AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Module 5 Notes

Semiconductors and Devices

I/II SEMESTER Physics for EEE Stream

Subject code: BPHYE102/202
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Contents

1 Semiconductors 5
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Expression for Concentration of Charge Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Electron concentration in conduction band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Hole Concentration in valence band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Fermi level in semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Fermi Level in an Extrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Law of mass action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Expression for Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8.1 Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8.2 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Semiconductor Devices 17
2.1 Photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 V-I characteristics of a photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.2 Responsivity of a photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Phototransistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Semiconductor/Diode Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Four-probe method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3
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Chapter 1

Semiconductors

Syllabus
Semiconductors
Fermi level in Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor, Expression for concentration of elec-
trons in conduction band & holes concentration in valance band (only mention the expres-
sion), Relation between Fermi energy & Energy gap in intrinsic semiconductors (deriva-
tion), Law of mass action, Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor (derivation), Hall
effect, Expression for Hall coefficient (derivation) and its application. Numerical Prob-
lems.

1.1 Introduction
Semiconductors are materials which have conductivity in the range intermediate between
those of conductors and insulators. In the context of energy band diagrams, the conductivity
relates to the size of the energy gap. The energy gap is the energy difference between the
bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band (see figure 1.1). It is denoted
as Eg . For a semiconductor, the energy gap is much lesser than that for insulators.
There are two types of semiconductors:
ˆ Intrinsic semiconductor: A pure semiconductor which is not doped with impurity
atoms is called an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus an intrinsic semiconductor is a pure
semiconductor whose conductivity is due to only the thermal excitation of electrons.
ˆ Extrinsic semiconductor: An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor contain-
ing very small amount of impurity or doping agent, by virtue of which it possesses
higher electrical conductivity compared to pure semiconductors. There are two types
of extrinsic semiconductors
– n-type semiconductor: In this type, the doping agent is a pentavalent impurity,
such as phosphorous, and the majority charge carriers are electrons.
– p-type semiconductor: In this type, the doping agent is a trivalent impurity,
such as boron, and the majority charge carriers are holes.

1.2 Expression for Concentration of Charge Carriers

The concentration of electrons and holes (i.e., the number of these per unit volume) in a
semiconductor can be obtained from the knowledge of the densities of available states (the

5
 1.2. EXPRESSION FOR CONCENTRATION OF CHARGE CARRIERS

number of energy levels per unit volume per unit energy range) in the valence band and
the conduction band as well as the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. And the expressions
that we obtain for these charge concentrations are applicable to intrinsic as well as extrinsic
semiconductors.
Note on convention: In what follows, I will consider the ground-state (lowest) energy
level to be the reference energy level, i.e., say, E1 = 0. But in some textbooks and notes, the
convention is to keep the top of the valence band as the reference level, i.e., they consider
Ev = 0. So the following expressions might look different depending on the author, but
they’re all equivalent.

1.2.1 Electron concentration in conduction band

The expression for electron concentration (ne ) in conduction band is given as
3/2
2πm∗e kB T
  
Ec − EF
ne = 2 exp − (1.1)
h2 kB T

where m∗e is the effective mass of electron, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute
temperature, EF is the Fermi energy, Ec is the energy of the conduction band edge, and h is
the Planck’s constant.
This equation can also be written as follows,
 
Ec − EF
ne = Nc exp − (1.2)
kB T

where,
3/2
2πm∗e kB T

Nc = 2 (1.3)
h2
is called as the effective density of states of electrons at the conduction band edge.

1.2.2 Hole Concentration in valence band

The expression for hole concentration (nh ) in valence band is given as
3/2
2πm∗h kB T
  
EF − Ev
nh = 2 exp − (1.4)
h2 kB T

where m∗h is the effective mass of hole, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute
temperature, EF is the Fermi energy, Ev is the energy of the valence band edge and h is the
Planck’s constant.
This equation can also be written as follows,
 
EF − Ev
nh = Nv exp − (1.5)
kB T

where,
3/2
2πm∗h kB T

Nv = 2 (1.6)
h2
is called as the effective density of states of holes at the valence band edge.

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 1.3. FERMI LEVEL IN SEMICONDUCTORS

1.3 Fermi level in semiconductors

Fermi level is the energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is 50% at
non-zero temperatures.

