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LECTURE 2: DESIGN THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES

2.1 Typical Structures

Steel can be used to construct many types of structures, including portal frames, braced multi-
storey buildings, towers and masts, lattice roof buildings, shells, etc.

Lattice roof building Portal frame

Typical scheme of a braced multi-storey Telecom towers

building

Steel is mostly used for structures where loads and spans are large and therefore is rarely used
for domestic buildings. Examples of steel structures include: low-rise and high-rise buildings,
bridges, towers, pylons, floors, oil rigs, etc and are basically composed of frames which support
the self-weight, dead loads and external imposed loads (wind, snow, traffic, etc).

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A typical steel structure consists of a load-bearing frame, cladding and services as shown in (a).
A load bearing frame is an assemblage of members (structural elements) which are arranged in
such a way that they interact through structural connections to support loads and maintain
equilibrium without excessive deformation.

2.2 Design principles

Structural engineering covers planning, design and construction of all structures. Structural
design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced engineer’s
intuitive feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of
structural mechanics and design, materials, geotechnics and codes of practice, to produce the
design and drawings for a safe and economical structure, and makes use of design aids,
handbooks and computers to help in making decisions and to carry out complex analyses.

Detailed design for any structures includes:

Step 1: Idealization of the structure for analysis and design,
Step 2: Estimation of loading
Step 3: Analysis of the various action/load cases and combinations of actions/loads and
identification of the most severe design actions,
Step 4: Design of the elements, structural frames, connections and foundations,
Step 5: Preparation of the final arrangements and detail drawings,
Step 6: Preparation of the materials list, bill of quantities and specifications to enable the
estimates and tender documents to be completed.
Steps 4 to 6 are iterative processes until the designer gets it right!

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Idealization of structures

Before any structure is designed, it must be reduced to a theoretical scheme or free body diagram
showing the arrangement of the members of the structure, the boundary conditions/constraints
and the actions (both internal and external) on the structure.

Most structures may be represented as a plane of space frame and then analyzed. The frame may
be analyzed and designed as any of the following: -

 Simple-joints are assumed to be pinned and not to resist moments. In this case, bracing is
mandatory to provide stability
 Rigid or continuous-joints are assumed to be fully continuous and moment-resisting.
 Semi-rigid or semi continuous- joints are assumed to be partially fixed and their behavior
must be considered in design.

Loads

These are actions on structures that must be designed for. They include dead, live, thermal, wind,
snow, seismic and accidental loads.

Dead loads: this is the force due to static weight of all walls, partitions, floors, roofs and finished
including all other permanent construction such as pipes, electric conduits, air conditioning
systems, heating ducts, lighting fixtures, etc and the self weight of the structural elements.

Dead loads are not known accurately until the design is complete. Therefore, the weight of the
structure must be estimated, preliminary sections selected, weight recomputed and member
selection revised if necessary.

Live (imposed loads): Load assumed to be produced by intended occupancy, including

distributed, concentrated, impact and snow loads but excluding wind loads. E.g. human
occupants, furniture, movable equipment, vehicles and stored goods.

Live loads are usually prescribed by building codes. These loads are generally empirical and
conservative, based on experience and accepted practice rather than accurately computed values.

Wind loads: this load depends on the location and building size.

Other loads: others caused by waves, ice, seismic effects, etc. appropriate codes can be
consulted where such loads are anticipated.

EN 1991(Eurocode 1: Actions on structures), gives guidelines for determination of various loads

or actions on structures.

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Analysis

Structural analysis is the determination of the deformations and forces (or stresses) on a
structure. Deformation refers to the movements of the various points in and on the structure and
may be linear or rotational displacements. Forces are the axial tension, compression, moment or
shears.

An accurate analysis is dependent first of all on a realistic modeling of the structural system in
terms of the actions or loads on the structure, its geometry, support conditions and the material
properties.

Secondly, the analyst will use knowledge of mechanics or strength of materials and elasticity
theory to derive a number of equations that are then used to obtain the deformations and forces
on a structure.

The solution of the derived equations may be got by hand calculation if the structure is simple
enough; otherwise, computer-aided analysis is employed.

Design

The fundamental objective of structural design is to ensure that the structure as a whole and its
components will attain the following requirements within its intended life and an acceptable
degree of reliability: -

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 Safety-the ability to sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during execution
and use
 Economy-the use of resources with little waste, calling for avoidance of over design
 Serviceability-the ability to remain fit for purpose for which it is required.
 Robustness- the ability not to be damaged by events such as explosion, impact or
consequences of human errors, to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.
 Fire resistance-the ability to resist fire for a required period of time so as to limit risks
with respect to people, the structure, neighbouring property or the environment.

