’s the story?
This one is popular in Ireland.
13. Yo!
Although some of these greetings look like questions, no answers are expected or a standard “good, thank
you” or “nothing much” will suffice. These greetings are typically used amongst friends or in more casual
situations.
Formal Greetings
Now that you’ve learned how to greet someone informally, let’s check out some of the most common
formal greetings in English.
14. Hello!
In formal greetings examples, hello is preferred to “hi” or “hey.”
15. Hi there
This is a slightly less formal way to say hello, but still more appropriate than using “hey.”
16. Good morning
You can never go wrong when using “good morning” in greeting sentences.
17. Good afternoon
If greeting someone later in the day, this is a great option.

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18. Good evening
If greeting someone during the evening, use this option.
19. it’s nice to meet you
Just don’t say this one to someone you’ve met three times before!
20. It’s a pleasure to meet you
Remember, these last two only work when you are meeting someone for the first time.

Gratitude
Gratitude is an emotion similar to appreciation. The American Psychological Association (n.d.) more
specifically defines this phenomenon as a sense of happiness and thankfulness in response to a fortunate
happenstance or tangible gift
Every Time You Say A Sincere ‘Thank You’ To Someone, It’s A Form Of Gratitude. It’s Synonymous
with Appreciation, Acknowledgment and Respect. Think About A Time When Someone Helped You In
A Crisis, Listened To You When You Were Feeling Low Or Gave You A Shoulder To Cry On. You Feel
Positive About People Who Help You And Who Are There For You. This Can Help You Strengthen
Your Relationships With The People You Surround Yourself With.
Gratitude Can Be Expressed In Multiple Ways. You Don’t Always Have To Say you’re Thankful.
Sometimes A Smile Or A Handshake Can Do The Trick. For Many People, Praying Is the Highest Form
of Gratitude and for Others, It’s More Tangible like Receiving a Present or a Thoughtful Letter.
Many Times We Are Advised To “Count Our Blessings”, Which Is A Conscious Method Of Appreciating
The Things You Have. What We Might Have, Someone Else Can Only Hope For Or Vice Versa. There’s
No One-Size-Fits-All Way to Live in This World. So, You Have To Acknowledge What You Have And
Make The Best Of It.
I am grateful for your support.
I appreciate you.
I appreciate your taking the time.
I value the insights and guidance you provide.
I wanted to thank you as soon as possible.
I truly appreciate the confidence you showed in me

Invitations
An invitation is a request, a solicitation, or an attempt to get another person to join you at a specific
event.
1. Handwritten Invitation Card
Handwritten invitations may not be as popular as it used to be. But it is one of the most intimate ways of
inviting people. Usually, handwritten invitation cards are meant for small events that involve less than 50
people, such as luncheons, private receptions, or small dinner parties. Since it needs time to write, it is not
very suitable for big parties with an extensive list of guests. You can make handwritten invitation cards on
card stocks or simple paper. If you want to make it sound more interesting, you can include a quote from a
famous person for the invitation. If you want to go really personal, use a handwritten invitation card.
2. Electronic Invitation Card
Now, this one is definitely popular. These days, we just can't' do things without digital gadgets.
The great thing about electronic invitations is that it definitely is more eco-friendly because we don't need
to waste paper or stamps. Also, it gets delivered quicker.

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An electronic invitation is best to send if you ever make a last minute decision and you don't have enough
time to send out a physical invitation card printing.
3. Wedding Invitation Card
A wedding invitation can be physical and digital. Of course, sending actual wedding invitation cards
would cost you more money. However, it is more memorable and proper that way. Don't forget to choose
the most suitable type of card stock along with the envelope to complete the look. A wedding invitation
can be delivered through the mail or hand-delivered. Just don't forget to get their reply card included so
that they can RSVP to your event.
4. Party Invitation Card
Either a birthday, graduation, promotion, or other happy occasions in your life, you surely would want to
celebrate it with the people that mean to you. You can use a party invitation card to get them to come to
the event that you host. You can either handmade your invitation card or make an order in a printing shop.
Either way, make sure that you clearly state what kind of event it is and where the location as well as the
date of the party is. You should also include your phone number in case your guests need to contact you
for RSVP to the event.
So, have you taken note of the kind of invitation cards that you can send? They are not too difficult to
make, so don't be lazy to make a unique and proper invitation card printing especially for important
occasions so that you can leave a strong impression on your guests and make them feel more interested to
join your important day

Regrets
A feeling of sadness, repentance, or disappointment over an occurrence or something that one has done or
failed to do.
"She expressed her regret at Virginia's death"
Regret, penitence, remorse imply a sense of sorrow about events in the past, usually wrongs committed or
errors made. Regret is distress of mind, sorrow for what has been done or failed to be done: to have no
regrets. Penitence implies a sense of sin or misdoing, a feeling of contrition and determination not to sin
again: a humble sense of penitence. Remorse implies pangs, qualms of conscience, a sense of guilt, regret,
and repentance for sins committed, wrongs done, or duty not performed: a deep sense of remors
Moral regrets: Regrets in which you did the wrong thing. Bullying is an example, or choices of
unkindness. "I was stunned by how many people regretted bullying people younger in their life, and
marital infidelity," Pink said.
Connection regrets: "If only I'd reached out," is the telltale sign of a connection regret. It is the largest
category of regrets, and they are about relationships — family, friendships, romantic and beyond. These
regrets come about when people drift apart, but neither tries to connect for fear it's awkward. Reaching
out, Pink says, is "very rarely as awkward as people think, and it's almost always well-received."
Boldness regrets: Boldness regrets are about a chance that wasn't taken. Things like opportunities to study
abroad or leaving a dead-end job, but for whatever reason, you chose to play it safe

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Types of Writing Writing styles, Writing mechanics, Descriptive and narrative style
Identifying run-on sentences and sentence fragments in a text
Writing styles
Writing is a complex cognitive activity. It can be viewed somehow narrowly, as a particular kind of
verbal production skill where text is manufactured to meet a discourse demand, or more broadly as a
complex, integrated performance that cannot be understood apart from the social and cognitive purposes it
serves (Deane et al., 2008). Thus, writing is integrated into various aspects of our everyday lives.
Learning to write properly is also crucial for students who plan to pursue communication degrees and
similar programs.
Expert writers often develop elaborate goals, particularly content and rhetorical goals, which require
sophisticated problem-solving. In contrast, novice writers typically take a simpler, natural approach to
composing and adopting a knowledge-telling approach in which content is generated through association,
with one idea prompting the next (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987 cited in Deane et al., 2008). However,
regardless of whether a writer is an expert or a novice, the ability to write well itself is more likely a sign
of clear thinking, better communication skills, understanding others’ situations, and more.
There are many writing forms and each has its own objective, tone, style, content, etc. However, there are
four main categories into which every writing types fall, namely, narrative, descriptive, persuasive, and
expository.
A. Narrative Writing
Narrative writing is basically storytelling in written form with the intent of motivating, educating, or
simply entertaining the audience. Regardless of whether the story being told is real or fictional, narrative
writing can be one of the easiest for the readers and the most difficult for the writers. That is because
readers will be prodded by their imagination and understanding in order to get the narrative. Writers, on
the other hand, will have to pen it in a way that will bring readers to the world in their story while keeping
them engaged and captivated.
In order to convey a story, five basic elements need to be present: plot, character, theme, conflict, and
setting. Stories also need a beginning, interval, and an ending, which can be either open or definite.
Definite endings clearly conclude the story while open ending gives room for interpretation and can either
be left to the imagination of readers or resolved in a sequel.
Another important element of narrative writing is the point of view of the person telling the story. This
could be a character in the story whose knowledge of the plot is limited to his/her part in the story.
Authors can also use the perspective of a narrator who carries the story through an all-seeing eye that
knows the motives, thoughts, and reactions of characters.
Narrative writing is a highly diverse genre that includes adventure, fantasy, mystery, tragedy, comedy,
fairy tale, myth, drama, fable, legend, science fiction, love story, biography, autobiography, historical
account, epic poems, memoirs, jokes, novels, anecdotes, and screenplays.
Examples:
Biography. A detailed account or description of the life of a person, which typically includes basic facts
such as childhood, education, relationships, family, career, and death. If the biography narrates the life of
a person written by another person, it is called an autobiography.
Fable. A narrative that usually features animals that speak and behave like human beings that carries a
moral usually formulated at the end (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020). It also typically uses animal
characters to highlight human weaknesses and follies.
Myth. A symbolic narrative that tells specific accounts of superhuman beings or gods at an unspecified
time, which involves extraordinary circumstances and events. While the events being narrated in a myth

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are clearly in variance with the order of natural law, it does not attempt to explain or justify them and
presents such extraordinary events with authority (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
B. Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing is akin to painting a picture with words that attempt to provide readers with a
firsthand and detailed impression of places, characters, events, etc. Apart from describing what something
looks like, the author also appeals to the other senses of the readers such as smell, hearing, and touch. As
such, authors must be familiar with imagery definition as literary devices.
The use of precise language is important in descriptive writing as general adjectives, adverbs, verbs, etc.
make it harder for readers to picture in their minds what is being described. Therefore, the more vivid the
details being presented are, the more relatable the story is to the readers. And while authors can use
descriptive words with positive or negative connotations, their intent is merely to describe something and
not convince the audience of anything.
Descriptive writing is also typically injected into other types of writing because the need to describe a
place or event commonly arises in most types of literature. Adjectives and adverbs are the most common
elements used in descriptive writing. However, from time to time, authors also utilize literary devices. As
such, writers hoping to master this writing style must also become familiar with simile and metaphor
examples and other figures of speech.
A lot of fictional pieces fall under descriptive writing such as poems, proses, lyrics, and plays. However,
this type of writing also appears a lot in nonfiction materials such as journals, travel diaries, and memoirs.
Examples:
Poems. A literary piece based on rhythm and interplay of words typically follows a set of rules which
dictate the arrangement and number of syllables per line. Modern poetry, however, sometimes does away
with the rules where the lines do not rhyme and syllables do not use any meter.
Memoir. Memoir, which comes from the French word for memory, is a piece of literature about the
author's memory that can go all the way back to his/her childhood. While it is more common for
celebrities, world leaders, and other prominent people to write a memoir, this is something that anyone
can create.
Diary. A diary is commonly used to record personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings, providing a
chronology of emotions linked to events (Snowden, 2015). Today, however, it has also become an
important tool for organizing people’s personal and professional lives.
C. Persuasive Writing
Persuasive writing, as the term suggests, is a type of literature whose objective is persuading the audience
in aligning their thoughts and actions with the author’s own goals. The writer takes a definitive stance
about something, be it pro or against, and asks his/her audience to do the same. It is basically influencing
someone to take the author’s side in order to have the audience believe or do something favorable to
him/her.
Since the end goal is to convince someone of something, the writing is typically backed by research,
analysis, logical inferences, and studies. This means that even though the piece heavily contains the
authors’ biases and personal opinions, it still includes reasons, justifications, and arguments to exude an
objective tone.
With that said, however, it is equally important to appeal to the readers’ emotions just as much. That is
because a strong connection is not just formed through facts and figures alone but through the readers'
sympathy as well. When the target audience’s emotions are swayed in favor of the writer, it is easier to
appeal for a call to action about the situation at hand.