1.3.1 Fermi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor

Figure 1.1: Band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

At T = 0 K, all the energy levels in the valence band are completely filled and all the
energy levels in the conduction band are completely empty. But at ordinary temperatures,
such as room temperature, due to thermal excitations, some of the electrons at the top of the
valence band are able to jump the energy gap and occupy some energy levels at the bottom
part of the conduction band leading to the formation of equal number of conduction electrons
and holes. But these electrons return soon to the energy levels which they had left vacant in
the valence band. The electrons in this set of energy levels continue to undergo excitation
and de-excitation. Hence we say that, at equilibrium, conduction electrons are distributed
between the energy levels in the bottom part of the conduction band and the top portion of
the valence band. So we can write, at equilibrium condition,

ne = nh

Substituting equation (1.2) and (1.5) here, we get

   
Ec − EF EF − Ev
Nc exp − = Nv exp −
kB T kB T
 
2EF − Ec − Ev Nv
exp =
kB T Nc
 
2EF − Ec − Ev Nv
= ln
kB T Nc
 
Ec + Ev kB T Nv
EF = + ln
2 2 Nc
Substituting equations (1.3) and (1.6) here, we get
m∗h
 
Ec + Ev 3
EF = + kB T ln
2 4 m∗e

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 1.3. FERMI LEVEL IN SEMICONDUCTORS

At T = 0 K,
Ec + Ev
EF =
2
i.e., the Fermi level lies in the middle of the conduction band and valence band. This is
also true at all other temperatures provided m∗h = m∗e However, in general, m∗h > m∗e and the
Fermi level is raised slightly as T exceeds 0 K. For Si at 300 K, the increase in Fermi energy
is about 0.01 eV only, which may be neglected for all practical purposes.
The above can also be written as a relation between Fermi energy and energy gap. Since
Ec = Ev + Eg , we have

Ev + Eg + Ev
EF =
2
Eg
EF = Ev +
2
Note here that if we use the other convention, where Ev = 0, this becomes EF = Eg /2.

1.3.2 Fermi Level in an Extrinsic Semiconductor

(a) n-type semiconductor (b) p-type semiconductor

Figure 1.2: Band diagrams of extrinsic semiconductors

In extrinsic semiconductors, the addition of impurity atoms introduces new energy levels
in the energy band diagram depending on the type of impurity. As a result, the concentration
of charge carriers and the position of the Fermi level varies.

n-type semiconductor
In n-type semiconductors, due to the addition of pentavalent impurities, a new energy level
called the donor energy level Ed arises just below the conduction band edge. At 0 K, the
donor level is completely filled with electrons. As the temperature increases slightly, some of
the donor electrons get ionized and contribute electrons to the conduction band. Also, some
of the valence band electrons may jump to the conduction band leaving behind holes in the
valence band. But the number of holes produced in this process is, however, quite small.
Therefore, the Fermi level must lie somewhere near the middle of the donor level and the
bottom of the conduction band as shown in figure 1.2a. This can be seen by the following
expression  
Ed + Ec kB T Nd
EF = + ln
2 2 Nc
where Nd is the number of donors per unit volume occupying the donor level.

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 1.4. LAW OF MASS ACTION

This expression gives the position of the Fermi level at moderate temperatures and is not
valid for T = 0 K or T → ∞. At very high temperatues, the Fermi level moves down to the
center of the band gap and the material acts like an intrinsic semiconductor.

p-type semiconductor
The case of a p-type semiconductor can be treated in the same way as we did above. In
p-type semiconductors, due to the addition of trivalent impurities, a new energy level called
the acceptor energy level Ea arises just above the valence band edge. At 0 K, the acceptor
level is completely devoid of electrons. As the temperature increases slightly, part of these
acceptors is ionized by acquiring electrons from the valence band, thus creating holes in the
valence band which causese p-type conduction. Also, some of the valence band electrons
may jump to the conduction band. But the number of conduction electrons produced in
this process is, however, quite small. Therefore, the Fermi level must lie somewhere near the
middle of the acceptor level and the top of the valence band as shown in figure 1.2b. This
can be seen by the following expression
 
Ea + Ev kB T Na
EF = − ln
2 2 Nv

where Na is the number of acceptors per unit volume occupying the acceptor level.
Again, just as before, this expression gives the position of the Fermi level at moderate
temperatures and is not valid for T = 0 K or T → ∞. At very high temperatues, the
Fermi level moves up to the center of the band gap and the material acts like an intrinsic
semiconductor.