In any design, criteria should be established to evaluate whether or not an optimum has been
achieved. Such criteria include minimum cost, minimum weight, minimum construction time,
minimum labour, etc

In addition to the above, it is crucial that steel be designed to be durable, robust and with a
sufficient design working life. This can be achieved by: -

 Designing against corrosion by means of a suitable surface protection and use of

weathering or stainless steel,
 Detailing for adequate fatigue life,
 Designing for wearing,
 Designing for accidental actions and
 Inspecting and maintaining the structure.

2.3 Design theories

There are a number of philosophies governing the design of structural steel. The choice of which
design theory to adopt is influenced by the current understanding of the behavior of materials
and systems as backed by scientific knowledge and expertise. All design criteria may be grouped
broadly as elastic, plastic and limit state methods.

Elastic design

This is the traditional method of design. The structure is assumed to obey Hooke’s law and
recover to its original position on removal of the load. Sections are sized so that permissible
stresses are not exceeded at any point in the structure. The permissible stresses are obtained by
dividing the yield stress by a factor of safety.

The factor of safety K is introduced to cater for:

 Deviations of actual load from the standard one,

 Deviations of the actual scheme from that used in analysis,
 Variations in the mechanical properties of the material.

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Plastic design

Tests on actual buildings show that a steel frame behaves very differently from the way assumed
in conventional design. In certain cases, elastic design may hide so much real behavior that it is
dangerous, the real factor of safety of a structural element can be less than assumed, while in
other cases it be excessive and an uneconomical structure will result.

The main design criterion in plastic design is that of strength. Plastic design consists of
determining the least load that will cause the structure to collapse. That load is called the
collapse load. The safe or working load is the collapse load divided by a load factor. For frames,
collapse occurs when sufficient hinges have formed to convert the structure or part of it to a
mechanism, subject to the condition that the plastic moment or yield stress is not exceeded at any
point in the frame.

Plastic theory is found far easier than elastic analysis. Also plastic design methods are simple and
rational (they deal with an accurately ascertainable criterion-collapse) and the designer can be
confident that his calculations are reflected in actual behavior). The perfect elasto-plastic stress-
strain relationship assumed in simple plastic design is shown below-

Plastic methods are usually used for the design of single-storey and multi-storey, multi-bay,
rigid-portal frames.

Limit state design:

In Limit State Design, account is taken in design of all separate conditions (limit states) that
could make the structure unfit for its intended use. There are two types of limit states: the
ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS).

ULS include: -

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 Strength (i.e. collapse),

 Stability (i.e. overturning),
 Fatigue fracture and
 Brittle fracture.

They define safety against local or overall failure conditions during the intended life of the
structure.

Serviceability limit states include: -

• Deflection • Durability • Excessive noise,

• Vibration • Fire-resistance • Lightning,

• Cracking • Water tightness • Excessive gain or loss

of heat, etc.
• Corrosion

They define functional requirements such that the structure does not cause the occupants
discomfort under routine conditions.

Most design codes take the view that the ULS must be satisfied first because public safety is
paramount; serviceability considerations come second because they permit more exercise of
judgment on behalf of the designer. It should be appreciated that a structure where the
serviceability requirements are not met, e.g. when the beams deflect by more than the SLS limit,
will not necessarily fail structurally.

A design is considered to be satisfactory when no limit state is exceeded after relevant values for
actions, material and product properties and geometrical data are used. The design values are
obtained by applying appropriate partial safety factors as defined in the codes of practice such as
Eurocode EN1990: Basis of structural design. Eurocode 3 is based on the limit state concept.

Limit State Design is applied as follows: -

a) The ULS begins with a computation of the loads. The working/characteristic/nominal

loads are the actual loads the structure is designed to carry, and are not exceeded during
the design life of the structure. The characteristic load has a 95% probability of not being
exceeded.

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Fk-characteristic load

Fm-mean load

s-standard deviation

1.64 is the constant k that

corresponds to a 5% defective level

Limit state design requires that factored/design loads be used in design calculations for strength
and stability i.e.

The load factor takes account of: -

 Possible unusual increases in load beyond those considered in deriving the characteristic
load,
 any unforeseen effects of the load due to inadequacies of the method of analysis,
 dimensional inaccuracy in construction
 the importance of the limit state being considered.

The factored loads should be applied in the most unfavourable realistic combination for the part
or effect under consideration.