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The most common example of persuasive writing is the editorial section of newspapers. Others include
reviews of books, places, products, movies, music, etc. Cover letters, argumentative essays, letters of
complaint, letters of recommendation, and advertisements are also part of this genre.
Example:
Argumentative Essay. This persuasive writing piece is written in a way that develops and evaluates
arguments to initiate, embody, or simulate different kinds of textual and interpersonal interaction for
reader consideration (Wu & Allison, 2003 cited in Fung & Mei, 2015).
Cover Letter. A written document that is typically submitted with a job application. It outlines the
credentials and interests of the applicants in the open position. Well-written cover letters complement the
resume by explaining why the candidate is the ideal person for the job.
Editorial. A section in a newspaper or magazine where writers share their opinion about ongoing issues
that may or may not reflect the opinion of the entire publishing house. If the case is the latter, a disclaimer
is shared. This is one of the few articles in the newspaper that does not fall into the expository writing
category.
D. Expository Writing
Expository writing is written in a style that explains a concept or shares information with the audience as
well as provides instructions and insights regarding a particular subject. It is one of the most common
types of writing and is typically present in other writing styles as well. Because it lays information to
readers, it is sometimes referred to as information writing.
Unlike persuasive writing, expository style is devoid of the authors’ opinions. If writing comprises facts
and provides information about a subject but is written in a way that persuades the readers, it does not fall
into the expository writing category. For example, an article titled “Five Reasons why Studying Abroad is
a Bad Idea” might contain factual data and statistics but it does connote a negative stance that rather
makes it a persuasive piece.
Furthermore, because it can also be used to describe things, it is sometimes confused with descriptive
writing. However, there are several key differences between the two. For instance, descriptive writing is
used for explaining the point of view of someone about a certain subject at a given time while expository
writing is used for explaining external processes, situations, and things. Expository style is also carried
with a matter-of-fact, neutral tone.
Non-editorial articles in newspapers and magazines, manuals, textbooks, instructional guides, and
nonfiction books are the most common examples of expository writing. Others include how-to books,
cookbooks, recipes, self-help books, scientific research, educational resources, business books, technical
write-ups, medical journals, research, and others.
Examples:
How-to Articles. This is a nonfiction article that provides the audience with a series of steps to
accomplish something. This is a popular type of article in online media, thanks to the rise of the internet,
leading to people wanting to share instructions on doing something for a wider audience.
News Articles. Typically published in papers or online news sites, a news article is a recount of a true
event that occurred. It typically answers Who? What? When? Where? and Why? questions. Some blogs
and papers also account for news articles.
Scientific Research. These are types of research that should be planned systematically before its actual
performance. The main purpose of scientific research is to contribute towards the development of science
through systematic collection, analysis, and evaluation of data

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MECHANICS OF WRITING
The following suggestions are presented as a guide to writing and an as in avoiding some of the
most common mistakes.
Paragraph structure: Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that provides
an overall understanding of the paragraph. Since each paragraph should have a single
theme or conclusion, the topic sentence states that theme or conclusion.
Sentence length: Sentences should be kept as short as possible so that their structure is
simple and readable. Long sentences require complex construction, provide an
abundance of opportunity for grammatical errors, take considerable writing time, and
slow the reader down. Long sentences are often the result of putting together two
independent thoughts that could be stated better in a separate sentence.
Pronouns: There is no room for any ambiguity between a pronoun and the noun for
which it is used. Novice commonly use "it", "this", "that", etc., where it would be better
to use one of several nouns. It may be clear to the writer, but it is often ambiguous to
the reader. In general, Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, my, mine, our, us) are not
used in technical reports.
Spellings and punctuation: Errors in these basic elements of writing in the final draft of
the report are inexcusable.
Tense: use the following rules when choosing the tense of the verb:
Past tense: Use to describe work done when you are building or designing a
sentence, or in general to the past events.
Present tense: Use in reference to items and ideas in the report itself.
Future tense: Use in making prediction from the data or results that will be
applicable in the future.
Error-free writing entails more than using good grammar. The mechanics of
writing specifieshow words should be used when printed, whereas grammar reflects the
form of words and their relationships within a sentence.
Presentation Style: Unlike the advertising executive, the engineer is ill-equipped to sell
his ideas. Second hand information represented by the company officials may not
answer all clients’ questions.
Productions and conclusions are important components of any essay. They work to
book-end the argument made in the body paragraphs by first explaining what points will
be made (in the introduction) and then summarizing what points were made (in the conclusion).
Introduction
An introduction is typically the first paragraph of your paper. The goal of your introduction is to
let your reader know what he or she can expect from your paper. While there is no one formula
for writing a good introduction, in general, an introduction should do the following:
1. Attract the Reader’s Attention
Begin your introduction with a "hook" that grabs your reader's attention and introduces
the general topic. Here are some suggestions on how to create a “hook”:
State an interesting fact or statistic about your topic.
Ask a rhetorical question.
Reveal a common misconception about your topic.
Set the scene of your story: who, when, where, what, why, how?
Share an anecdote (a humorous short story) that captures your topic.

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2. State Your Focused Topic
After your “hook”, write a sentence or two about the specific focus of your paper. What is your
paper about? Why is this topic important? This part of the introduction can include background
information on your topic that helps to establish its context.
3. State your Thesis
Finally, include your thesis statement. The kind of thesis you include depends on the
type of paper you are writing, but, in general, your thesis should include:
your specific topic
your main point about that topic
the points of discussion you will include in your paper
Conclusions
A conclusion works to remind your reader of the main points of your paper and summarizes
what you want your reader to “take away” from your discussion. Consider these tips when
writing your conclusion:
Begin with your rephrased thesis statement to remind your reader of the point of your
paper.
Summarize the points you made in your paper and show how they support your
argument; tie all the pieces of your paper together.
Tell your reader what the significance of your argument might be. Why is the discussion
important? Do you want your reader to think differently, question something, or
perform some action? Make a recommendation of what your reader should "do" with
the information you just gave them, or share the importance of the topic.
Capitalization
Writers tend to err on the side of too much capitalization. The chief reason to capitalize a word
is that it is proper - not because the word has greater status than other words. A proper
noun identifies a specific member of a class, whereas a common noun denotes either the whole
class or any random member of the class. For example, King Henry VIII (a particular member of
a class) was a king of England (the class itself).
Contractions
You can't write naturally without using contractions, but:
Don't overuse them.
Avoid obscure contractions and nonstandard usages and regionalisms.
mustn't mightn't shan't "ain't"
"don't" to mean "does not"
Never create your own contractions.
Use "it's" correctly. "It's" is the contraction of "it is." "Its" is the possessive of "it."
It's the correct contraction to use.
Its features are many.
Likewise, use "you're" correctly. "You're" is the contraction of "you are." "Your" is a
possessive adjective.
Numbers and Numerals
A number is a characteristic that describes a unit within a collection. A number is expressed
by numerals (1, 2, 3, 4) or by words. Cardinal numbers use words such as "one, two, three,"
while ordinal numbers use words such as "first, second, third

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THE CLAUSE
A clause is a group of related words, but unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and predicate. An
independent clause, along with having a subject and predicate, expresses a complete thought and can
stand alone as a sentence. On the contrary, a subordinate or dependent clause does not express a complete
thought and therefore is not a sentence. A subordinate clause standing alone is the most common type of
sentence fragment
MAIN CLAUSES or independent clause
Every main clause will follow this pattern:
SUBJECT + VERB = Complete Thought.
Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.
Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES or dependent clause
A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:
Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.
The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete
sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a
relative adverb [when, where, or why].
Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought.
Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser
Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.
That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter
That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.
NOUN CLAUSES
Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:
You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.
Ingredients = noun. If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:
You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.
What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.
Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that give information about nouns. They allow you to
combine two sentences into one by using relative pronouns ( who, whom, whose, where, when,
which, that, and why ) as connectors.
WHO (used for people as subjects)
My friend missed the lecture. + She borrowed Sam’s notes to review.
→ My friend whomissed the lecture borrowed Sam’s notes to review.
WHOM (used for people as objects)
The candidate won by a landslide. + Many people admire him.
→ The candidate whom many people admire won by a landslide.
WHOSE (used to indicate possession)

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I admire Professor Brooks. + His books were stolen.
→ I admire Professor Brooks, whose books were stolen.
THAT (use for people, place, and things introduces information necessary to explain a noun)
I met a man on the bus today. + He works at the World Bank.
→ The man thatI met on the bus today works at the World Bank.
WHICH (used for places, things introduces extra information about an already specific noun)
My new car needs very little gas. + It was a gift from my son.
→ My new car, whichwas a gift from my son, needs very little gas.
NOTE: When an adjective clause provides extra information, it is set off by commas.
WHEN and WHERE (used to replace in which, on which , etc. not which )
July 25 was sad for me. + I left home on that day.
→ July 25, when I left home, was sad for me.
I have always wanted to visit the big house. + Julio lives in that house.
→ I have always wanted to visit the big house where Julio lives.
WHY (usually introduces a noun clause)
My cousin ran away. + I don’t know why.
→ I don’t know why my cousin ran away
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses used to modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or entire phrases or
clauses. They are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. As introductory elements, they may begin a
sentence; they may also be placed in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
There are several different types of adverbial clauses, each with its own set of common conjunctions and
functions:
1. Manner: These adverbial clauses often use “as” or “like” to explain how something is done. For
example, “The politician seemed as if he had never spoken publicly before.” Here, “as if” is the trigger
word, “he” is the subject, and “had never spoken publicly before” is the predicate.
2. Time: Adverbial clauses addressing time often contain the words “until,” “before,” “after,” “as long
as,” and “while” answer when something happens. For example, “They hiked before they ate dinner.”
3. Purpose: These adverb clauses highlight the intention behind an action, often using conjunctions such
as “so that,” “lest you,” “in order to,” and “in case.” These adverbial clauses do not follow a comma, as in
the sentence, “They drove to the farm so that they could pick apples.”
4. Place: Adverbial clauses of place use the trigger words “where” and “wherever,” as in “The puppy
followed me wherever I went.”
5. Condition: Conditional adverb clauses play out the potential outcomes of a situation and use
subordinating conjunctions such as “if,” “provided that,” and “lest.” For example, “We will go to the zoo
if it is sunny.”
6. Reason: Cause or reason adverb clauses explain the why, using subordinating conjunctions such as
“because,” “since,” and “as.” For example, “We thought you’d go to the concert since you love Vivladi’s
music.”
7. Comparison: These adverbial clauses highlight quality and quantity with conjunctions like “than” and
“as.” An example of a comparison adverbial clause is, “He can bake as well as his grandmother.”
8. Concession: Concession adverb clauses will have a comma separating two independent clauses that
contrast one another. For example, “I like to bike, though I don’t do it much these days.” You can also use
a comma in the case of a dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence: “Although it was hot, the pool
kept us cool.”

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9. Results: These clauses have a start and an end, relying on subordinating conjunctions “so,” “that,” and
“such.” For example, “The kitten was so cute that I had to buy it.”

SENTENCE
A sentence is a clause or a group of words expressing a complete idea.
E.g. they are reading a book. Do you speak English? It’s a fine day!
A sentence is a complete set of words that conveys meaning. A sentence can communicate
1 a statement (I am studying.)
2 a command (Go away.)
3 an exclamation (I’m so excited!)
4 a question (What time is it?)
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences:
1) The declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence "declares" or states a fact, arrangement or opinion. Declarative sentences
Can be either positive or negative. A declarative sentences ends with a period (.).
i.e., 1. I'll meet you at the train station. 2. The sun rises in the East. 3. He doesn't get up early.
2) The interrogative sentence
The interrogative asks a question. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb precedes the
subject which is then followed by the main verb (i.e., Are you coming ....?). The interrogative
form ends with a question mark (?).
i.e. 1. How long have you lived in France? 2. When does the bus leave?

3) The imperative sentence.