1.4 Law of mass action

Consider the electron concentration in conduction band ne and the hole concentration in the
valence band nh as given by equations (1.2) and (1.5). Remember that these expressions are
applicable to both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Now consider the product of these two expressions
   
Ec − EF EF − Ev
ne nh = Nc exp − Nv exp −
kB T kB T
 
Ec − Ev
= Nc Nv exp −
kB T
 
Eg
ne nh = Nc Nv exp −
kB T

where we have used the fact that Eg = Ec − Ev

Substituting equations (1.3) and (1.6) here, we get

2πm∗e kB T 3/2 2πm∗h kB T 3/2

     
Eg
ne nh = 2 2 exp −
h2 h2 kB T
 3  
2πkB T Eg
ne nh = 4 2
(m∗e m∗h )3/2 exp −
h kB T

We observe that the product ne nh does not depend on EF , but remains constant at a
given temperature. This is called as the law of mass action and it holds for both intrinsic and

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 1.5. EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

extrinsic semiconductors. For example, if impurity atoms are added to a semiconductor to

increase ne , there will be a corresponding decrease in nh such that the product ne nh remains
constant.
In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni , where ni is called the intrinsic
carrier concentration. Therefore from the law of mass action, we get

ne nh = n2i

This means that the product of electron and hole concentrations (of either intrinsic or extrinsic
semiconductor) is equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentration. (You can think
of the intrinsic carrier concentration as being the geometric mean of the electron and hole
concentrations.)
Comparing this with the above equation, we get an expression for the intrinsic carrier
concentration

2πkB T 3 ∗ ∗ 3/2
   
2 Eg
ni = 4 (me mh ) exp −
h2 kB T
 3/2  
2πkB T ∗ ∗ 3/4 Eg
=⇒ ni = 2 (me mh ) exp − (1.7)
h2 2kB T

1.5 Expression for Electrical Conductivity of Semiconductor

Consider a semiconductor with cross sectional area A in which current I is flowing. Let ne
be the number of electrons per unit volume in the semiconductor with v and e being the
velocity and the magnitude of charge of each electron respectively. Then the current flowing
through the semiconductor is given by

I = ne evA

The current density is therefore

I
J= = ne ev
A
Now, the mobility of electrons is given by
v
µe =
E
−→ v = µe E

So the current density can be written as

J = ne eµe E

Comparing this with the general Ohm’s law J = σe E, we get

σe = ne eµe

This is the expression for electrical conductivity due to electrons in the semiconductor.
But we know that even holes contribute to the conductivity of semiconductors. So in a
similar manner, we get the electrical conductivity due to holes as

σh = nh eµh

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 1.5. EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

The total conductivity of the semiconductor can thus be written as

σ = σe + σh
σ = ne eµe + nh eµh
σ = e(ne µe + nh µh )

For an intrinsic semiconductor, we have ne = nh = ni . So the above becomes

σ = eni (µe + µh )

Substituting equation 1.7 here, we get

 3/2  
2πkB T Eg
σ = e(µe + µh )2 (m∗e m∗h )3/4 exp −
h2 2kB T

If we assume the mobilities are independent of temperatues, then we can simplify the
above with logarithms as
 
Eg 1 3
ln(σ) = − + ln(T ) + constant
2kB T 2

The first term on the right hand side is the dominant term for temperatue changes. So a
plot of ln(σ) versus 1/T will be a straight line. The slope of this line will give an estimate of
the band gap of the semiconductor.

1.5.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. The following data are given for intrinsic germanium at 300 K: ni = 2.4 × 1019 m−3 ,
µe = 0.39 m2 V−1 s−1 , µh = 0.19 m2 V−1 s−1 . Calculate the resistivity of the sample.
Given:

ni = 2.4 × 1019 m−3 , µe = 0.39 m2 V−1 s−1 , µh = 0.19 m2 V−1 s−1

To find: ρ =?
We know that,
1
σ = eni (µe + µh ) and ρ =
σ
Rearranging the terms, we get
1 1
ρ= = = 0.449 Ωm
eni (µe + µh ) 1.6 × 10−19 × 2.4 × 1019 × (0.39 + 0.19)

ρ = 0.449 Ωm

Q 2. The resistivity of intrinsic germanium at 27 °C is equal to 0.47 Wm. Assuming electron

and hole mobilities as 0.38 m2 V−1 s−1 and 0.18 m2 V−1 s−1 respectively, calculate the intrinsic
carrier density.
Given:
ρ = 0.47 Ωm, µe = 0.38 m2 V−1 s−1 , µh = 0.18 m2 V−1 s−1
To find: ni =?