A structure is deemed to satisfy the ULS criteria if all applied factored bending, shear, tensile
and compressive stresses calculated using factored loads are less than the factored resistance
calculated for the section under consideration.

b) Strength: the required strength of structural members and connections have to be

determined by a suitable analytical method and for the appropriate load combinations.

Design values of member and connection resistances are determined from characteristic values
of material strength and geometrical properties, divided by a partial factor (γM). Values of γM are
given in BS EN 1993-1-1 or BS EN 1994-1-1, as appropriate.

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c) Serviceability
a structure is considered to satisfy the SLS when limits prescribed in the
codes are not exceeded. The purpose is to ensure that users of the structure
are not unnerved by large deflections of the floor, vibrations cause by
walking, sickened by excessive swaying of the building or bridge during high
winds and to keep beam deflections low enough to ensure that brittle finishes
do not crack, affecting the appearance and durability of the structure.

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2.4 Wind Loading (EC1-4)

Wind Loading should not be ignored especially for light structures such as steel structures. This
loads can lead to common failures e.g tiles and iron sheet cladding flying away even in moderate
storms. Swaying is also experienced where there is a lack of lateral resistance.

Definitions

1. Dynamic pressure: the potential pressure available from the kinetic energy of the
effective wind speed
2. Pressure coefficient: the ratio of the pressure acting on a surface to the dynamic pressure
3. external pressure: the pressure acting on an external surface of a building caused by the
direct action of the wind
4. Internal pressure: the pressure acting on an internal surface of a building caused by the
action of the external pressures through porosity and openings in the external surfaces of
the building
5. Net pressure: the pressure difference between opposite faces of a surface

Wind loading design is done in accordance to Eurocode 1-Part 4. Wind loading is based upon
characteristic values which have an annual probability of exceedance of 0.02 (1 in 50 year return
period).

The simplified procedure for determination of wind forces in areas where orography is not
significant is shown below.

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Determine Vb, map – Fundamental Basic wind speed before the altitude factor has been applied-the 10 minute
mean wind velocity with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0.02 at a height of 10m above flat open country terrain

Fundamental Value of basic wind velocity Vb,0=Vb,map X Calt (Eqn. NA. 1)

Altitude correction factor Calt=1+ 0.001A (Eq. NA.2A)

Basic wind speed Vb= Cdir X Cseason X Vb,0

(Eqn. 4.1). Cdir and Cseason correction factors can conservatively be taken as 1.0

Basic wind pressure qb=0.613Vb2 (Eqn. 4.10 and Cl. NA.2.55)

Peak Velocity Pressure

Site in NO
Peak Velocity Pressure YES qp=Ce(z) Ce(T) qb (Eqn.
Country
qp=Ce(z) qb (Eqn. NA.3a) Terrain? NA.3b)

Determine Ce(z) from

Determine Ce(z) from figure figure NA.7 & Ce(T) from
NA.7 figure NA.8

Wind Pressure on wall = Cp,net X qp .

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Terrain Categories (Based on table 4.1 in EC1-4)

The site must be idealised in a Terrain Category which represents the surface roughness of the
ground leading up to the site. The terrain category may vary with win direction. Z is the height at
which the wind speed is to be calculated.

Displacement Height (Based on A.5)

For buildings in towns, closely spaced buildings and other obstructions cause the wind to behave
as if the ground level was raised to a displacement height, hdis.

Exposure correction factor Ce(z) -It is necessary to know the distance the wind blows from the

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shoreline to the site,

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Exposure correction factor Ce(T) -if the site is in Town terrain –it is important to know the distance
the site is inside town terrain

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Assessment of External pressure Coefficients for Duopitch Roofs (Based on Figure 7.8)

External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs for θ=0o (based on Table 7.4a)

F G H I J
o
5 -1.7 -1.2 -0.6 -0.6 +0.2/-0.6
15o -0.9/+0.2 -0.8/+0.2 -0.3/+0.2 -0.4 -1
30o -0.5/+0.7 -0.5/+0.7 -0.2/+0.4 -0.4 -0.5

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External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs for θ=90o (based on Table 7.4b)

F G H I
o
5 -1.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.6
15o -1.3 -1.3 -0.6 -0.5
30o -1.1 -1.4 -0.8 -0.5

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Assessment of External pressure Coefficients vertical walls (Based on fig.7.5 and Table 7.1)

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Zone A B C D(Front/Windward) E
(Back/Leeward)
h/d
5 -1.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.8 -0.7
1 -1.2 -.0.8 -0.5 +0.8 -0.5
≤0.25 -1.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.7 -0.3

Note: A positive wind load stands for pressure whereas a negative wind load indicates suction on
the surface. This definition applies for the external wind action as well as for the internal wind
action.