The imperative commands (or sometimes requests). The imperative takes no subject as 'you' is
the implied subject. The imperative form ends with either a period (.) or an exclamation point (!).
i.e., 1. Open the door. 2. Finish your homework 3. Pick up that mess.
4) The exclamatory sentence
The exclamatory form emphasizes a statement (either declarative or imperative) with an
exclamation point (!). i.e. 1. Hurry up! 2. That sounds fantastic! 3. I can't believe you said that!
SENTENCE TYPES
• Simple. • Compound. • Complex. •
Simple Sentences
Simple sentences contain no conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, etc.).
1. Aslam ate his dinner quickly. 2. Peter and Sue visited the museum last Saturday.
3. Are you coming to the party?
Compound Sentences
Compound sentences contain two statements that are connected by a conjunction (i.e. and, but,or, etc.).
Indefendent clause pluse coordinate,conjunction pluse indefendent clause
1. I wanted to come, but it was late. 2. I went shopping, and my wife went to her classes.
3. The company had an excellent year, so they gave everyone a bonus.
Complex Sentences
Complex sentences contain a dependent clause and at least one independent clause. The two clauses are
connected by a subordinator (i.e, which, who, although, despite, if, since, etc.).

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Indefendent clause pluse conjunction pluse defendent clause or clausese
1. My brother, who was late for class, arrived shortly after the bell rang.
2. That's the man who bought our house.
3. Although it was difficult, the class passed the test with excellent marks.
Compound - Complex Sentences
Compound - complex sentences contain at least one dependent clause and more than one independent
clause. The clauses are connected by both conjunctions (i.e., but, so, and, etc.) and subordinators (i.e.,
who, because, although, etc.
1. John, who briefly visited last month, won the prize, and he took a short vacation.
2. Jack forgot his friend's birthday, so he sent him a card when he finally remembered.

Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences express conditions that are required to be followed in order to achieve the desired
end results. The Cambridge Dictionary defines a conditional sentence as “a sentence, often starting with
“if” or “unless”, in which one half expresses something which depends on the other half”, and according
to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a conditional is defined as “the mood or form that is used to say that
something is true or happens only if something else is true or happens”.
In the English language, conditional sentences are divided into four main types namely,
a. Zero Conditional [Link] Conditional Sentences, [Link] Conditional Sentences
d. Third Conditional Sentences
a. Zero Conditional Sentences
A zero conditional sentence is one which refers to a general truth. It denotes situations in which a
particular thing or action always results in the other. In zero conditional sentences, both the dependent
clause and the independent clause are written in the simple present tense. This is mainly due to the fact
that the outcomes are guaranteed.
When you smoke, your lungs are affected.
The lawn gets wet when it rains.
Babies cry when they are hungry and sick.
b. First Conditional Sentences
First conditional sentences are those sentences that express a situation in which the end result would be
the one to most likely happen. This, however, is not the guaranteed outcome.
The tense used in a first conditional sentence is as follows:
Simple present tense in the ‘if clause’ – the dependent clause.
Simple future tense in the independent clause which expresses the outcome that is most likely to happen
in the future as a result of the other action expressed in the ‘if clause’.
If you talk to someone about how you feel, you will feel better.
If you focus, you will achieve your goal.
If you take some medicines, you will feel better.
If you go out now, you will get wet in the rain.
If you like animated movies, you will like Inside out.
c. Second Conditional Sentences
Second conditional sentences are sentences in which hypothetical situations or unrealistic events that are
not likely to ever happen are mentioned. In this type of conditional sentences, the tense used would be
– simple past tense for the ‘if clause’ and use of a modal auxiliary along with a main verb in the

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

independent clause. The common modal auxiliaries used in second conditional sentences include might,
would, could, should, etc.
If I had a time travel machine, I could go back to my past and change a few things.
If I won the lottery, I would buy all the famous super cars.
If I had a choice, I would never marry at all.
d. Third Conditional Sentences
Third conditional sentences express alternate circumstances in the present. This is used to indicate that the
outcome would have been different if there was a change in the past event mentioned in the dependent
clause. The tense rules to be followed in third conditional sentences are – past perfect tense in the ‘if
clause’ (the dependent clause) and modal auxiliary verb (would, should, could, etc.) + have + past
participle in the independent clause.
If I had been there, I would have surely helped you in one way or another.
If they had taken him to hospital sooner, he would not have died.
If you had not fought with me, everything would have been fine.
If the university had informed us earlier, we could have finished it in time.

Expressing past regrets using wish plus the past perfect – Past, Present and Future
We often use the verb 'wish' to express strong desires. We always wish for something to be different than
it is (or was) or wish for something new or different to happen in the future. Our wishes for the present
are for things that are unlikely or impossible. Our wishes for the past are always impossible, because the
past cannot be changed.
Wishes about the present and future
We cannot use a present tense verb with 'I wish'. Wishes for the present / future use a past tense verb or a
modal verb with an infinitive. When we make a wish, we change the form of the verb that we are using
from positive to negative, or vice versa.
Example:
I am poor. I don't like this and I want to be rich. To express this as a wish we can say:
"I wish I wasn't poor." or we can change the adjective and say: "I wish I was rich."
Wishes about states
If we make a wish about possessions or to change a state, we use 'wish' and the original verb in a past
form.
I wish I was rich! (I am not rich! This is a wish relating to a present state, not an action)
I wish I wasn't here! (I am here! A wish relating to a state, not an action)
I wish I knew what to do! (I don't know what to do! A wish relating to a state, not an action)
I wish I had her phone number! (I don't have her number! A wish about possession, not an action)
I wish I lived in America! (I don't live there! A wish relating to a state, not an action)
I wish I didn't smoke. (I smoke! A wish relating to a state – being a person who smokes)
Wishes – relating to actions
If our wishes relate to actions that are performed by other people, we use wish with 'would' and a verb
infinitive.
If the wish is for an action that we wish for ourselves, we use 'could' instead of 'would'.
If we wish for opportunity, ability, capability or permission, we use 'could' and a verb infinitive.
I wish he would stop talking! (He never stops talking! A wish relating to an action)
I wish it would stop raining! (It is raining and it won't stop!)
I wish he wouldn't leave his clothes on the floor! (He does leave his clothes on the floor)

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

I wish I could swim. (I can't swim. A wish relating to ability)
I wish I could remember her name! (I can't remember. A wish relating to ability)
I wish I didn't have to go to work today. (I must work. A wish relating to permission/ability etc)
To talk about repeated actions which we do not like, we use 'keep + ...ing' to emphasise the repeated
or continual nature of the action:
I wish she wouldn't keep talking about her children! (She constantly talks about her children)
I wish he wouldn't keep parking his car outside my house, it's inconsiderate. (He always does this)
I wish she wouldn't keep shouting. I'm not deaf! (She always shouts.) (We can also use 'always + verb
infinitive' for a similar meaning:)
I wish she wouldn't always shout. I'm not deaf.
Wishes about the past
We all make mistakes. We all have regrets. Things happen that are not perfect. We often talk about these
things and wish for things to be different. When we speak about things that DID NOT happen in the past,
but which we wish were true, we use this form:
'I wish' + 'subject' + 'had' + 'verb past participle'.
I went to University in Oxford, but now I regret it. Cambridge is a better University.
We can say: "I wish I had gone to Cambridge University."
Manchester United lost to Barcelona in the Champions League. I wanted Manchester to win.
We can say: "I wish Manchester had beaten Barcelona."
If we wish about past possessions or past ability/capability/permission/opportunity etc, we use this
form: 'I wish' with 'subject + could + have + past participle (present perfect)'.
I didn't go to the cinema with you because I was working. I was unable to go.
We can say: "I wish I could have gone to the cinema with you."
I wanted to live in America when I was a boy, but my parents chose to live in the UK.
We can say: "I wish I could have lived in America." ('I wish I had lived in the USA' is also correct, but
gives less information.)
Sometimes, the same wish can be expressed both ways, depending on the reasons:
"I wish I had gone to Cambridge University." (I decided to go to Oxford) or
"I wish I could have gone to Cambridge University." (They refused to accept me, so I was unable)
"I wish I had gone to the cinema with you last night." (It was a mistake, which I regret.) or
"I wish I could have gone to the cinema with you last night." (I was working so I was unable to go.)
When we speak about states or things that DID happen in the past, but which we wish were not true, we
use this form:
'I wish' with 'subject + had + not + verb past participle (negative past perfect)'.
I went to University in Oxford, but now I regret it. Cambridge is a better University.
We can say: "I wish I hadn't gone to Oxford University."
Manchester United lost against Barcelona in the Champions League. I wanted Manchester to win.
We can say: "I wish Manchester hadn't lost to Barcelona."
I forgot to write to her. Now she is unhappy with me.
We can say: "I wish I hadn't forgotten to write to her."
I resigned from my job, but now I am unemployed. It was a mistake.
We can say: "I wish I hadn't resigned from my job."
I was tired when I met Susan, so I didn't talk a lot. Now she thinks I'm boring.
We can say: "I wish I hadn't been tired when I met Susan."
We do not use 'could' with this negative form.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

Subject-Verb Agreement
The term ‘subject-verb agreement’ refers to the agreement between the subject and the verb. This is
mainly with reference to singular and plural nouns/pronouns that act as subjects. According to the Collins
Dictionary, “concord refers to the way that a word has a form appropriate to the number or gender of the
noun or pronoun it relates to. For example, in ‘She hates it’, there is concord between the singular form of
the verb and the singular pronoun ‘she’.”
The general rule of subject-verb agreement according to Garner’s Modern English Usage is “to use a
plural verb with a plural subject, a singular verb with a singular subject. This rule holds true for most
cases. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Check out the next section to learn how verbs have to be
conjugated in order to agree with the subject.
Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement
The concept of subject-verb concord matters the most when using the present tenses. The simple
past and simple future tenses have the same verbs used irrespective of the subject in the sentence.
Knowing and following the rules of subject-verb agreement will help you write error-free sentences. Go
through the following rules and also go through the examples to understand how each rule is applied.
Rule 1
The first rule is what we have already discussed – the use of a singular verb with a singular subject and a
plural verb with a plural subject. The subject can be a noun, a pronoun or even a noun phrase. If it is a
pronoun, the subject-verb agreement is done with reference to the person of the pronoun.
For example:
 Rachel spends her free time listening to music. (Singular subject with singular verb)
 Blaine and Kurt play the piano. (Plural subject with plural verb)
 She likes to have a dessert after every meal. (Third person singular pronoun with singular subject)
Rule 2
When using the ‘be’ form of verbs, there is an exception. In this case, the verb is used according to the
number and person of the subject. Check out the following table to see how it works with different
pronouns.
Person Pronoun Verb Example

First person singular I am I am confident.

First person plural We are We are confident.

Second person singular/plural You are You are confident.

Third person singular He is He is confident.

She is She is confident.

It is It is amazing.