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 1.6. HALL EFFECT

We know that,
1
σ = eni (µe + µh ) and ρ =
σ
Rearranging the terms, we get

1 1
ni = = −19
= 2.375 × 1019 m−3
eρ (µe + µh ) 1.6 × 10 × 0.47 × (0.38 + 0.18)

ni = 2.375 × 1019 m−3

1.6 Hall Effect

Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (Hall voltage) across a semiconductor
which is perpendicular to both the direction of electric current in the semiconductor and to
the applied magnetic field. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

Figure 1.3: Hall Effect

Consider an n-type semiconductor as shown in figure 1.3. Let its length in the y direction
be d and in the z direction be w. A constant current I flows in the positive x direction as
shown. The current passes through a cross sectional area of A = wd of the semiconductor.
A constant magnetic field B is set up in the positive z direction as shown.
We know that a charge q moving in an external magnetic field B ⃗ with velocity ⃗v experi-
⃗
ences a force FM given by the relation

F⃗M = q(⃗v × B)
⃗

So in our case, substituting q = −e, B ⃗ = B ẑ, and ⃗v = −vx̂ (remember that direction
of conventional current is opposite to that of electronic current; so the velocity of electrons
is in the negative x direction) in the above expression, we get the force experienced by the

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 1.6. HALL EFFECT

electrons in this setup as

F⃗M = −e(−vx̂ × B ẑ)

F⃗M = evB(x̂ × ẑ)
F⃗M = −evB ŷ

because x̂ × ẑ = −ŷ.
We see that the force experienced by the electrons has magnitude evB in the negative y
direction. Therefore the electrons experience a downward force and get accumulated at the
bottom of the semiconductor. Due to this, there is a net accumulation of positive charge
at the top of the semiconductor. Now because there is a seperation of positive (top) and
negative (bottom) charges inside the semiconductor, an electric field is setup in the negative
y direction. This field is called the Hall field EH . The potential difference associated with
this field is called Hall voltage VH .
We know that a charge q in an electric field E experiences a force FE given by the relation

F⃗E = q E
⃗

⃗ = −EH ŷ in the above expression, we get

So in our case, substituting q = −e and E

F⃗E = −e(−EH ŷ)

F⃗E = eEH ŷ

We see that this electric force experienced by the elctrons has magnitude eEH in the
positive y direction.
Now the electrons experience two kinds of forces: a magnetic force F⃗M in the negative
y direction and an electric force F⃗E in the positive y direction. Since these two forces are
opposite to each other, after some time there will be an equilibrium established such that
F⃗M +F⃗E = 0, which means the electrons will now move through the semiconductor undeviated
since all the forces acting on the electrons have essentially cancelled out. (However, this does
not mean the two fields have vanished; the fields are still there, but it’s just that the forces
due to those fields on the new incoming electrons have been nullified.) Thus the above
equilibrium conditions reduces to

−evB ŷ + eEH ŷ = 0
EH
−→ v =
B
This is the velocity of the electrons in the equilibrium condition.
The current density corresponding to this condition can be written as

J = ne ev

Substituting for v here, we get

ne eEH
J=
B
1 EH
=
ne e JB
1
= RH
ne e

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 1.6. HALL EFFECT

EH
where RH = is called the Hall coefficient. It has units of m3 /C.
JB
Now, remember that the magnitude of electric field E between two points is equal to the
potential difference V across those points per unit length along the direction of the field, i.e.,
E = VL , where L is the length (or distace between the two points) along the electric field
direction. In our case we have E = EH , L = d, and V = VH , where VH is called the Hall
voltage. So we have
VH
EH =
d
Substituting this EH in the expression for RH , we get
VH
RH =
JBd
Now, J is given by defintion
I
J=
A
I
J=
wd
Substituting this in the above expression, we get
VH wd
RH =
BId
VH w
=⇒ RH =
BI
The significance of RH is that it helps us find the value of ne for an n-type semiconductor.
Since VH , w, B, I are all macroscopic and directly measurable quantities (we control B; w
can be measured; I can be found through an ammeter; to find VH , we can place a multimeter
across the top and bottom faces of the semiconductor and read the voltage value), when we
calculate RH through the Hall Effect setup, we can find ne (a microscopic quantity) using
1
the relation RH = .
ne e
A similar setup can be arranged for the case of a p-type semiconductor. The main
difference is that instead of ne , we have nh . The magnetic force experienced by the holes is
such that they move to the bottom of the semiconductor, similar to the case of electrons in
the n-type semiconductor. So a net accumulation of negative charge occurs at the top of the
semiconductor. The rest follows as before only with a change in sign and/or direction.
Knowing RH will not only tell us the value of the charge concentration ne or nh but also
the type of semiconductor if it wasn’t already known; the sign of RH will tell us whether the
semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

1.6.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. An n-type Germanium sample has a donor density of 1021 m−3 . It is arranged in a

Hall experiment having magnetic field of 0.5 T and the current density is 500 A/m2 . Find
the Hall voltage if the sample is 3 mm wide.
Given:
Nd = 1021 m−3 , B = 0.5 T, J = 500 A/m2 , d = 3 mm
To find: VH =?
Since we have an n-type sample, we can write ne ≈ Nd . So ne = 1021 m−3 .