The internal pressure coefficient depends on the size and distribution of the openings in the
building envelope. In most cases, it is not possible to estimate the permeability and opening ratio
of the building. So cpi should be taken as the more onerous of + 0.2 and – 0.3
The wind pressure on a surface,

The wind force on a surface , where A is the area of the surface, COA accounts for
the time lag between the wind blowing on the front and he sucking off the back of a building.

Example:

A simple house is to be constructed at a site 60km from the sea

and 10km inside town terrain in a city centre. The building is
approximately 15m from surrounding buildings of similar height.
According to the wind map for this area,the basic wind speed is
22.5m/s and the site is 80m above sea level. The Pitch angle is 50.
Calculate the uplift the wind will cause.

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Wall external Pressure coefficients

Zone A B C D(Front/Windward) E
(Back/Leeward)
h/d
5 -1.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.8 -0.7
1 -1.2 -.0.8 -0.5 +0.8 -0.5
≤0.25 -1.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.7 -0.3

Roof external pressure coefficients

For direction θ=0o

F G H I J
5o -1.7 -1.2 -0.6 -0.6 +0.2/-0.6
15o -0.9/+0.2 -0.8/+0.2 -0.3/+0.2 -0.4 -1
30o -0.5/+0.7 -0.5/+0.7 -0.2/+0.4 -0.4 -0.5
For direction θ=90o

F G H I
o
5 -1.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.6
15o -1.3 -1.3 -0.6 -0.5
30o -1.1 -1.4 -0.8 -0.5

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Most onerous wind pressure =1.03*0.41=0.42kN/m2. This is a lateral load on the wall and must
be accounted for in design.

Most Onerous roof sunction can be estimated by averaging the pressure coefficients of the zones
as the case may be and comparing against the deadload(self weight) of the roof.

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or =-1.1

-1.65*0.41=0.68kN/m2

PS: The critical positive pressure on the roof leads to an additional vertical load on the eaves.

2.5 DESIGNING STEEL STRUCTURES TO EUROCODES

BS EN 1990 can be considered as the ‘core’ document of the structural Eurocode system because
it establishes the principles and requirements for the safety, serviceability and durability of
structures.

The information given in the Structural Eurocodes is based on limit state design. BS EN 1990
defines a limit state as a ‘state beyond which the structure no longer fulfils the relevant design
criteria’.

Structures must be designed, executed (constructed) and maintained such that, with appropriate
degrees of reliability they will:
· Perform adequately under all expected actions
· Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs
· Not be damaged disproportionately by exceptional hazards such as fire, explosion and
impact.
Reliability is a complex subject in itself but is dealt with using limit state philosophy

All relevant design situations should be considered for the structure. The design situations
considered by the Eurocodes are:
Persistent – the normal use of the structure.
Transient – temporary situations, e.g. execution.
Accidental – exceptional events, e.g. fire, impact or explosion.
Seismic – seismic events that may act on the structure.
The Eurocodes do not specify any limits for serviceability criteria, but limits may be given in the
National Annexes.

Reliability

Ultimate limit state design codes are based upon probabilistic models of actions and strengths.
These are derived from safety requirements and reliability theory. Reliability theory relies

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heavily upon the Gaussian distribution, which mathematicians ‘normalise’ to produce the
Normal Distribution, which is tabulated and widely taught in statistics.

In order to ensure public safety, structural engineers take a cautious approach to design by:

· using a 95th percentile action (a force which will rarely be exceeded),

· using a 5th percentile strength (a resistance which will usually be exceeded).
These design points are called characteristics.

In order to produce a safe design, the engineer seeks to make the characteristic resistance (Rk)
exceed the characteristic action (Ek), this is shown as the safety margin. The spread of the
distribution (standard deviation) will depend upon how reliable the manufacture of the material
is, or how accurately predictable the action is. This is reflected by reducing the resistance by an
appropriate factor (Ɣm) and increasing the action by an appropriate factor (Ɣf), these are known
as design values (Rd and Ed).

Some material manufacture is more predictable than others. Steel is manufactured in a controlled
environment (factory) and each ingot is tested before being sold, hence Ɣm = 1.00, but concrete is
subject to variability in site workmanship and is not tested until after it has set, hence Ɣm = 1.50,
or concrete is a less reliable material than steel.

