A classification scheme for ore deposits
There are many different way of categorizing ore deposits, and the
best classification schemes are probably those that remain as
independent of genetic linkage as possible these are:
Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary ore deposits (Fig 1, a, b)
Einaudi, (2000), stated that all mineral deposits can be classified
into three types based on process, namely
magmatic deposits, hydrothermal deposits, and surfacial deposits
formed by surface and groundwater.
Fig 1 classification of the principle rock types (a) and an analogous, but
much simplified, classification of ore deposit types (b) photograph show
interplay between ore forming processes
Magmatic Ore Deposits
Magmatic ore deposits are those which are formed during
crystallization of a magma, deep underground. The host rock for
the mineralization can range from ultramafic to felsic. The deposit
can consist of massive ores in some cases, and disseminations of rare
minerals in others. In the case of more massive ores, there are three
primary means of concentrating minerals of value during the
formation of these deposits (Fig. 3.38):
• gravitational settling
• differentiation
• immiscible separations
immiscible separations
Oil and water don’t mix …
• As magmas cool, they can split into two liquids
of different composition and density.
– One of these liquids is the silica-rich melt. It has the
most volume
– The other, typically much smaller in volume, can be
rich in metal oxides, sulfides or carbonates.
High T Low T
Desirable element preferentially concentrated into low-volume melt
• Types of Immiscible Melts
• Oxide melts can be rich in Fe (Fe2O3, hematite) and Ti
(FeTiO3, ilmanite).
• Sulfide melts can be rich in Ni, Cu, and the platinum-
group elements, in addition to iron sulfur (FeS,
pyrrhotite).
• Carbonate melts can be rich in niobium, tantalum, rare
earths, copper, thorium, and phosphorous.
What make a viable mineral deposit?
Table 1 average crustal abundance for selected metal and typical concentration
factors that need to be achieved in order to produce a viable ore deposits
(From Evan, A.M, 1993)
Note: 1 ppm is the same as 1 gt -1
Elements Average Crutal Typical exploitable Approximate
abundance grade or \ concentration
(Av.minimum exploitable factor
grade)
Al 8.20% 30 % *4
Fe 5.60% 50 % * 10
Cu 55 ppm 1% * 180
Ni 75 ppm 1% * 130
Zn 70 ppm 5% * 700
Sn 2 ppm 0.5 % * 2500
Au 4 ppb 5 gt -1 * 1250
Pt 5 ppb 5 gt -1 * 1000
Terminology:
Ore: any naturally occurring material from which a mineral or
aggregate of value can be extracted at profit.
To be ore must be ,
1-Payable, 2- Involve economic consideration, 3- involving geologic
consideration.
Economic Consideration:
• Mineral exploration
• Economic evaluation
• Mine development
• Mine extraction
• Ore dressing
• Smelting
• Refining
• Marketing
• Power supplies
• 10-Eqipments cost
• 11-water supplies
• 12-Transport metal cost
Gangue minerals: Usually worthless, non metallic minerals of a
deposit that may be:
Introduced minerals, b- The inclosing rocks c- are discarded in
the treatment of the ore
Economic minerals: Are natural resources which, once extracted
and used, are not renewable.
Grade: The concentration of an element in a mineral deposit is termed
grade usually expressed as % or in ppm
Cut-off grade: The lowest percentage at which deposits can be
economically worked is termed cut-off grade.
Tenor: The grade or amount of commodity actually present
Factors controlling cut-off grade limit:
A-Geological factor, B-Geochemical factors, C-Other factors
The point B and C depend on the following factors:
1-By product
2-Undesirable substance
3-Mineralogical form
4-Grain size and shape
5-Size and shape of ore body
6-Mineral characters
The other factors controlling the classification of Cut-off grade are:
• 1-Commodity price
• 2-Cost of capital
• 3-Location
• 4-Environmental consideration
• 5-Taxation
• 6-Political factors
Syngenetic: refers to ore deposits that form at the same time as their host
rocks.
Epigenetic: refers to ore deposits that form after their host rocks.
Hypogene: refers to mineralization caused by ascending hydrothermal
solution.
Supergene: refers to mineralization caused by descending solutions.
Generally refers to the enrichment process accompanying the
weathering and oxidation of sulfide and oxide ores at or near the
surface.
Metallogeny: the study of genesis of mineral deposits, with emphasis
on their relationship in space and time to geological features of the
Earths crust.
Metallotect: any geological, tectonic, lithological, or geochemical
feature that has played a role in the concentration of one or more
elements in the Earths crust.
Metallogeneic Epoch: a unit of geologic time favorable for
deposition of ores or characterized by a particular assemblage of
deposit types.
Metallogenic Province: a region characterized by a particular
assemblage of mineral deposit type.
Epithermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at shallow depth (less
than 1500 m) and fairly low temperature (50-200 ˚C)
Mesothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at intermediate
depth (1500 – 4500 m) and temperature 200 - 400˚C)
Hypothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at substantial depth
(grater than 4500 m) and elevated temperature (400-600 ˚C)
Periodic table of the elements:
Fig 2 Periodic table showing the 92 geologically relevant elements classified on
the basis of their rock and mineral associations ( From Robb, 2005)
Common Ore and Gangue mineral
1- Native element
Metals Non-Metals
Gold - Au Sulfur – S
Silver - Ag Diamond – C
Platinum - Pt Graphite - C
Palladium - Pd
Copper - Cu
2- Halides
• Halite – NaCl
• Sylvite – Kcl
• Chloragyrite –AgCl
• Fluorite - CaF2
• Atacmite Cu2 Cl(OH)3
3- Sulfide and Sulfo-salts
Sulfide Sulfo-salt
Chlcocite – Cu2S Tetrahedrite – (Cu,Ag)12 Sb4 S13
Bornite – Cu5FeS4 Tennanite – (Cu,Ag) 12 As4 S13
Galena – PbS Energite – Cu3 AsS4
Sphalerite – ZnS
Chlcopyrite – CuFeS2
Phrhotite – Fe 1-x S
Pentlandite – (Fe,Ni) 9 S8
Millerite – NiS
Covellite - CuS
Cinnabar – HgS
Pyrite – FeS2
4- Oxides:
Oxides Hydroxide (or Oxyhydroxide)
Cuprite- Cu2O
Hematite – Fe2O3 Geothite FeO(OH)
Illminite – FeTiO3 Gibbsite – Al(OH)3
Hercynite – FeAl2O4 Boehemite – MnO(OH)
Gahnite – ZnAl2O4
Magnetite – Fe3O4
Chromite – FeCr2O4
Rutile – TiO2
Anatase – TiO2
Pyrlucite –MnO2
Casseterite – SnO2
Uraninite – UO2
Thorianite – ThO2