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 1.6. HALL EFFECT

Next, we know that

VH 1
RH = and RH =
JBd ne e
Rearranging, we get
JBd 500 × 0.5 × 0.003
VH = = 21 = 0.004 687 V
ne e 10 × 1.6 × 10−19

VH = 4.687 mV

Q 2. The concentration of electrons at room temperatue in an extrinsic semiconductor used

in Hall experiment is 1.7 × 1029 m−3 . If a current of 100 A flows through the semiconductor
strip of thickness 1 mm and the strength of the magnetic field perpendicular to the strip is
3.6 Wb/m2 , estimate the Hall coefficient and Hall voltage.
Given:
ne = 1.7 × 1029 m−3 , I = 100 A, w = 1 mm, B = 3.6 Wb/m2
To find: RH =?, VH =?
We know that
1 1
RH = = = 3.676 × 10−11 m3 C−1
ne e 1.7 × 1029 × 1.6 × 10−19

RH = 3.676 × 10−11 m3 C−1

Next, to find VH , we know that
RH BI 3.676 × 10−11 × 3.6 × 100
VH = = = 1.324 × 10−5 V
w 0.001

VH = 1.324 × 10−5 V

Q 3. The Hall coefficient of a specimen is 1.25 × 10−4 m3 /C and its resistivity is 9 × 10−4 Wm.
Find the mobility and the density of the charge carriers.
Given:
RH = 1.25 × 10−4 m3 /C, ρ = 9 × 10−4 Ωm
To find: µh =?, nh =? (holes because the Hall coefficient is positive)
Let’s find nh first. We know that RH = n1h e . So rearranging, we’ll get

1 1
nh = = = 5 × 1022 cm−3
RH e 0.000125 × 1.6 × 10−19

nh = 5 × 1022 cm−3
Next, let’s find µh . We know how conductivity and mobility of holes are related: σh =
1
nh eµh . Converting the conductivity to resistivity we get ρh = . Rearranging, we have
nh eµh
1 1
µh = = = 0.139 m2 V−1 s−1
nh eρh 5 × 10 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.0009
22

µh = 0.139 m2 V−1 s−1

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 1.7. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Derive an expression for Electrical conductivity in extrinsic and intrinsic semiconduc-

tors.
Q 2. What is Hall effect? Obtain an expression for the Hall coefficient.
Q 3. Establish relation between Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
Discuss the law of mass action.
Q 4. What is Hall voltage and Hall field? Obtain expression for Hall voltage in terms of
Hall Coefficient.
Q 5. What is Hall Effect? Obtain the expression for Hall coefficient and express Hall Voltage
in terms of Hall coefficient.

1.8 Numericals
1.8.1 Electrical Conductivity

Q 1. Calculate the conductivity of pure silicon if the intrinsic carrier concentration is

1.6 × 1010 cm−3 . Given electron and hole mobilities are 0.15 m2 V−1 s−1 and 0.5 m2 V−1 s−1
respectively.
Q 2. Calculate the conductivity of extrinsic silicon doped with boron atoms at a concentra-
tion of 10 × 1021 m−3 . Given µh = 0.05 m2 V−1 s−1 .
Q 3. Mobilities of electrons and holes in an intrinsic germanium at 300 K are 0.36 m2 V−1 s−1
and 0.14 m2 V−1 s−1 respectively. If the resistivity of Ge is 2.5 Wm, compute the intrinsic
carrier density.
Q 4. The electron concentration in an N-type semiconductor is 5 × 1017 m−3 . Neglecting
the hole current, calculate the conductivity of the material if the drift velocity of electrons is
350 m/s in an electric field of 1000 V/m.
Q 5. (From lab experiment) In a Plank’s constant experiment, the knee voltage of a given
red LED emitting light of wavelength 650 nm is 1.908 V. Calculate the Plank’s constant.

1.8.2 Hall Effect

Q 1. The Hall coefficient of a material is −3.68 × 10−5 m3 /C. What is the type of charge
carriers? Also calculate the carrier concentration.
Q 2. The Hall coefficient of a specimen of doped silicon is found to be 3.66 × 10−4 m3 /C.
The resistivity of the specimen is 9.93 × 10−3 Wm. Find the mobility and the charge carrier
density assuming single carrier conduction.