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Combination of actions
BS EN 1990 requires the structure or member to be designed for the critical load cases that are
determined by combining actions that can occur simultaneously.
Independent or single actions are split into three groups:
· Permanent actions (e.g. self weight and dead loads) G
· Variable actions (imposed and wind loads) Q
· Accidental actions (earthquake, blast and impact loads) A

All of these loadings are stochastic (time dependant), so when combining them together we may
take advantage of the reducing probability that all actions act together simultaneously. This is
done using action partial safety factors and probability sensitivity factors.

For the Ultimate limit state, two methods for determining the combination of actions to be used
for the persistent or transient ultimate limit state (ULS) are presented in BS EN 1990. The
options are to use expression (6.10) on its own or, for strength or geotechnical limit states, to
determine the least favourable combination from expression (6.10a) and (6.10b).

Where multiple independent variable actions occur simultaneously, the Eurocodes consider one
to be a leading variable action (Qk,1) and the other(s) to be accompanying variable actions (Qk,i).

The expressions for the combinations of actions given in BS EN1990 for Ultimate limit state
design are given below:

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Typical values of the partial, combination and reduction factors as given in the UK National
Annex are given below:-

The partial factors above are for the ‘unfavourable’ condition.

For the Serviceability Limit State, the expressions for the combinations of actions in BS EN
1990 are given below.

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Characteristic combination: This combination of actions should be used when considering an

irreversible serviceability limit state.
Frequent combination: Reversible serviceability limit states. This combination could be used
when checking the non-permanent vertical displacement of a floor that supports a machine that is
sensitive to vertical alignment.
Quasi-permanent combination: The quasi-permanent combination of actions should be used
when considering reversible limit states or long term effects. When considering the appearance
of a structure, the quasi-permanent combination should be used.

For steelwork, the National Annex to BS EN 1993 gives suggested limits for calculated vertical
deflections and advises that the permanent loads should not be included. The suggested limits are
given below.

Horizontal deflection limits are also suggested, which is height/300. This limit is not applicable
to portal frames.

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EUROCODE 3 AND STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

BS EN 1993-1-1 gives generic design rules for steel structures and specific guidance for
structural steelwork used in buildings. It presents design rules for use with the other parts of BS
EN 1993 for steel structures and with BS EN 1994 for composite steel and concrete structures.

BS EN 1993-1 comprises twelve parts (BS EN 1993-1-1 to BS EN 1993-1-12). When designing

orthodox steel framed buildings, the following parts of BS EN 1993-1 will be required:
BS EN 1993-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings
BS EN 1993-1-2 Structural fire design
BS EN 1993-1-3 Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
BS EN 1993-1-5 Plated structural elements
BS EN 1993-1-8 Design of joints
BS EN 1993-1-10 Material toughness and through-thickness properties

When designing a steel and concrete composite building, the following parts of Eurocode 4 will
be required:
BS EN 1994-1-1 Design of composite steel and concrete structures – General Rules and rules for
buildings
BS EN 1994-1-2 Design of composite steel and concrete structures -Structural fire design

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In addition to the above, the following Eurocode is needed: BS EN 1992-1-1 Design of concrete
structures - General Rules and rules for buildings

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Steel grades
The rules in BS EN 1993-1-1 relate to structural steel grades S235 to S460 in accordance with
BS EN 10025, BS EN 10210 or BS EN 10219 and thus cover all the structural steels likely to be
used in buildings. For the design of stainless steel components and structures, reference should
be made to BS EN 1993-1-4.

Although Table 3.1 of BS EN 1993-1-1 presents steel strengths, the UK National Annex
specifies that the nominal yield strength (fy) and ultimate strength (fu) of the steel should be taken
from the product Standard. It should be noted that where values from the product standard are
used, the specific product standard for the steel grade (e.g. BS EN 10025-2) is required when
determining strength values, since there is a slight variation between the Parts of BS EN 10025
for the strength of thicker elements.

Yield and ultimate strength values for common steel thicknesses for S275 and S355 steels as
given in the product Standards are reproduced here in the table below.

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The National Annex specifies that when a range of ultimate strengths is given in the product
Standard, the lowest value of the range must be chosen. Ultimate strengths in the table above are
therefore the minimum in the quoted range.

Robustness
Connections between building members should be designed so that they prevent the building
from failing in a manner disproportionate to the event that has caused the structural damage. BS
EN 1991-1-7 gives the design requirements for making structures robust against accidental
actions.

Eurocode subscripts

Eurocode conventions

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