Third person plural They are They are confident.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

Furthermore, when used with other nouns and noun phrases, the rule applies. The same works even with
simple past, present continuous and past continuous tenses when the ‘be’ form of verbs are used as the
principal verb/helping verb. Check out the following examples to understand.
 Santana is a singer.
 The girls are waiting for you.
 We were happy with the review of our first movie.
 Michael Jackson’s songs are still enjoyed by millions.
 I was reading the latest book by Rudyard Kipling.
Rule 3
The use of ‘have’ and ‘has’ in the present perfect tense, the present perfect continuous tense and as a main
verb is also dependent on the subject. All singular subjects use ‘has’ and all plural subjects use ‘have’.
For example:
 I have a younger brother.
 You have taken the wrong cut.
 Swetha has a pet dog.
 William Shakespeare has written around 37 plays.
 Finn has been waiting to talk to you about the test results.
Rule 4
Compound subjects combined using the conjunction ‘and’ take a plural verb.
For example:
 Krish and Radha are on their way to the airport.
 Caren, Sheela and Akash have completed their assessments.
Rule 5
When more than one noun is joined by the conjunction ‘or’, the subject is considered to be singular and a
singular verb is used.
For example:
 Celery or spring onion works fine.
 Your mom or dad has to be here in an hour.
Rule 6
Sentences with pronouns such as anybody, anyone, no one, somebody, someone, everybody, everyone,
nothing and nobody are treated as singular subjects and will therefore use a singular verb.
For example:
 Nobody has understood anything.
 Everyone was happy with the outcome.
 Nothing fits me well.
 No one finds the movie interesting.
Rule 7
For sentences using ‘either..or’ and ‘neither..nor’, the verb should agree with the noun or pronoun that
comes just before it.
For example:
 Neither Ricky nor Gina is here yet.
 Either the teacher or the students have to take an initiative to keep the classroom clean.
 Neither the children nor their parents are aware of the consequences.
Rule 8 When sentences have subjects like police, news, scissors, mathematics, etc. (nouns that are plural
by default), the verb used should be plural.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

For example:
 The news of demonetisation shocks the entire nation.
 The police have been looking for the culprits.
Rule 9
When a negative sentence is written, the ‘do’ verb is used and it has to match the subject.
For example:
 The children do not like working out trigonometry problems.
 My father does not work at the bank anymore.
Rule 10
Interrogative sentences also take the help of the ‘do’ verb. As far as the subject-verb agreement of
interrogative sentences is concerned, the first verb (‘be’ verb or ‘do’ verb) has to be aligned with the
subject of the sentence.
For example:
 Do you read thriller novels?
 Doesn’t she know you already?
 Is Tina happy with the new house?
 Were you looking for me?
 Has Sharon submitted her final project yet?
Rule 11
When you have sentences that begin with ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘those’, ‘these’, etc., always
remember that the subject follows the verb and therefore the verb has to be conjugated with reference to
the subject.
For example:
 Here is your book.
 There lies your shirt.
 That was a great movie.
 There have been many changes in the timetable.
Rule 12
Abstract nouns and uncountable nouns are considered as singular subjects, so make sure you use a
singular verb along with it.
For example:
 Honesty is the best policy.
 Love makes people do crazy things.
 Good friendship keeps your mind and body healthy.
Rule 13
When the subject refers to a period of time, distance or a sum of money, use a singular verb.
For example:
 1267 kilometres is too long for us to travel in half a day.
 10 years is not considered optimum to go on the water slide.
 Don’t you think 1000 rupees is a little too much for a portrait?
Rule 14
The next rule is based on the use of collective nouns as subjects. Remember that when you have a
collective noun as the subject of the sentence, the verb can be singular or plural based on the sentence and
the context.
For example:

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

  My family is settled in Australia.
 All groups of participants have arrived.
Rule 15
In sentences that have adjectives such as ‘all’, ‘a lot of’, ‘lots of’ or ‘some’ are used along with nouns to
form a phrase that acts as the subject of the sentence, the verb is used according to the noun just before it.
For example:
 All of my dresses have become tight.
 A lot of food is left out.
 Some of the books are torn and damaged.
Rule 16
When a sentence begins with ‘each’ or ‘every’ as the subject, it is considered singular and so the verb has
to be singular too.
For example:
 Each student has been asked to provide a consent letter.
 Every teacher, parent and student is expected to work together.
Rule 17
When you are using a sentence to express a wish or a sentence expressing a request, verbs are used a little
differently from other sentences.
For example:
 I wish I were a bird.
 If you were here, I would not be sad.
 We request that everyone make their choices now.
Furthermore, go through the article on tenses to learn how verbs are conjugated according to the tense of
the sentence.
Tag Questions
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. We use
tag questions to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: "Is that right?" or "Do you agree?" They
are very common in English.
The basic structure of a tag question is:
positive statement negative tag
Snow is white, isn't it?
negative statement positive tag
You don't like me, do you?
Notice that the tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb when be) from the statement and changes it to
negative or positive.
Positive Statement Tag Questions
Look at these examples with positive statements. You will see that most of the time, the auxiliary verb
from the positive statement is repeated in the tag and changed to negative.
(+) positive statement (-) negative tag
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary not personal pronoun same as subject

You are coming, are n't you?

We have finished, have n't we?

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You do like coffee, do n't you?

You like coffee, do n't you?

They will help, wo n't they?

I can come, can 't I?

We must go, must n't we?

He should try harder, should n't he?

You are English, are n't you?

John was there, was n't he?

Notice:
 the use of do in the two coffee questions. Remember that in Present Simple, do is optional in
positive statements (You like coffee/You do like coffee). But the do must appear in the tag. The
same applies to Past Simple did.
 in last two questions, no auxiliary for main verb be in Present Simple and Past Simple. The tag
repeats the main verb.
Negative Statement Tag Questions
Look at these examples with negative statements. Notice that the negative verb in the original statement
is changed to positive in the tag.
(-) negative statement (+) positive tag
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary personal pronoun same as subject

It is n't raining, is it?

We have never seen that, have we?

You do n't like coffee, do you?

They will not help, will they?

They wo n't report us, will they?

I can never do it right, can I?

We must n't tell her, must we?

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

He should n't drive so fast, should he?

You wo n't be late, will you?

You are n't English, are you?

John was not there, was he?

Notice:
 won't is the contracted form of will not
 the tag repeats the auxiliary verb, not the main verb. Except, of course, for the verb be in Present
Simple and Past Simple.
Answering Tag Questions
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and
reverse it (They don't live here, do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In
some languages, an opposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes
answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not
(necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:
In some languages, people answer a question like "Snow isn't black, is it?" with "Yes" (meaning "Yes, I
agree with you"). This is the wrong answer in English!
Tag Question Special Cases
Negative adverbs
The adverbs never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely have a negative sense. Even though they
may be in a positive statement, the feeling of the statement is negative. We treat statements with these
words like negative statements, so the question tag is normally positive. Look at these examples:
He never came again, did he?
She can rarely come these days, can she?
You would scarcely expect her to know that, would you?
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation,
it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn't
require a real answer:
You don't know where my wallet is, do you? / rising real question
It's a beautiful view, isn't it? \ falling not a real question
Imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an
imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won't for invitations. We use can, can't, will,
would for orders.
imperative + question tag notes

Take a seat, won't you? polite invitation

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Help me, can you? quite friendly

Help me, can't you? quite friendly (some irritation?)

Close the door, would you? quite polite

Do it now, will you. less polite

Don't forget, will you. with negative imperatives only will is possible

Same-way tag questions

Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometimes
possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure. We use same-way tag questions to
express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.
Look at these positive-positive tag questions:
 So you think that's funny, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
 So you don't like my looks, don't you? (British English)
Asking for information or help
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement.
This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For example, instead of saying "Where is the
police station?" (not very polite), or "Do you know where the police station is?" (slightly more polite), we
could say: "You wouldn't know where the police station is, would you?"
Some more special cases
example notes

I am right, aren't I? aren't I (not amn't I)

You have to go, don't you? you (do) have to go...

I have been answering, haven't I? use first auxiliary

Nothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements

Let's go, shall we? let's = let us

He'd better do it, hadn't he? he had better (no auxiliary)

Mixed Examples of Tag Questions

Here is a list of examples of tag questions in different contexts. Notice that some are "normal" and others
seem to break all the rules:
 But you don't really love her, do you?
 This'll work, won't it?
 Oh you think so, do you?

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

  Well, I couldn't help it, could I?
 But you'll tell me if she calls, won't you?
 We'd never have known, would we?
 Oh you do, do you?
 The weather's bad, isn't it?
 You won't be late, will you?
 Nobody knows, do they?
 You never come on time, do you?
 You couldn't help me, could you?
 You think you're clever, do you?
 So you don't think I can do it, don't you? (British English)
 Shut up, will you!
 She can hardly love him after all that, can she?
 Nothing will happen, will it?

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned in a text or
conversation.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns stand in for nouns and noun phrases, and usually refer back in a text or conversation to
them. E.g.
Jane is going to watch the parade tomorrow. She plans to leave at 4 pm.
We are collecting old photographs for our project. They should still be in good condition
When we want to identify the speaker or the person spoken about in grammar, we use first person to mean
the speaker, second person to mean the person who is spoken to, and third person to mean the person who
is spoken about. For example, we talk about ‘first person plural’ or ‘third person singular’.
Personal pronouns may be categorized as follows:
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
Subject Object Subject Object

First I me we us
( person speaking )
Second you you you you
( person spoken to )
Third he, she, it him, her, it they them
( person spoken of )
He refers to a male. She refers to a [Link] refers to a thing or animal.
Positions of Pronouns in Sentences
A pronoun can be the subject of a verb: E.g.I can’t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.
A pronoun can be the object of a verb: E.g. The flowers look beautiful. Sally arranged them just now.A
pronoun can be the object of a preposition:E.g.I’m going to buy some snacks.
REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
These refer to the person or animal that is the subject of the verb.
The following are reflexive pronouns.

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 PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
First myself ourselves
Second yourself yourselves
Third himself, herself, itself themselves

Demonstrative Pronouns
Pronouns in are used to point out the objects to which they refer, and are, therefore, called Demonstrative
Pronouns
These are merely excuses,
Both cars are good; but this is better than that
Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore.
Make haste, that's a good boy. [Here that - one who makes haste.]
My views are quite in accordance with those of the University Commission.
I may have offended, but such was not my intention.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns refer to persons or things in a general way, but do not refer to any person or thing in
particular.
One must not boast of one's own success.
One must use one's best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
None of his poems are well known. None but fools have ever believed it.
[None is a shortened form of not one; yet it is commonly used with plural verbs].
They say that one of the local banks has stopped payment. [They say = it is said by some persons.] All
were drowned. Some are born great. Somebody has stolen my watch.
Nobody was there to rescue the child. Few escaped unhurt.
Did you ask anybody to come? What is everybody's business is nobody's business.
Most of these words may also be used as Adjectives.
I will take you there one day. Any fool can do that. He is a man of few words.
Some milk was spilt.
Distributive Pronouns
Distributive Pronouns refer to persons or things one at a time. For this reason they are always singular and
as such followed by the verb in the singular.
Each of the boys gets a prize. Each took it in turn. Either of these roads leads to the railway station.
Either of you can go. Neither of the accusations is true
Each is used to denote every one of a number of persons or things taken singly.
Either means the one or the other of two. Neither means not the one nor the other of two. It is the negative
of either. Hence either and neither should be used only in speaking of two persons or things. When more
than two are spoken of, any, no one, none should be used.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative Pronoun refers or relates to some noun going before.
I met Aslam who had just returned. I have found the pen which I lost.
Here is the book that you lent me.
The word who is used instead of the noun Aslam It, therefore, does the work of a Pronoun. The word who
joins or connects two statements. It, therefore, does the work of a Conjunction.
The word who, therefore, does double work-the work of a Pronoun and also the work of a Conjunction.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

We might, therefore, call it a Conjunctive Pronoun. It is, however, called a Relative Pronoun because it
refers or relates (Le. carries us back) to some noun going before (here, the noun Aslam), which is called
its Antecedent
The Relative Pronoun who has different forms for Accusative and Genitive. -- Singular and Plural
Nominative -- who Genitive -- whose
Accusative -- whom/who (who replaces whom in informal English.)