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Chapter 2

Semiconductor Devices

Syllabus
Semiconductor Devices
Photo-diode and Power responsivity, Construction and working of Semiconducting Laser,
Four probe method to determine resistivity, Phototransistor.

2.1 Photodiode
A photodiode is a PN junction diode that converts light into electrical current. It is also
known as a photodetector or a photosensor. It operates based on the principle of the photo-
voltaic effect. When light (photons) with sufficient energy strikes the semiconductor material
of the photodiode, it can excite electrons from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating electron-hole pairs. The generated electron-hole pairs are then separated by the
built-in electric field within the photodiode, resulting in a flow of current.

Figure 2.1: Photodiode Cross section

Construction
The typical construction of a photodiode is illustrated in figure 2.1. During the formation of
the diode, electrons from the N type are attracted into the P type material and holes from

17
 2.1. PHOTODIODE

the P type are attracted into the N type layer, resulting in the removal of free charge carriers
close to the PN junction, so creating a depletion layer.
The (light-facing) top of the diode is protected by a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) in
which there is a window for light to shine on the semiconductor. This window is coated with
a thin anti-reflective layer of silicon nitride (SiN) to allow maximum absorption of light. Also,
an anode connection of aluminium is provided to the P type layer. Beneath the N type layer
is a more heavily doped N+ layer to provide a low resistance connection to the cathode.
For a diode operating in Photoconductive Mode (presence of external voltage), it is usual
to use reverse bias by applying a DC voltage to make the cathode more positive than the
anode. The reverse bias causes the potential across the depletion region to increase and the
width of the depletion region to increase. This is ideal for creating a large area to absorb
the maximum amount of photons. And also, because the P and N layers with the depletion
layer between them effectively form a capacitor, widening the depletion layer reduces the
capacitance of the PN junction and increases the maximum frequency at which the diode can
operate; a desirable property, especially in photodiodes that operate as digital information
receivers.

Working
When the surface of the photodiode is illuminated, photons are absorbed within the diode
(mainly in the depletion layer) which energises the electrons in the valence band to jump
to the conduction band. This leaves behind positively charged holes in the valence band,
resulting in the formation of electron-hole pairs in the depletion layer.
(Some electron-hole pairs are also produced in the P and N layers. But apart from those
produced in the diffusion region, most will re-combine within the P and N materials as heat.)
The electrons in the depletion layer are then swept towards the positive potential on
the cathode, and the holes swept towards the negative potential on the anode giving rise to
current.

2.1.1 V-I characteristics of a photodiode

Photodiode operates in the reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X axis
in volts and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere as seen in figure 2.2.
Reverse current does not depend on reverse voltage. When there is no light illumination,
reverse current will be almost zero. The minimum amount of current present is called as Dark
Current. Once when the light illumination increases, reverse current also increases linearly.

2.1.2 Responsivity of a photodiode

The responsivity of a photodiode is the ratio of generated photocurrent and incident optical
power, determined in the linear region of response.
Responsivity is a function of the wavelength of the incident radiation and of the sensor’s
properties, such as the bandgap of the material of which the photodetector is made. One
expression for the responsivity R of a photodiode in which an optical signal is converted into
a photocurrent is
e
R=η
hν
where η is a dimensionless quantity called the quantum efficiency (the conversion efficiency
of photons to electrons) of the photodiode for a given wavelength, e is the electron charge, ν
is the frequency of the optical signal, and h is Planck’s constant.

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 2.1. PHOTODIODE

Figure 2.2: V-I characteristics

This expression can also be written in terms of λ, the wavelength of the optical signal, as
eλ
R=η
hc
Responsitivity has units of coulombs per joule (C/J) or more commanly amperes per watt
(A/W).

Applications
1. Optical Communications: Photodiodes are used in fiber optic communication sys-
tems to convert optical signals into electrical signals for processing.

2. Photometry: They are used in light meters and exposure meters in photography to
measure the intensity of light.

3. Remote Sensing: They are used in remote sensing applications to detect and measure
light reflected from the Earth’s surface.

4. Barcode Readers: They are used in barcode scanners to detect the reflection of light
from the barcode and convert it into an electrical signal.

5. Smoke Detection: They are used in smoke detectors to detect the presence of smoke
particles, which scatter light onto the photodiode.

6. Medical Instruments: They are used in medical instruments for measuring oxygen
saturation levels in blood and for non-invasive glucose monitoring.

7. Security Systems: They are used in security systems for detecting motion and light
changes.

8. Automotive: They are used in automotive applications for ambient light sensing,
automatic headlight control, and rain sensing.

9. Consumer Electronics: They are used in devices such as digital cameras, optical
mice, and proximity sensors.

10. Solar Energy: They are used in solar cells to convert sunlight into electrical energy.

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 2.2. PHOTOTRANSISTOR

2.2 Phototransistor
A phototransistor is a light-controlled switch that switches a circuit and amplifies the current
when exposed to light. It is a three-layer semiconductor device whose light-sensitive base is
exposed. The light striking the base converts into a base current that amplifies the current
between the emitter and collector proportional to the intensity of light. They are used for
sensing light pulses of high speed and small magnitude.

Figure 2.3: Phototransistor Cross section

Construction
When compared to normal transistor, in phototransistor the base and collector area is large
(see figure 2.3). The base area is increased to increase the amount of incident light radiation.
Earlier it was made up of single semiconductor material like silicon or germanium. Recently
phototransistors are made up of Gallium and Arsenic to obtain higher efficiency. Phototran-
sistor is placed inside a metallic case and a lens is kept at the top of the case to absorb the
incident radiation.

Working
Phototransistor operates just like any normal bipolar transistor except for the fact that the
base current is generated by a light source instead of a voltage source. The base current
is generated on the principle of the photovoltaic effect. The base current is then amplified
by the transistor action. Therefore the phototransistor is 100 times more sensitive than the
photodiode.
When biasing, the collector is kept at a higher voltage with respect to the emitter in NPN
phototransistor while in PNP, the collector is at a lower voltage with respect to the emitter.
The collector to the base junction is reverse biased. The base terminal is kept open or not
connected.
Under no light conditions, there is a small reverse saturation current or leakage current
called dark current that is directly proportional to the temperature as in photodiodes.

Applications
1. Light Sensors: Phototransistors are commonly used as light sensors in applications
such as automatic streetlights, camera light meters, and ambient light sensors in elec-
tronic devices. They can detect changes in light intensity and trigger corresponding
actions or adjustments.

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 2.3. SEMICONDUCTOR/DIODE LASER

2. Barcode Readers: Phototransistors are used in barcode readers to detect the reflected
light from the barcode pattern. They can convert the light pattern into electrical signals,
which are then decoded to read the information stored in the barcode.

3. Smoke Detectors: Phototransistors are used in smoke detectors to detect the presence
of smoke particles in the air. When smoke particles block the light falling on the
phototransistor, it triggers an alarm, indicating a possible fire.

4. Optical Switches: Phototransistors are used in optical switches to control the flow of
light in optical communication systems. They can be used to switch between different
optical paths or to modulate the intensity of light signals.

5. Industrial Automation: Phototransistors are used in industrial automation systems

for tasks such as object detection, position sensing, and speed sensing. They are used
in conjunction with light barriers or sensors to detect the presence or absence of objects
on a conveyor belt or in a production line.

2.3 Semiconductor/Diode Laser

A semiconductor/diode laser is a specially-fabricated pn-junction device that emits coherent
light when it is forward biased.

Figure 2.4: Semiconductor/diode Laser

Construction
A schematic diagram of a homojunction semiconductor laser is shown in figure 2.4. The
laser diode is a single crystal consisting of a heavily doped n and p sections. The doping
concentration is very high and is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3 .
The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in
a horizontal plane through the center and its width varyies from 1µm to 100µm depending
upon the diffusion and temperature conditions that exists at the time of fabrication. The end
surfaces of the p and n sections parallel to the plane of junction (top and bottom surfaces
in the figure) are provided with electrodes in order to facilitate application of a forward bias
voltage with the help of a voltage source. The front and rear faces are polished (also called

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 2.3. SEMICONDUCTOR/DIODE LASER

cleaved facets). The cleaved facets play the role of reflecting mirrors. The other two opposite
faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction.

Figure 2.5: Energy level diagram of semiconductor/diode laser

Working
In a diode laser, the p and n sections are heavily doped. Because of heavy doping, the
Fermi level lies within the conduction band in the n-type material and it lies within the
valence band in the p-type material. A simple way of achieving population inversion in a
semiconductor is to use it in the form of heavily doped pn-junction and to forward bias
the junction. When the junction is forward biased, the energy levels shift as shown in the
energy level diagram in figure 2.5. The width of depletion region decreases due to injection
of electrons and holes. At low forward currents, the electron-hole recombination causes
spontaneous emission of radiation and the diode acts as a LED. When current is increased
and reaches a threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the depletion region due to
large concentration of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band. The narrow
region where population inversion is achieved becomes the active region where lasing action
takes place. The forward bias applied to the junction is thus the pumping mechanism which
produces population inversion. The photons traveling in the junction along the resonant
cavity stimulate recombination of electron-hole pairs due to which the intensity of coherent
light builds up along the axis of the cavity.
The wavelength of the photon emitted by a semiconductor laser can be found by consid-
ering its energy gap. Since the energy of the emitted photon is the same as the energy gap
(Eg ) of the semiconductor, we can say
hν = Eg
hc
= Eg
λ
hc
=⇒ λ =
Eg