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS Use as wh- questions

Similar in form to Relative Pronouns. But they used for asking questions.
Whom do you want? / Who do you want? Whose is this book? Which is the house?
Which do you prefer, tea or coffee? What is the matter? What do you want?
What will all (the neighbours say?
Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking indirect questions.
I asked who was speaking. I do not know who is there. Tell me what you have done.
Who gave you that knife? (Nominative) Whose is this book? (Possessive)
Whom did you see? / Who did you see?, To whom were you speaking? / Who were you speaking to?
(Accusative) What is that? (Nominative)
Nominative: who, Possessive: whose, Accusative: whom/who --Masc. and Fem. Singular and Plural.
Today the accusative who is more usual than whom, especially in spoken English. What and which do not
have different forms for different cases.
Who is used of persons only? Who spoke? (We expect the answer to be the name of a person.)
Who goes there? Who made the top score? Who is knocking at the door? Who says so?
Which is used of both persons and things. It implies selection, that is, it implies a question concerning a
limited number. Which is your friend? Which are your books?
Which is used of both persons and things. It implies selection, that is, it implies a question concerning a
limited number. Which is your friend? Which are your books?

Pronoun Agreement, number: Nouns are singular and plural, and the pronouns that replace them must
also be singular or plural to match. This sounds easy enough, but there are several situations* that can
make this a little more complicated. For instance, two nouns joined by “and” are considered plural and
will be replaced by a plural pronoun such as “they.” However, if the same two nouns are joined by “or,”
the pronoun must only agree with the noun that is closest to it.
Bob and John will take their wives to dinner tonight.
Either Bob or John will take his wife to dinner tonight
*The rules for pronoun agreement in number are the same as those for subject-verb agreement, so
please refer to the subject-verb agreement handout for more information about difficult situations with
pronoun agreement.
Pronoun Agreement, person: In the world of writing, we have three “persons”: The writer (1st
Person), the reader (2nd Person), and the people, places, things, and ideas that make up the world (3rd
Person). If the writer begins in 1st person or 3rd person, he or she should not switch to 2nd person in mid
thought. Remember, anytime you use a form of the pronoun “you,” you are putting your reader in your
I love going to the beach because the sound of the ocean helps you relax. (Incorrect)
I love going to the beach because the sound of the ocean helps me relax. Correct
essay.

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Pronoun Reference: Because a pronoun can replace thousands of nouns, writers must be very certain
that the reader can tell exactly what noun is being replaced. Sometimes the antecedent (noun being
replaced) is not clear, and sometimes it is not present at all.
Bob told John that his wife was getting fat. (Whose wife is getting fat? The use
of “his” is not clear because “his” could be referring to Bob or to John.)
John’s wife is getting fat, and he told Bob.
I hate doing my taxes because every year they take out more money. (Who is
“they”?)
I hate doing my taxes because every year the IRS takes out more money

Pronoun Case:
Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case Reflexive/Intensive Case
I Me My, Mine Myself
You You Your, Yours Yourself, Yourselves
He Him His Himself
She Her Her, Hers Herself
It It Its Itself
We Us Our, Ours Ourselves
They Them Their, Theirs Themselves
Who Whom Whose
Subjective Case: These pronouns are the ones that are used whenever the pronoun is the subject of a
verb.
Compound Subjects: When creating a compound subject, writers sometimes make the following
mistake: “Me and John want a cookie.” This is an error because “me” is an objective pronoun and
cannot “want” anything. Stylistically, the subjective pronoun “I” should always be the last subject in a
compound subject construction, so rather than writing “I and John want a cookie, the sentence should
read “John and I want a cookie.
Comparisons: When comparing two things, writers can sometimes imply the second thing that is being
compared, but if that involves a pronoun, then the writer must follow through with the thought in his or
her own mind to determine if the pronoun is the subject of a verb. For example, “John is smarter than I
am.” This sentence could also be correctly written as follows: “John is smarter than I.” However, to
write “John is smarter than me” is incorrect because “me” cannot be the subject of the verb “am” even
when the verb is implied and not stated.
Objective Case: These are the pronouns that are used whenever the pronoun is the direct or indirect
object of a verb or the object in a phrase.
Compound Objects: Writers are not likely to make the following error: “My mother sent I to the
store,” but they might write “My mother sent John and I to the store.” The second sentence is as
incorrect as the first because “I” can only work as the subject of a verb, and the subject of the verb in the
example sentences is “mother.” Therefore, “My mother sent John and me to the store” is correct.
.

Comparisons: Sometimes comparisons involve objects rather than subjects, and the writer must make
sure to use the objective case if a pronoun is one of the objects. For example, “My mother likes my
brother more than me” means that of the two siblings, the brother is liked more than the writer. In
contrast, “My mother likes my brother more than I” means that the mother likes the brother more than
the writer likes the brother.
Possessive Case: The biggest error writers make with the possessive case is confusing contractions

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with possessive pronouns. For example, the contraction “it’s” means “it is” whereas the pronoun “its”
is the possessive case of “it.” Thus, the cat licks its paw because it’s (it is) sore. Another common error
is with their and they’re. “They’re” is the contraction for “they are.” Thus, the children love their cat,
and they’re (they are) always arguing over who gets to pet her.
Reflexive/Intensive Case: These pronouns are used only to reflect or intensify the action of the subject
of a clause. For example, “John went to the store by himself,” or “John himself created this problem.”
The biggest mistake writers make with these words is using a non-standard or incorrect form of the
words such as “hisself,” “theirself,” or “theirselves.” The words in the chart on page one are the only
correct forms of these words
THE ADJECTIVE
The adjective (Latin adjectivum = added to) describes, modifies, alters, specifies our understanding of a
noun or pronoun. Brilliant birds flew by. (“Brilliant” describes and specifies the birds.) The children are
sad. (“Sad” describes the children.) The hippopotami, which were bathing in the brook, drowned. (The
clause describes the hippopotami and is an adjective clause.) Potatoes from Long Island taste best. (The
phrase describes the potatoes and is an adjective phrase.) Running up the stairs, Veronica tripped, fell
down, broke her toe, and died. (The phrase describes Veronica and is an adjective phrase.)
To identify the adjective, take a noun or pronoun and ask, “What kind?” and the answer, be it a word,
phrase, or clause, is an adjective. The woman with the purple snood won the prize. (The underlined
phrase describes the noun “man” and answers the question, “What kind of man?”)
Those by the window are the records which I need. “By the window” answers the question, “What kind
of those?” and “which I need” answers the question, “What kind of records?”)
The articles (a, an, the) are always adjectives.
In English, the normal position of the adjective is before the noun it modifies: The broken window let in
the cold air. Occasionally, to draw attention to the adjective, it may be misplaced after the noun, since
anything out of its ordinary place is noticed and stressed: The window, broken, let in the cold air.

Kinds of Adjectives
1. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as,
Peshawar is a large city. He is an honest man. The foolish old crow tried to sing.
(Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., Pakistani wood, Turkish tobacco, Peshawari tea, etc.) are
sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives of Quality) language.
Adjectives of Quality answer the question: Of what kind?
2. Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant as,
I ate some rice. He showed much patience. He has little intelligence.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?
3. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in
what order a person or thing stands; as,
The hand has five fingers. Few cats like cold water. There are no pictures in this book.
I have taught you many things. All men must die. Here are some ripe mangoes.
4. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds:-
a. Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as, One, two, three, etc. –
These are called Cardinals. First, second, third, etc. -- These are called Ordinals.
[A Cardinal denotes how many, and an Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be seen that Ordinals
really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.

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b. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as, All, no; many, few; some,
any; certain, several, sundry.
c. Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each one of a number; as.,
Each boy must take his turn. Every word of it is false. Either pen will do.
On either side is a narrow lane. Neither accusation is true.
The same Adjective may be classed as of Quantity or Number, according to its use.
Adjectives of Quantity -- Adjectives of Number
I ate some rice. -- Some boys are clever. He has lost all his wealth. -- All men must die.
5. Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,
This boy is stronger than Aslam. That boy is industrious. These mangoes are sour.
Those rascals must be punished. Don't be in such a hurry. I hate such things.
Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question: Which?
6. Interrogative Adjectives What, which and whose, when they are used with nouns to ask questions, are
Interrogative Adjectives as, what manner of man is he? Which way shall we go?
Whose book is this?
How do you use Adjectives?
Use two or more adjectives to describe a noun in greater detail.
E.g. small grey cat, desperate, brazen thief
Show comparison and contrast using parallel phrases such as ‘not only … but also’, ‘as … as’.
E.g. Beatrice is not only intelligent, but also hardworking. Tom is as strong as his father.
Use adjectives to express opinions:
E.g. What a boring play! The director was unimaginative. Adjectives describe many different things,
such as size, shape, colour, quality, origin or nationality, material, and the speaker’s or writer’s opinion.
Observation/Opinion : lovely, boring,
beautiful, fascinating
Size : petite, gigantic, high,
long
Shape : round, square, oval,
circular
Age : old, new, young
Colour : red, blue, green,
yellow
Nationality/Origin : Chinese, American,
British, pakistani
Material : gold, silver, silk,
linen
E.g. small old wooden box beautiful colourful Turkish rug
Verb
The verb (Latin verbum = word) is the only essential word in the sentence.
If your sentence lacks a verb, the sentence is not a sentence. The verb expresses action or state of being.
Action Verbs: express a physical, mental,. Emotional, or spiritual action.
Peter bent the rod. We hope for better weather. We wish you a happy Eid!
The students reflected on the lecture. Tomato paste ruins oatmeal sandwiches.
Copulative Verbs (Linking or State of Being Verbs) connect a subject to a
noun or adjective or pronoun and show the state of the subject’s existence:

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 Wanda was a flowerpot in the kindergarten play. The guppy seemed angry.
Coca-Cola tastes better in six-ounce glass bottles. Billy felt queasy after eating sixty-two hot dogs at
Nathan’s Contest.
Common Linking Verbs: be, seem, prove, appear, look, taste, sound, feel,, become (when these verbs
show no action)
He tasted the tripe. (Here, “tasted” is an action verb.)
The tripe tasted awful. (Here “tasted” is a copulative verb, expressing the state of the tripe,)
Modal auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): are used with action or copulative verbs to form some tenses,
voices, or moods.
Common Modal Auxiliaries:
be, do, have, can, may, will,shall, must,ought, might,could, should, would.
You may submit your essay tomorrow. I should have met you at the station.
Transitive and Intransitive Verb
Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which passes over from the doer or Subject to an object,
while an Intransitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which does not pass over to an object, or which
expresses a state or being ; as, He ran a long distance. (Action)
The baby sleeps. (State) There is a flaw in this diamond. (Being)
Intransitive Verbs expressing being take the same cases after them as before them. Most Transitive Verbs
take a single object. But such Transitive Verbs as give, ask, offer, promise, tell, etc., take two objects after
them - an Indirect Object which denotes the person to whom something is given or for whom something
is done, and a Direct Object which is usually the name of something, as,
His father gave him (Indirect) a watch (Direct).
He told me (Indirect) a secret (Direct).
Most verbs can be used both as Transitive and as Intransitive verbs. It is, therefore, better to say that a
verb is used transitively or intransitively rather than that it is Transitive or Intransitive.
Used Transitively The ants fought the wasps. The shot sank the ship. Ring the bell, Rama.
The driver stopped the train. He spoke the truth. The horse kicked the man.
I feel a severe pain in my head.
Used Intransitively Some ants fight very fiercely. The ship sank rapidly. The bell rang loudly.
The train stopped suddenly. He spoke haughtily. This horse never kicks. How do you feel?
Note.-Some Verbs, e.g., come, go, fall, die, sleep, lie, denote actions which cannot be done to anything;
they can, therefore, never be used transitively

AUXILIARIES AND MODALS

The verbs be (am, is, was, etc), have and do, when used with ordinary verbs to make tenses, passive
forms, questions and negatives, are called auxiliary verbs or auxiliaries. (Auxiliary = helping)
The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought are called modal verbs or
modals. They are used before ordinary verbs and express meanings such as permission, possibility,
certainty and necessity. Need and dare can sometimes be used like modal verbs.
Modals are often included in the group of auxiliaries. In some grammars they are called “modal
auxiliaries”.
The modals can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must and ought are termed Defective
Verbs, because some parts are wanting in them. They have no -s in the third person singular; they have no
infinitve and ing forms.
Be The auxiliary be is used

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In the formation of the continuous tenses; as, He is working. I was writing.
In the formation of the passive; as, The gate was opened.
Be followed by the infinitive is used
(1) To indicate a plan, arrangement, or agreement; as,
I am to sec him tomorrow. We are to be married next month.
(2) To denote command; as,
You are to write your name at the top of each sheet of paper.
Mother says you are to go to market at once.
Be is used in the past tense with the perfect infinitive to indicate an arrangement that was made but not
carried out; as,
They were to have been married last month but had to postpone the marriage until June.
Have
The auxiliary have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses; as, He has worked. He has been working.
Have to is used with the infinitive to indicate obligation; as, I have to be there by five o'clock. He has to
move the furniture himself.
The past form had to is used to express obligation in the past.
I had to be there by five o'[Link] had to move the furniture himself.
In negatives and questions, have to and had to are used with do, does, did; as,
They have to go -- They don't have to go. Do they have to go? He has to go. -- He doesn't have to go.
Does he have to go? He had to go. -- He didn't have to go. Did he have to go?
Do The auxiliary do is used
To form the negative and interrogative of the simple present and simple past tenses of ordinary verbs; as,
He dosen't work. He didn’t work. Does he work? Did he work?
To avoid repetition of a previous ordinary verb; as, Do you know him? Yes, I do.
She sings well. Yes, she does.
Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative nature of a statement; as,
You do look pale. I told him not to go, but he did go.
In the imperative, do makes a request or invitation more persuasive; as, Do be quiet, Oh, do come! It's
going to be such fun. In such cases do is strongly stressed.
Can, Could, May, Might Can usually expresses ability or capacity; as, I can swim across the river.
He can work this [Link] you lift this box?
Can and may are used to express permission. May is rather formal.
You can/may go now. Can/May I borrow your umbrella?
May is used to express possibility in affirmative sentences. Can is used in the corresponding interrogative
and negative sentences.
It may rain tomorrow. He may be at [Link] this be true? It cannot be true.
In very formal English, may is used to express a wish; as, May you live happily and long !
May success attend you !
Could and might are used as the past equivalents of can and may; as,
I could swim across the river when I was young. (Ability)
He said 1 might/could go. (Permission)
I thought he might be at home. (Possibility)
She wondered whether it could be true. (Possibility)
Shall, Should, Will, Would Shall is used in the first person and will in all persons to express pure
future. Today I/we shall is less common than I/we will.

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I shall/will be twenty-five next birthday.
We will need the money on 15th.
When shall we see you again?
In present-day English, however, there is a growing tendency to use will in all persons.
Shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons to express a command, a promise, or threat; as,
He shall not enter my house again. (Command)
You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise)
You shall be punished for this. (Threat)
Must, Ought to Must is used to express necessity or obligation.
You must improve your spelling. We must get up early.
Must refers to the present or the near future. To talk about the past we use had to (the past form of have
to); must has no past form. Yesterday we had to get up early.
Ought (to) expresses moral obligation or desirability; as, we ought to love our neighbours.
We ought to help him. You ought to know better.
Ought (to) can also be used to express probability.
Prices ought to come down soon. This book ought to be very useful.
Used (to), Need, Dare The auxiliary used (to) expresses a discontinued habit.
There used to be a house there. I used to live there when I was a boy.
Strictly speaking, used (to) is an auxiliary verb. In colloquial English, however, 'Did you use to' and 'did
not use to' usually replace 'Used to' and 'Used not to'.
The auxiliary need, denoting necessity or obligation, can be conjugated with or without do. When
conjugated without do, it has no -s and -ed forms and is used with an infinitive without to only in negative
and interrogative sentences and in sentences that contain semi-negative words like 'scarcely' and 'hardly'.
He need not go. (= It is not nescessary for him to go) Need I write to him?
I need hardly take his help.
When conjugated with do, need has the usual forms needs, needed and is used with a to-infinitive. It is
commonly used in negatives and questions; it sometimes occurs in the affirmative also. Do you need to go
now? J don't need to meet him. One needs to be careful.

Punctuation
There was no punctuation in any languages of ancient times. With the advancement of civilization,
punctuation was introduced in the written form of the language to help a reader distinguish words and
ideas from each other and to mirror the natural rhythms of the spoken language. This article will cover
proper usage of some of the basic punctuations.
Period (.)
The period is also called full stop in England. A period declares the end of a sentence. It also indicates the
separation of sentences so that the readers cannot mix up different sentences. A period is used at the end
of a sentence which is complete and not a question or an exclamatory sentence.
Example:
Alex was a little boy when he first saw a person dying. He was so shocked and panicked that he could not
sleep for several days. He still fears the sight of someone’s death.
The period is also used in abbreviations.
Example: Saint = St.
Exempli gratia = e.g.
Nota bene = N.B.

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Note of Interrogation (Question Mark) (?)
The note of interrogation is used to complete sentences that form a direct question. Indirect questions are
regarded as statements, and they take periods, not question marks.
Example: Have you had your breakfast?
Where are you going?
I don’t know where he is going. (A statement, not a direct question)
Do you know he was watching TV all day long while I was cleaning the house for the party that we want
to throw on this weekend? (It’s a long sentence, yet it is a direct question.)
Did you once think about your family? Your career? Your future? Your life? (Series of questions using
the same subject and verb)

Note of Exclamation (Exclamation mark/point) (!)

The note of exclamation indicates excitement, either positive or negative. It can also be used for giving
additional emphasis to sentences, phrases, or single words, and especially to commands and interjections.
Example: Wait! Don’t take another step!
I can’t believe she could say that!
What a gorgeous house!
Note: It is best to avoid using a note of exclamation whenever the excitement can be described in words.
You should be meticulous in using this punctuation in any form of writing.

Comma (,)
The comma is the most useful and common punctuation mark in English. It has many important roles in
making a written form of English easy to read.
Commas usually add breathing scope for the readers in sentences, so that their thoughts cannot get all
jumbled up. A comma has many uses.
i. Comma between Independent Clauses
Usually, a comma separates two independent clauses when they are connected by certain coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, or for). However, if the clauses are very short, no comma is needed.
Example:
They finished dinner in pin-drop silence, but Alex knew that he would have to apologize.
I wanted to watch a movie after dinner, but I could not tell her as I was confused about her reactions.
We had dinner and then I watched a movie. (No comma is needed between these clauses)
ii. Comma after Introductory Clauses, Phrases, and Expression
Commas are used not only between independent clauses but also after introductory clauses and phrases.
Some expressions and connectors which are placed at the beginning of a sentence also require a comma
after them.
Example:
If you take off your jacket, you’ll catch a cold. (If the subordinators are used at the beginning of the
sentences, the comma marks the separation of the two clauses)
Being insulted, the piper went to the hill. (Participial phrases are always separated from the clauses by
commas.)
Before start riding it, you should read the instructions.
When you came here, Alex was the general manager.
Well, I cannot play in the next match.

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However, Alex will play in the next match.
In winter we usually stay at home most of the time. (Short phrases like “in winter” don’t need commas.)
Note: A good way to clear the confusion about commas is to read the sentence aloud to make sure
whether there is enough pause taken or not for using a comma.
iii. Series Comma
Commas are used to separate multiple items of the same category in a series. These items can be a series
of words, phrases, or clauses.
Example:
We brought pizzas, burgers, chocolate, and a chocolate cake on tour.
The batsman set up his pads, put on his helmet, and played a good knock. (verb phrases)
He is a player, a singer, an actor, and a director.
iv. Comma before Tag Question
Commas are used before a tag question which is usually a reassuring statement of a sentence’s overall
idea.
They’re ready to go, aren’t they?
They’ll never do it, will they?
He loves you, doesn’t he?
v. Comma in Direct Address
Commas are used in vocative uses. Calling someone by name or directly referring to them requires
separation by commas.
Example:
Hey, Joe, what are you doing?
Listen, Lee, you have to bowl well today.
You know, kid, when I was your age, I used to go out a lot.
vi. Comma for Adding Nonessential Ideas and Nonrestrictive Clauses
Commas can be used to add nonessential ideas or facts in the form of words, phrases, or clauses into a
sentence. Usually removing these ideas from sentences does not affect the grammatical accuracy of the
sentences.
Example:
There’s a palace in London, just across the river, where I visited last week.
The new player, you know him, scored a brilliant century.
I suggest if that’s okay, that you let him go.
vii. Commas in Names and Dates
Commas are used to separate names of places and dates.
Example:
Jefferson City, Missouri, is one of the biggest cities in the world.
Brisbane, Queensland, is a big city.
They were married April 05, 2013, in Melbourne. (No comma is necessary only for month and day – g.,
they were married on April 5 in Melbourne.)
He was born June 24, 1993, in London.
viii. Commas in Dialog
Commas are used in the dialog to set off the indirect speech from the direct speech.
Example: I told him, “Don’t go there!”
“When we were going there,” she said, “we saw thousands of palm trees.”
“Please, give me that ball”, said the boy.

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Common Mistakes with Commas
1. Commas do not separate two verbs or verb phrases joined by a coordinator.
Incorrect: I cleaned, and painted the box.
Correct: I cleaned and painted the box.
2. Commas do not separate two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses which are joined by a conjunction.
Incorrect: My coach, and our board president both sent letters.
Correct: My coach and our board president both sent letters.
3. Subordinate clauses do not need commas when they are joined by a conjunction between them.
Incorrect: I’ll be late if you don’t let me go now.
Correct: I’ll be late if you don’t let me go now. (If you don’t let me go now, I’ll be late.)

Colon (:)
Colons are the least used punctuation mark. The usage of colons is limited. Yet, if you know how to use
them, you will be able to use them in your writing.
i. Colons are used in the salutations of formal letters.
Example:
Dear Sir:
To whom it may concern:
To all members:
ii. Colons sometimes introduce a series/list to describe some new information after a complete sentence.
Example:
Incorrect: The fruit seller had: bananas, apples, and oranges.
Correct: The fruit seller had three kinds of fruit: bananas, apples, and oranges.
iii. A colon is also used to connect two independent clauses where the first one explains the second
clause or logically follows it. The first word after a colon usually is not capitalized unless the colon
introduces a series of new sentences or independent clauses.
Example:
He was just thinking only one thing: what was his dog doing then?
I knew the clue: you just had to read it in the mirror.
iv. Colons are used for expressing TIME in figures.
Example:
Semicolon (;)
Semicolons are almost like periods, but they connect two independent clauses or sentences together
instead of using a coordinating conjunction. Semicolons between the two clauses or sentences indicate
that the clauses are closely related. Semicolons can be replaced by the coordinating conjunctions.
Example: We do not need a car now; we want to sell it. (This semicolon could be replaced by ‘and’.
Common transitional expressions such as therefore, for instance, namely, indeed, additionally, further,
moreover, likewise, and finally are used after a semicolon to start a new clause.
Example:
We used to love hunting; however, it is not legal
He does not like me; likewise, I do not like him.
It’s too cold out here; indeed, it’s winter.
Hyphen (-)
Hyphens combine words together to make Compound Nouns/Adjectives. Hyphens are also used with
some suffixes and prefixes, such as -like, -wise, anti-, and post- to make new adjectives.

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Example: Anti-violent Dog-like Ability-wise Decision-making City-owned
Compound numbers and continuous numbers require hyphen in them. A hyphen is used with compound
numbers from 21 to 99 in words and with fractions which work as adjectives in the sentence. Fractions
which are nouns don’t need hyphens.
Example:
Sixty-five
Twenty-five
Their age is 23-25.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Three-fifths full a glass
Dash (–)
A dash hints a brief break in thought or helps to add information to a sentence. A dash has no space before
or after it.
Example:
The man was running around the building—I couldn’t see his face—and disappeared down the alley.
This house—and every house on the street—will be connected by this wire.
Russel Crow—you know him, I think—is coming to our locality.
A dash can replace the conjunctions such as namely, that is, or in other words to add new information or
explanation.
Example:
I was thinking about another road—the one through New York.
There’s only one way not to lose—don’t even participate in the game.
Apostrophe (’)
An apostrophe indicates possession and the exclusion of letters in contractions.
Example:
They’re going to Canada.
I’m not going.
Robert’s watch
Someone's glasses
Trees’ leaves (If there is an ‘s’ before the apostrophe, no ‘s’ is needed for it)
Teams’ scores
Quotation Marks (‘...’/“... ... ..”)
Quotation marks are used for enclosing direct quotations of written or spoken words of others,
or dialog said by characters in fiction.
They are also called quote marks or just quotes for short. The first of the pair is the opening or open
quote. It curves to the right: “ ‘. The second one is the closing or close quote. It curves to the left: ’ ”.
Example:
Have you seen the music video for the song “Despacito”?
“Play with aggression” shouted the coach.
Your exact words were “get out of my room.”
“I'd never dreamed that I'd lose somebody like you”–this line from the song ‘Wicked Games’ always
makes me sad.
Notes:
Commas and periods must always be placed inside the quotation marks, according to most citation
systems.

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Colons, as well as, semicolons, on the other hand, should be placed outside the quotation marks.
Note of interrogation and note of exclamation should be placed inside the quotation marks when they are
part of the quoted elements. Seemingly, when the note of interrogation and exclamation are not a part of
the quoted materials, they are not placed outside the quotation marks.
Parentheses - ()
Parentheses block off materials that interrupt the text to add information.
Example:
The parks (in Boston) are always crowded.
We provide a lot of services. (See our website)
We provide a lot of services (see our website).
Brackets[ ]
Brackets enclose the additional things in the quoted material. These additions are used for clarifications of
the words or phrases of the quoted materials.
Example:
“It [the river] taught me all I ever knew about life.”
“Yeats used to love her [Maude Gonne], and he wrote many poems about her.”
“Every man[sic] must die one day.”
“I told [Spielberg] I wouldn’t do the movie.”
Brackets are also required to block off materials that fall within materials which are already enclosed by
parentheses.
Example:
We provide a lot of services. (See the website [Table 23] for the details)

THE PREPOSITION
The preposition is a word “pre-posed” or places before a noun or pronoun to relate that noun or pronoun
to another word in the sentence.
Many, but not all, prepositions show a relationship of space or time.
Give the crust to the birds. (“To” shows the relationship between “give” and “birds.”)
The girl in the shop is a student. (“In” shows the relationship between “girl” and “shop.”)
The warden fell off his velocipede and into the cement mixer and died.
(“Off” shows the relationship between “warden” and “velocipede”; “into” shows the relationship between
“fell” and “mixer.”)
Common Prepositions:
in of between beside over
around through like near by
within among according to above off
with without after against past
before beyond behind into under
about across during toward at
up down instead of upon for
below except because of since on

Object of the Preposition: The noun or pronoun that the preposition relates to another word in the
sentence is called the object of the preposition and is in the objective case,

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

The pussycat on the sofa swallowed the goldfish. (“Sofa” is the object of the preposition “on.”) Willy
ate the garlic ice cream with a long spoon.
(“Spoon” is the object of the preposition “with.”)
Hansel and Gretel took a crumb cake into the forest with them.
(“forest” is the object of the preposition “into,” and “them” is the object of the preposition “with.”)
Prepositional Phrase:
The prepositional phrase = the preposition + its object + whatever modifies the object:
over the river through the woods to grandmother’s house without doubt
With regard to place, in tends to be used with larger or enclosed areas such as cities, countries and
tunnels, whereas at tends to be used for smaller places, points on a journey, or for activities typically
associated with a place.
E.g. The couple will spend their money in London.
Their train stops at London Paddington. (Point on a journey)
The boys are running around in the library. (Enclosed area)
They boys are at the library, reading. (Reading is associated with libraries)
When talking about heights or levels, you use below, over or under.
E.g. The dog is sleeping under the bed. The plane flew over the hills.
Prepositions of Direction
These prepositions indicate a movement towards a goal.
E.g. Let’s go to the market. The swimmers walked into the sea.
The students eagerly ran towards the campsite.
Prepositions of Time
On is used for days and dates.
E.g. The wedding will be on Saturday. At is used to indicate a specific time.
E.g. I’ll see you at six o’clock.
From ... to and during are used to indicate a period of time.
E.g. The tulip festival is from March to May.
During the school holidays, students engage in community projects.
Other prepositions indicating time are before, until, after, since and by.
E.g. My wife exercises before breakfast. You can visit her after office hours.
You must submit the forms by1st July.
Until now, I’ve always thought that she was a meticulous officer.
She has been making a lot of progress since she started her exercise programme.
Troublesome Prepositions
There are times when we are unsure which preposition we should use.
Beside and Besides
Beside means “next to”. E.g. She sits beside me in the office.
Besides means “other than” or “apart from”.
E.g. Besides enjoying cooking, I like reading a book when I’m free.
Between and Among
Between is used when referring to two people, places or things.
Among is used for three or more people, places or things.
E.g. Divide the cake among the five of you.
The twins shared the sweets between themselves.
‘Differ with’ and ‘Differ from’

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When you differ with someone, you disagree with that person’s opinion or idea.
When you differ from someone, it means that you are unlike that person.
E.g. The form teacher differed with the English teacher on the boy’s abilities.
Mr Chan differed from his predecessor in terms of management style.
Sometimes you may find it hard to decide which preposition you should use with a word.
This is a list for help.
According to, angry with, ashamed of, bored with (something), comment on, disagree with, disappointed
in (something), disappointed with (somebody), disgusted at (something)
Disgusted with (somebody), pride oneself on (something), protest against, rely on, similar to
write about ( something), write to (somebody), Phrasal verbs – verbs used with a preposition or adverb.
Phrasal verbs are never hyphenated. back away – to retreat, back down – retract or withdraw
( from a position or argument ), back out – fail to keep an agreement,
back up – make a copy of computer data
back (someone) up – to support someone
fall apart – break into pieces (literally) or become emotionally disturbed ( figuratively )
fall behind – make little progress
fall out – have a bad relationship with someone
(something) fall through – be unsuccessful
get across – communicate successfully
get ahead – make progress
get along – have a good relationship with someone
get around to – finally manage to do something
get back at – take revenge , put across – communicate
put (someone) down – insult someone
put forward – suggest or nominate
put up – allow someone to stay at your house for a few days
put up with – tolerate

TENSES
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:
Present Tense , Past Tense ,Future Tense
They are further divided into:
Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work done on daily basis.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/e s + object
Example – She writes a letter.
NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object
Example – She does not write a letter.
INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object
Example – Does she write a letter?
INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object
Example – Does she not write a letter?

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE . wh + Does/Do + sub + v1+ object+ (?)
Example – WH does/do she write/writes a letter?
Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time of speaking.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object
Example – she is writing a letter.
NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object
Example – She is not writing a letter.
INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object
Example – Is she writing a letter?
INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object Example – Is she
not writing a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + is/are/am + sub + v1+ ing + object+ (?)
Example – WH is she writing a letter?

Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has just finished.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object
Example- She has written a letter.
NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object
Example – She has not written a letter.
INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object
Example- Has she written a letter?
INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE -has/have + sub + not + v3 + object
Example– Has she not written a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + has/have + sub + v3 + object+?
Example – WH has she written a letter?

Present Perfect Continuous–

This tense shows the action which started in the past and is still continuing.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object
Example – She has been writing a letter.
NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object
Example– She has not been writing a letter.
INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object
Example – Has she been writing a letter?
INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object Example
– Has she not been writing a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + has/have + sub+ been + v3 + object+ (?)
Example – WH has she been written a letter?

Past Tense
Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy

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gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Past (before
now)

Simple Past Past Past Perfect

Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Simple Past
Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of time. Sometimes it is used
without an adverb of time.
Used for past habits.
Eg. I played football when I was a child.
Rule: Subject + V2 Eg She wrote a letter
Assertive Sentences –
Subject + V2 + Object + (.) She wrote a letter.
Negative Sentences-
Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.) She didn’[Link] a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?) Did she write a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?) Did she not write a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + did + sub + v1 + object+ (?)
Example – WH did she write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.
e.g. I was driving a car. Rule:was/were + ing
Assertive Sentences – Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.) She was writing a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.) She was not writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?) Was she writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?) Was she not writing a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + was/were + sub + v1+ ing + object+ (?)
Example – WH was/were she writting a letter?
Past Perfect Tense
Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a long time ago. If two
actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the action that took place earlier.
e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.
Assertive Sentences – Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.) She had written a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + had + not + Object + (.) She had not written a letter.
Interrogative Sentences- Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?) Had she written a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?) Had she not written a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh + had + sub + V3 + object+ (?)
Example – WH had she written a letter?

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Past Perfect continues Tense
Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to some time in
past. e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.
Assertive Sentences – Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.) She had been writing a letter.
Negative Sentences- Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.) She had not been writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?) Had she been writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?) Had she not been writing a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh+had+Subject +been +V1+ ing + object+ (?)
Example – WH had she been writting a letter?

FUTURE TENSE
Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of speaking or writing is called
as future tense. For e.g- She will write a letter.

Tense

Past (before Present (now) Future (After

now) now)

Simple Future Future Future Perfect Future Perfect

Continuous Continuous

Simple Future
This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after saying or in future
Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)
In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’ is used with all others.
When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is
reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’ and 'shall' is used with others.
In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and normally ‘Will’ is used with
all.
Positive / Affirmative Sentences –
Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.) She will write a letter.
Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.) She will not write a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?) Will she write a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?) Will she not write a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh +will/shall+sub+ V1 + object+?
Example – WH will/shall he write a letter?

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

Future Continuous Tense
It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.
e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to be continued till
sometime in future.
We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or around a time in the
future.
Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
Positive / Affirmative Sentences –
Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.) She will be writing a letter.
Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.) She will not be writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)
Will she be writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?) Will she not be writing a letter?
WH (what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh +will/shall+sub + Be +V1+ Ing + object+?
Example – WH will/shall he be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be completed by a certain time
in future. We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time in the
future. e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.
Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
Positive / Affirmative Sentences –
Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.) She will have written a letter.
Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.) She will not have written a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?) Will she have written a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?) Will she not have written a letter?
WH(what,when,[Link]) INTERROGATIVE wh+will/shall+sub+Have+ V3 object+ (?)
Example – WH will/shall he have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will continue for some time
in future.
If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense.
Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense. Continued time reference
only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress before another
time or event in the future.
e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.
It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.
e.g. They will be staying for a week’s
The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress before another
time or event in the future.
Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
Positive / Affirmative Sentences –
Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will have been writing a letter.
Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)
She will not have been writing a letter.
Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she have been writing a letter?
Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she not have been writing a letter?
WH(what,when,[Link])INTERROGATIVE wh+will/shall+sub+Have+been+VI+ Ing+ object +
(?)
Example – WH will/shall he have been writting a letter?

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

When the actual words of the speaker are reproduced, it is called direct speech.
Example: He said, ‘I am going to school .’
When the main idea of a speaker’s words is reported by another person and the exact words are not
quoted, it is called indirect speech or reported speech.
Example: He said that he was going to school .
• Quotation marks or ‘inverted commas’ are used for direct speech.
Example: ‘I have cut my finger!’ cried Mrs Sharma.

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 • Quotation marks are not used for indirect or reported speech.
Example: Mrs Sharma cried that she had cut her finger.
• Question marks and exclamation marks are not used in reported speech.
Examples: ‘Is it bleeding very much?’ Mr Sharma asked. (direct)
Mr Sharma asked if it was bleeding very much. (indirect)
• In reported speech, the reporting verbs like asked/enquired, commanded/
ordered/requested, advised/suggested, exclaimed/shouted, etc are often used in place of the
reporting verb ‘said’ to convey the mood of the spoken words.
Examples:
Ramesh said , ‘How hot the soup is!’ (direct)
Ramesh exclaimed that the soup was hot. (indirect)
‘Stir it with your spoon,’ his sister said . (direct)
His sister advised him to stir it with a spoon. (indirect)
The son said to his mother, ‘I shall never be rude to you.’ (direct)
The son promised his mother that he would never be rude to her.( indirect )
‘Why has the clock stopped?’ thought Peter. (direct)
Peter wondered why the clock had stopped. (indirect)
• The tense of the verb in the reported speech is in the past tense. However, if the verb in the
reported speech is stating a universal truth, a habit, a constant situation, the tense of that verb
does not change:
Examples: The boy said, ‘I brush my teeth every day.’ (simple present tense)
The boy said that he brushes his teeth every day. (simple present tense)
The teacher said, ‘The Sun rises in the east.’ (direct) The teacher said that the Sun rises in the east.
(indirect)
She said, ‘My son wants to be an actor.’ (direct)
She said that her son wants to be an actor. (indirect)
• In an indirect or reported question, the subject comes before the verb, not after it. You do
not use the helping verb ‘do’ to form reported questions.
Example: Paul said, ‘What time does the bus come?’ (direct)
Paul asked what time the bus came. (indirect)
Sarah said, ‘When does the show begin.’ (direct)
Sarah asked when the show began. (indirect)
• The pronouns are also changed in reported speech.
Pronouns of the first person are changed as below:
Examples: He said, ‘I am bored.’ (direct)
He said that he was bored. (indirect)
Mira said, ‘We are going to the movies.’ (direct)
Mira said that they were going to the movies. (indirect)
Rinki said, ‘My friends gave me a treat.’ (direct)
Rinki said that her friends gave her a treat. (indirect)
Pronouns of the second person are changed as below:
Examples: He said to her, ‘You are beautiful.’ (direct)
He said to her that she was beautiful. (indirect)
‘You must write neatly,’ the teacher told her pupils. (direct)
The teacher advised her pupils that they must write neatly.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

( indirect )
Pronouns of the third person do not change:
Examples: I said, ‘They have gone out.’ (direct)
I informed that they had gone out. (indirect)
Leela said, ‘These books are theirs .’ (direct)
Leela said that those books were theirs . (indirect)
• While converting direct speech into indirect speech, the tense of the verb must change
accordingly:
Direct speech Indirect speech
Simple present — Simple past
Simple past — Past perfect
Present continuous — Past ontinuous
Present perfect — Past perfect
Can — Could
Shall — Would
Will — Would
May — Might
Examples: She said, ‘I may attend the meeting.’ (direct)
She said that she might attend the meeting. (indirect)
Renu said, ‘I have finished my homework.’ (direct)
Renu said that she had finished her work. (indirect)
• Words indicating ‘nearness’ of time and place are changed to words indicating ‘distance’
of time and place:
Direct speech Indirect speech
This — that
These — those
Here — there
Now — then
Today — that day
Tomorrow — the next/following day
Yesterday — the day before/the previous day
Examples: The interviewer said to the young man, ‘We will let you know our decision by tomorrow .’
(direct)
The interviewer said to the young man that they would let him know their decision by the next day .
(indirect)
‘These are the documents you will require,’ the travel agent informed the tourist. (direct)
The travel agent informed the tourist that those were the documents she would require. (indirect)
When reporting a question, an order or a request, the connector ‘that’ is not used.

Handouts of BS Functional English I prepared by Rahmanullah Assistant professor of English

Examples: The girl said, ‘May I come in?’ (direct)
The girl asked if she could come in. (indirect)
‘Pay your taxes,’ the king ordered his subjects. (direct)
The king ordered his subjects to pay their taxes. (indirect)
• In reported speech, the word/words or the sound used by the speaker to express an emotion
is omitted.
Examples: ‘Wow! What a handsome man he is!’ the girls said. (direct)
The girls exclaimed what a handsome man he was. (indirect)
‘Hello!’ my friend said to me. ‘How are you?’ (direct)
My friend greeted me and asked how I was. (indirect)ling words.

Punctuation
Mechanics are the small parts of your writing that stick everything together to ensure that everything
makes sense and that emphasis is placed where you want it to be. Basic punctuation mechanics include
commas (,), colons (:) and semicolons (;), apostrophes (‘) and hyphens (-).
When used properly, these mechanics give your sentences the meaning they should have. However, when
used incorrectly, they can transform the meaning of the most basic sentence and leave your readers
completely baffled as to what you are trying to tell them.
Table 1 contains some basic punctuation mechanics practices that you should consider when writing. This
table is not extensive, but provides the most important ‘do’s and don’ts’.

Table 1: Basic punctuation practices

Punctuation
Do Do Not
Component

 Use to split up sentences  Overuse (can make your

Comma (,)
 Use where there is a pause writing more confusing)

Colon (:)  Use before listing items

 Confuse colons and
 Use to join sentences with semicolons
Semicolon (;)
directly related information

 Use when something belongs

(Mike’s test tube)  Confuse with plurals (test
Apostrophe (‘)
 Use when contracting (we’ve, tubes, not test tube’s)
she’d, I’m)

 Use after words ending in y

 Use to link compound words (25-
Hyphen (-)  Use if the same meaning is
mile race)
achieved without one
Commas

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You probably already use commas very frequently, but it can still be hard to always use them
appropriately. If you fail to use a comma when there should be a natural pause in a sentence, like here,
your readers will be confused. However, if you overuse commas, your readers will be equally baffled as
to what you are trying to tell them.
Consider the two versions of a short sentence, below, that is made more confusing by the overuse of
commas:
1: Thankfully, we, the people of Scarborough, a little seaside town, are deeply, and passionately involved,
in nature conservation.
2: Thankfully we, the people of Scarborough, a little seaside town, are deeply and passionately involved
in nature conservation.
In the first example, the use of commas suggests that the people of Scarborough are deeply in nature
conservation and also passionately involved in nature conservation. In the second example, the people of
Scarborough are deeply involved and passionately involved in nature conservation.
Consider the two versions of a short sentence, below, that is interpreted completely differently due to the
presence of a single (necessary) comma:
1: I am very hungry so we should cook Mom.
2: I am very hungry so we should cook, Mom.
In the first example, the lack of a comma suggests that Mom should be cooked because I’m hungry. In the
second example, the comma suggests that Mom is the person to whom the statement is addressed.
Colons and Semicolons
Colons should be primarily used before you provide lists of items or quote somebody, whereas
semicolons are used to link closely related sentences; they can be used when the relationship between
these sentences is obvious.
For example, you should use a colon when you list the five basic punctuation mechanics explained here.
These are: commas, colons, semicolons, apostrophes, and hyphens. You should also use a colon with a
quotation, like this: “The importance of punctuation should never be underestimated,” said Professor in
Chemistry, Dr. Reilly.
You should use a semicolon only when the link between to sentences is pretty obvious. For example:
Rabbits are always more vigilant when they know predators are watching them; they don’t want to risk
being sneaked up on.
Apostrophes
Apostrophes are most often used to signal ownership or to shorten compound words that have been
contracted. For example, if the chemistry textbook belonged to Hoshi, you should refer to it as Hoshi’s
textbook, and if you are nice to her, perhaps she’ll lend it to you. Contracted compound words like the
‘she’ll’ in that last sentence used to be frowned upon in scholarly writing as people instead preferred
writing the two words in full (‘she will’). This way of thinking has generally changed now, so it’s fine to
contract words, just as you’d do normally when speaking.
The most common mistake with apostrophes is to use them when you should instead simply pluralize a
word. For example, make sure you don’t use an apostrophe when speaking about your recent exams (they
were exams, not exam’s).
Hyphens
Learning how to use hyphens correctly in your writing tends to be more difficult than learning how to use
the other basic punctuation mechanics outlined here. You most commonly need to use hyphens when you
use adjectives to modify the meaning of words that they come immediately before.
For example, the second sentence below contains a modifying adjective:

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1) The hot Bunsen burner melted a nearby eraser.
2) The white hot Bunsen burner melted a nearby eraser.

Without a hyphen (as above), you would think the Bunsen burner was white in colour. The author,
however, likely means the Bunsen burner was very, very hot, so you need to use a hyphen to make a
compound word, like this:
3) The white-hot Bunsen burner melted a nearby eraser.

There are occasions when you need to use more than one hyphen (when you link three or more words,
like ‘We dug a seven-foot-deep hole in the garden’). In all cases, when deciding whether you need to use
hyphens, assess whether the meaning of your sentences would be the same without your hyphens. If it
would, then you don’t need them. This is usually true when you use words ending in y to modify other
words. For example, you don’t need a hyphen between ‘happily’ and ‘married’ in the following sentence,
because the meaning would be the same:
We are a happily married couple = We are a happily-married couple.
Video Resource
For a recap and for some extra information on using hyphens appropriately in your science writing, please
watch Grammar Squirrel’s video on the UBC Science Writing YouTube channel.
We then suggest you complete the quick quiz (below) to see whether you have mastered some of the
important skills relating to hyphenation.

Hyphenation – Quick Quiz

1) Each of the following sentences features the use of none, one, or two hyphens. Which sentences feature
the correct grammatical use of hyphens? For the incorrect ones, try to think where the corrections should
be made (5 marks).
a) GEERing Up is a non profit organization that promotes science, engineering and technology to youth
in the Greater Vancouver area.
b) Science-minded students from the University of British Columbia run the program.
c) Workshops are targeted at students of different ages and it is not uncommon to see six-year-olds
enjoying themselves.
d) The intellectually-stimulating workshops enable students to gain experience in experiments and are
designed to increase interest in science, engineering and technology.
e) The two-hour workshops are designed to give kids a taster, with the more comprehensive week long
camps for older students.

2) There should be a total of three hyphens in the following two sentences. Place them where they should
go (3 marks).
Although the workshops only last for two hours at a time, they feature many different fast paced activities
to engage students. As well as trying to teach science, engineering and technology, GEERing Up’s
mission is also to encourage students to develop social skills and adopt a happy go lucky approach to
performing experiments; for this reason, curiosity is encouraged as much as academic success.

3i) Place one hyphen in the sentence below to give it a completely different (but still grammatically
correct) meaning (1 mark).

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a) In one of the activities, the volunteer showed students how to use a heavy metal detector to find coins
in the soil.
3ii) Why does it matter whether this hyphen is or is not included (1 mark)?

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