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 2.4. FOUR-PROBE METHOD

where we have used c = νλ for photons. An example of a semiconductor laser is the GaAs
(Gallium arsenide) laser. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.44eV . So the wavelength of the laser
beam emitted by this semiconductor can be found using the above formula to be ≈ 8626Å
The semiconductor lasers have low power consumption, are compact and highly efficient.
But the laser output is less monochromatic and more divergent compared to other lasers.

Applications
1. Optical Communications: Semiconductor lasers are widely used in optical commu-
nication systems, including fiber optic communication, due to their high efficiency and
ability to generate coherent light.
2. Printing and Scanning: They are used in laser printers and barcode scanners for
their ability to produce high-quality, focused beams of light.
3. Material Processing: They are used in various material processing applications, such
as cutting, welding, and engraving, due to their high power and precision.
4. Medical Applications: They are used in medical applications, including surgery,
dermatology, and ophthalmology, for their ability to precisely target tissues and perform
non-invasive procedures.
5. Sensing and Instrumentation: They are used in sensing and instrumentation ap-
plications, such as range finding, spectroscopy, and lidar, for their ability to provide
high-resolution, coherent light.
6. Displays: They are used in displays, such as laser projectors and heads-up displays,
for their ability to produce bright, vivid colors.
7. Research and Development: They are used in research and development laborato-
ries for various applications, including optical trapping, microscopy, and spectroscopy,
due to their versatility and controllability.

2.4 Four-probe method

The four-probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
The apparatus consists of four equally spaced tungsten metal tips with finite radius (see
figure 2.6). Each tip is supported by springs on the end to minimize sample damage during
probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-mechanical stage which travels up and down
during measurements. A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the
outer two probes, a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two probes to determine
the sample resistivity. Typical probe spacing is around 2 mm. These inner probes draw no
current because of the high input impedance voltmeter in the circuit. Thus unwanted voltage
drop at point 2 and point 3 caused by contact resistance between probes and the sample is
eliminated from the potential measurements.
In order to use this four-probe method in germanium crystals or slices it is necessary to
assume that:
ˆ The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
ˆ A non conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the crystal is in contact
with an insulator.

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 2.4. FOUR-PROBE METHOD

Figure 2.6: Four probe method apparatus

For each case it is assumed that the probes are equally spaced (spacing = s).

Case 1: Resistivity Measurements on a Large Sample

We assume that the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample is semi infinite in lateral dimensions.
For bulk samples where the sample thickness, w >> s , the probe spacing, we assume
a spherical protrusion of current emanating from the outer probe tips. The resistivity is
computed to be
V
ρ0 = × 2πs
I
where,
V = floating potential difference between the inner probes (volt)
I = current through the outer pair of probes (ampere)
s = spacing between point probes (meter)
ρ0 = resistivity (ohm meter)

Case 2: Resistivity Measurements on a Thin Slice

For the case of a nonconducting bottom on a slice the resistivity is computed from

ρ0
ρ= w


f s

w 2s
where, f = ln(2).
s w

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 2.5. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Temperatue dependence of resistivity

The resistivity ρ of a semiconductor depends on the temperatue T as follows
 
Eg
ρ = A exp
2kB T

where A is a constant, Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor.

Applications
1. Semiconductor Research: The four-probe method is widely used in the develop-
ment of new semiconductor devices, as it allows researchers to accurately measure the
resistivity of semiconductor materials and thin films.

2. Quality Control: In semiconductor manufacturing, the four-probe method is used in

quality control processes to ensure that materials meet the required resistivity specifi-
cations.

3. Thin Film Technologies: The four-probe method is used to characterize the electrical
properties of thin films, which are used in a variety of applications including solar cells,
displays, and sensors.

4. Fundamental Semiconductor Properties: The method is also used in fundamental

research to study the electrical properties of semiconductors and to investigate new
materials with potential applications in electronics.

2.5 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Explain how the resistivity of a semiconductor is determined using four probe method?
Mention any two applications of four probe method.
Q 2. Explain the construction and working of photodiode. Discuss the power responsivity
in a photodiode.
Q 3. Describe the construction and working of semiconductor laser with energy level diagram.
Q 4. Explain the construction and working of phototransistor and also mention any two
applications.

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Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju