iii

STALK DIVINATION

A Newly Discovered Alternative to

the I Ching

Edited and Translated by

Constance A. Cook
AND

Zhao Lu 趙璐

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1
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​064845–​9

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
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CONTENTS

Preface ix
List of Charts and Illustrations xiii

Introduction 1
The Cultural Milieu of Fourth-​Century bce China 2
The Shifa Text 5
Contextualizing the Shifa and Its Use 13
Stalk Divination 18
Features of the Manuscript 26

1. General Principles of Shifa Interpretation 29

Relative Positioning 35
Fixed Positioning 38
The Use and Nature of Extraordinary Numbers 40
The Application of the Extraordinary Numbers
in the Reading 42
The Rules: Applications and Implications 44
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Contents

2. Traces of Shifa-​Style Divination 47

3. Transcription and Translation 53

Section 1. “Life and Death” 死生 71
Section 2. “Obtaining” 得 77
Section 3. “Presenting Offerings” 享 86
Section 4. “Change” 變 90
Section 5. “Arrival” 至 92
Section 6. “Marrying a Wife” 娶妻 94
Section 7. “Negotiation” 讎 96
Section 8. “Meeting” 見 98
Section 9. “Spiritual Blame” 咎 100
Section 10. “Healing” 瘳 102
Section 11. “Rainy and Clear Weather” 雨旱 103
Section 12. “Male or Female” 男女 105
Section 13. “Travel” 行 106
Section 14. “Prognosticating on Husbands
and Women” 貞丈夫女子 107
Section 15. “Minor Attainments” 小得 109
Section 16. “War” 戰 112
Section 17. “Completing” 成 114
Section 18. “Intended Service” 志事 116
Section 19. “Intended Service, Military Troops”
志事 、軍旅 117
Section 20. “The Four Position Chart” 四位表 119
Section 21. “Auspiciousness and
Inauspiciousness According to the
Four Seasons” 四季吉凶 122
Section 22. “The Cycle of Qian and Kun”
乾坤運轉 126

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Contents

Section 23. “Results” 果 128

Section 24. “Pictures of the Trigram Array
and Human Body” 卦位圖、人身圖 131
Section 25. “Heavenly Stems and Trigrams”
天干與卦 134
Section 26. “Curses” 祟 136
Section 27. “Earthly Stems and Trigrams”
地支與卦 140
Section 28. “Earthly Stems and Line Numbers”
地支與爻 142
Section 29. “Line Number Images” 爻象 143
Section 30. “The Seventeen Commands” 十七命 145

Glossary 147
Chart of All Shifa and Some Shuogua Correlations 155
Table of Hexagram Correlations in the Zhouyi and Guicang 159
Summary Content of Zhouyi and Wangjiatai (Guicang)
Hexagram Texts 163
Notes 171
Bibliography 181
Index 191

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ix

PREFACE

This book presents for the first time a full translation and analy-
sis of a newly discovered bamboo divination text from preimperial
China, called the Shifa 筮法. The manual presents a completely new
way of reading the results of stalk divination, which traditionally is
done in terms of hexagrams according to a tradition and text popu-
larly known as the I Ching (otherwise known as the Book of Changes,
Yijing, or Zhouyi). The Shifa divination method is focused on the eight
trigrams, which make up the fundamental building blocks of the 64
hexagrams, as seen in the Zhouyi, but the method of their interpre-
tation in the Shifa is unlike anything in the Changes tradition. The
authors of this book have translated this new text and “cracked the
code” of its methodology. This new divination methodology will gen-
erate a reevaluation of all pre-​Qin divinatory results and bring new
light to Zhouyi studies.
The original text is short (only 63 bamboo strips which roll out
sort of like a placemat), but it is complete, including 18 sections of
sample trigram pattern readings and 21 tables or diagrams of factors
(parts of the body, seasons, calendar signs, lists of mantic numbers,
curses, etc.) that had to be considered by the diviner when interpret-
ing the trigram patterns (hexagrams are never mentioned). This book

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Preface

explores the logic behind each rather cryptic translated case and pres-
ents it to readers as a functional manual, not simply as a translation
exercise. Some of the information buried in the text is also transcribed
graphically into useful reference charts. Illustrations of the different
sections of the original text are included for the use of scholars and
students but also to give all readers a tangible sense of the original.
Besides charts to clarify the logic of the ancient divination method, a
number of reference tables are appended for readers, who may wish
to think through each case themselves and perhaps compare it with
other published divination manuals, such as the Zhouyi. Even though
the Shifa trigrams are presented as number series in the original (a
concept we analyze), the more modern trigram signs (of broken and
unbroken lines) are also supplied. For simplicity, we have included no
archaic characters except a few as illustrations in the Introduction.
Readers must understand that the contrast with the modern Chinese
language and worldview is dramatic. The fourth-​century bce world,
of which this manual gives us a glimpse, is long gone.
Anyone who studies this book, particularly those interested in
the Zhouyi, will soon realize that the Shifa is in many ways a “coun-
terclassic.” It was not written by an acolyte of King Wen, Zhou Gong,
or even Confucius in the northern Zhou tradition. The Shifa bears
distinct identifiers that mark it as southern and most likely produced
in the southern state of Chu. It is a pragmatic text without a shred
of mystical philosophy. The original author(s) must have been aware
of the Zhouyi—​after all, trigrams were the original building blocks of
the hexagrams, but the Shifa methodology employed a completely
different method of reading the stalk-​divination results. With this
new interpretative method in hand, the authors suggest that some
variations in later commentaries of the Zhouyi tradition may have
been the result of influence from this countertradition.
The authors come to the project as specialists of two different
eras of Chinese religion and thought. Cook is an expert on excavated
texts from the preimperial era, and Zhao is a scholar of intellec-
tual history of the imperial era. Both acknowledge the inspiration
as well as the intellectual and financial support of the International

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Preface

Consortium for Research in the Humanities, “Fate, Freedom and

Prognostication: Strategies for Coping with the Future in East Asia
and Europe” of Friedrich-​Alexander-​Universität Erlangen-​Nürnberg,
Germany. We thank Lala Zuo for help with the illustrations, Chen
Wei and Li Rui for bibliographic suggestions, and the anonymous
reviewers of our manuscript for their many helpful suggestions.

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LIST OF CHARTS AND

ILLUSTRATIONS

Chart 1.1: Trigrams and the Four Directions  30

Chart 1.2: Seasons and Trigram Auspiciousness 31
Chart 1.3: Gender and Trigrams 32
Chart 1.4: Earthly Branches and Trigrams 33
Chart 1.5: Heavenly Stems and Trigrams 33
Chart 1.6: “Wife-​and-​Husband” Positions 35
Chart 1.7: “Vacancy” Examples 37
Chart 1.8: Line Reconfiguration Examples 38
Chart 1.9: “Accomplishment” Example 43
Chart 3.1: “Left and Right” Trigrams 78
Chart 3.2: Spatial Trigram Array 88
Chart 3.3: Trigrams and Normative Moon Positions 88
Chart 3.4: The Four Positions 120
Chart 3.5: Seasons and Trigrams 125

Illustration 3.1: Section 24 55

Illustration 3.2: Sections 1 and 2 56

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L i s t o f C h a r t s a n d Ill u s t r a t i o n s

Illustration 3.3: Sections 3–​13 58

Illustration 3.4: Sections 14 and 15 59
Illustration 3.5: Sections 16–​18 60
Illustration 3.6: Section 19 62
Illustration 3.7: Section 20 64
Illustration 3.8: Sections 21–​23 66
Illustration 3.9: Sections 25–​29 68
Illustration 3.10: Section 30 70

xiv
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Introduction

The most famous ancient Chinese manual of stalk divination is the

Book of Changes, known popularly as the I Ching (but here as either the
Yijing 易經 or Zhouyi 周易). This book has been the bible of ancient
stalk-​method divination and cosmological thinking for thousands of
years. However, with the recent surge of newly discovered ancient
bamboo texts, a new type of manual has been discovered, called by
the researchers the Stalk Divination (Shifa 筮法), a text that seems
at first glance to be related to the Zhouyi but after closer analysis
turns out to be completely different. The Shifa provides an expanded
perspective on ancient divination practices and some of the forces
against which the Zhouyi tradition formed. We learn that not only
were there a variety of different methods for reading the results of
stalk divination but also that some of these non-​Zhouyi methods may
have informed minority readings eventually applied to the Changes
tradition.
The Shifa divination manual dates to around 300 bce accord-
ing to carbon-​14 analysis of the bamboo strips upon which it was
copied. Analysis of the calligraphy and language further point to
a southern origin, most likely associated with the state of Chu
located between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, in the modern
provinces of Hubei and Henan. This means that the text is a prod-
uct of the rich and vibrant fourth-​century bce culture that we will
describe briefly before digging further into the details of the text
and its preservation.

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Introduction

THE CULTURAL MILIEU OF

FOURTH-​C ENTURY bce CHINA

The fourth century bce was a time of tremendous intellectual and

social ferment. The concept of a unified “China” still did not exist. It
was the peak of the Warring States period (475–​221 bce)—​a time
when the handful of states remaining after the fall of the last unified
government under the Zhou in 771 bce fought bitterly for control of
the extended old Zhou lands. Armies marched across borders anni-
hilating the ancestral shrines of local rulers and setting up complex
but shifting networks of alliances and tribute territories. Among
these, the Chu state, traditionally considered an outlier of the realm
of Zhou civilization rose as a strong contender. The Chu rulers in fact
had from early on paid tribute to the Zhou, but they were also among
the first to proclaim themselves as wang (“kings”) and therefore equal
in status to the Zhou ruler (whose house had been the hegemon of
the ancient Chinese realm since 1046 bce).
Archaeological discoveries have revealed that by the sixth century
bce the Chu state was extremely wealthy. Although inscriptions on
bronze sacrificial vessels and bell chimes reveal a strong Zhou influ-
ence, the Chu people had their own style and identity. By the fourth
century bce, the tombs of local Chu elite were veritable treasure
troves of silks, lacquerware, bronzes, gold, fine carvings and paint-
ings, chariots, weapons, foods, furniture, and libraries.1
The ancient libraries included philosophical, historical, admin-
istrative, and religious texts written on scrolls composed of thin
bamboo strips tied together with strings. There are hints that these
ancient libraries also included texts written on sheets of thin silk, but
preserved examples seem to date from slightly later than the fourth
century bce. The exception is the “Chu Silk Manuscript” preserved by
the Arthur M. Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington,
D.C. This text, which was brought to the United States in the 1940s,
turns out to have been folded together with at least 10 other lay-
ers of texts.2 The top and most legible layer reveals a typical late

2
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Introduction

fourth-​century bce concern with matching human action properly

to the seasons and to a calendar of 12 months. All aspects of time—​
seasons and months (including certain stars or constellations)—​were
understood to be purposeful spirits, each with the agency to cause
calamity and dystopia if the calendar was not properly followed. This
was a typical fourth-​century bce concern that we also see reflected to
a degree in the Shifa, although the Shifa does not provide any narra-
tive describing the creation of the cosmos or any overt concern with
observation of the stars in the sky.
Both the Chu Silk Manuscript and the Shifa were about the size
of a placemat and represented a late fourth-​century conception of
the cosmos, one moving away from the static Four Regions or Four
Directions (sifang 四方) model to the more dynamic Five Processes
(Wuxing 五行) model.3 Both models encompass notions of Heaven
(Tian 天, the Sky) and Earth (Di 地) as separate by connected spheres
of supernatural agency, but the former was dominated by ancestral
spirits and the latter by natural forces. It was during this period that
the abstract concept of the Way (Dao 道) rose. It was the ultimate but
fluid force behind changes in the sky and on earth (and by extension
in human society and all living things).4
The concept of Dao was very popular in the fourth century bce.
There were many different types of Dao, the Way of Heaven (Tian
Dao 天道 or Tian zhi dao 天之道), the Way of Man (Ren Dao 人道),
the Way of the Former Kings (Xianwang zhi Dao 先王之道), the
Way of a Superior Man or Gentleman (Junzi zhi Dao 君子之道), and
many others. Basically the word Dao (a word originaly referring to a
road or course) meant both a method for behavior as well as a term
for the ultimate force of nature behind all of creation. The relation-
ship between behavior and Dao was crucial; one fourth-​century bce
southern way of writing the graph for Dao was a person 人 in the
center of the two halves of the graph for xing 行.5 The word for enact-
ing a Dao or behavior (xing 行) also meant to move along a course. It
could refer to travel of a human being on earth in a particular direc-
tion or stars in the sky from one position to another (often referred

3
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Introduction

to as the 28 Lodges, she 宿). It could refer to the movement of the

seasons, as it does in the Chu Silk Manuscript. The Shifa explains the
basic behavior of trigrams as a reflection of natural or cosmic law, the
“Way of Heaven” (tian zhi dao 天之道). These natural laws included
the basic concepts that “male (powers) overcome female (powers)”
and a “majority overcomes a minority.”6
By the Han period, the Way of Heaven was broken down into the
weak and strong powers called Yin and Yang that fluctuated through
the seasons and over time in a cycle called Five Courses or Processes
(sometimes called “agents,” elements,” or “phases”), the Wuxing.
These five xing were correlated to supernatural agencies of Wood,
Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water, which were in turn associated with
particular directions, spirits, and other phenomena. This was not a
fully formed ideology during the fourth century bce. For example,
the Chu Silk Manuscript and the Shifa emphasize only four direc-
tions and four processes. The missing direction was the “center,” the
supernatural agent of “earth,” and its corresponding color “yellow.”
We note that it was simultaneously with the rise of the imperial age
that the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi 黄帝) was assigned the role of
highest ancestor. The only mention of a Huangdi in preimperial texts
is in a Qi 齊 state bronze inscription, and there it simply referred to
an ancestral spirit and not the creator of the Chinese people at large.
In addition, we find that the earliest use of the term Wuxing referred
not to natural forces but to five modes of proper behavior, that is,
the strict hierarchical social relationships emphasized by followers
of Confucius. Negotiating the influences of cosmic and supernatural
powers that influenced those relationships involved methods cate-
gorized as shushu 術數 “techniques and calculations” by Han schol-
ars. These techniques and calculations involved astrology, almanacs,
cosmological treatises, and other more pragmatic ur-​sciences later
linked to Huangdi.7 The Shifa belongs to this category of text.
Another feature of the fourth century bce important for under-
standing the Shifa was the role of spirits. During the Warring States
period the clumsy antique framework of the Zhou spirit bureau-
cracy (a network of ancestral spirits [zushen 祖神] that served the

4
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Introduction

dead kings next to the High God, Shangdi 上帝)8 finally collapsed.
The Zhou king was no longer worshipped and the ancestral shrines
of those originally allied to the Zhou royal house were destroyed with
impunity (except for the danger of an occasional revengeful ghost).
Perhaps as a reflection of the increasing technical skills of astrono-
mers and mathematicians, natural forces (the xing) trumped those of
ancestral spirits.9 People still feared their ancestral spirits, especially
those that had been powerful in life, but they also worried about the
influences of a host of environmental spirits and human ghosts that
could emerge if they acted out of balance with Nature.
During the fourth century bce, the new concept of qi 氣, an atomic
vapor or breath that animated all visible things (wu 物), was becoming
increasingly accepted as an explanation for life that would replace the
earlier role of ancestral spiritual legacies. By the imperial age, qi would
be divided into two forms, one dark (Yin 陰) and one light (Yang 陽),
that along with the five elemental forces of nature (wood, fire, earth,
metal, and water, the Wuxing) would account for all changes in the
human experience. It would be during the imperial age that Yin and
Yang would be firmly assigned to the gender categories of female
and male. But in the fourth century bce, these associations were still
nascent. They occurred in some texts but not in others.10 We will see
as we explore the Shifa that the powers of male and female are forma-
tive, but Yang and Yin per se not so (although for the sake of readers
we use the traditional Yin and Yang designations for clarity). We also
see a concern with aligning oneself properly with the calendar (the
agencies of time, but less so with the agencies of direction) but also
an age-​old fear of being cursed by human and environmental spirits.
The word qi is never mentioned in the Shifa, although the animating
mechanisms behind the abstract mantic signs imply the concept.

THE SHIFA TEXT

The Shifa bamboo divination manual is preserved at Tsinghua

University 清華大學 in Beijing, China.11 It is one of many short

5
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Introduction

bamboo texts bundled together and possibly placed in a lacquer box

inside a tomb. Over time the tomb filled with water and mud, provid-
ing an anaerobic environment and preserving these texts over the
millennia. Possibly around 2005, the tomb was plundered and the
muddy packet of bamboo texts was transported illegally to the Hong
Kong antiquities market where it sat for years until finally rescued by
the Tsinghua team in 2008. The texts were beginning to decay and,
like many recovered bamboo texts, partially molded. However, the
Tsinghua team, composed of paleographers, historians, and scien-
tists, led by Prof. Li Xueqin 李學勤, managed to unpack and preserve
the texts. They sorted and transcribed them and, beginning in 2010,
have published one volume a year, with a projected twelve volumes
total. Many of the texts are historical or political narratives along
the lines of chapters found in the Book of Documents (the Shujing
書經 also known as the Shangshu 尚書) or the Lost Zhou Documents
(Yi Zhou shu 逸周書). The Shifa (Stalk Divination) is published in
Volume Four along with two other texts, the Biegua 別卦 (Other
Hexagrams) and the Suanbiao 算表 (Calculator); all are “technical and
calculation” texts.12 The Tsinghua experts assigned the titles to these
three texts. The first two are directly associated with divination and
the third with mathematical calculation. Their appearance in the
same collection, presumably from a single tomb, suggests familiarity
of an elite tomb occupant, who besides being well read in historical
narratives was also concerned with both divination and mathematics.
Radiocarbon dating of the strips and a stylistic analysis of the
accompanying box suggest a late fourth-​century bce date. Stylistic
analysis of the calligraphy as well as the content of some of the
other texts suggests that the tomb belonged to an elite member of
the southern state of Chu. Texts with similar calligraphic variants or
content are found in elite tombs around the Chu metropolitan city of
Jiangling 江陵 (located north of the Yangtze River, west of the mod-
ern city of Wuhan, near Jingzhou 荊州). However, some texts with
shared content to those found in the Jiangling region come from elite
tombs in the larger Chu realm to the east, including eastern Hubei
and southeastern Henan. However, a Jiangling origin remains most

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Introduction

likely. As of 2016, six volumes of texts have been published. Scholars

now think that while some of the texts are uncontestably associated
with the state of Chu, others may have been copied from older texts
that came from the north, perhaps even from Chu’s arch-​enemy
the state of Jin 晉, which fell apart into three smaller states in the
year 453 bce.
There is tremendous controversy on how to date the content
of the texts versus the material copy preserved in the ancient Chu
tomb. Mistakes found in the manuscripts, which after all may have
been simply copies made to be buried and rougher or simplified ver-
sions of originals (rather than representing original libraries), indi-
cate that the texts may have been copied many times or even been
partially transcribed from an orally communicated version. The
Shifa, for example, seems to be a collection of reference diagrams and
examples (possibly culled from other texts that no longer survive)
and combined for easy reference. How ancient the concepts were by
the end of the fourth century bce is hard to evaluate because the
Shifa is so far one of a kind.

What Is a gua 卦?
One of the primary features of the Shifa is the use of gua 卦 as a rep-
resentation of the results of stalk divination. The word gua represents
a tower of lines symbolic of alternating cosmic forces, traditionally
known as Yin and Yang, and represented in imperial times by broken
(Yin) or unbroken (Yang) lines. In the Shifa and other preimperial
divination texts, the gua are represented by a series of numbers (writ-
ten one on top of the other, top to bottom, just as ancient Chinese
text was written: top to bottom, right to left in the case of multiple
series). The numbers in gua unlike the numbers in a calculator, such
as the Suanbiao, do not seem to have a quantitative value, merely
a symbolic or numerological value. The numbers found in fourth-​
century bce gua, including the Shifa, seem to be divided into Yang
powers represented by odd numbers (1, 5, 7, 9) and Yin powers rep-
resented by even numbers (4, 6, 8), although they are never specified

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Introduction

as such in the text. These values are found in third-​fourth century

bce versions of gua divination texts, including the Zhouyi, the Guicang
歸藏,13 and the Shifa. The gua in the Zhouyi and Guicang consist of six
lines (a line is also termed yao 爻) called hexagrams. The gua in the
Shifa are trigrams. Although they are found in two columns of six
numbers, we know from the text they are read as four trigrams and
not two hexagrams. Only the trigrams are named in the Shifa; there
are no hexagram names as found in the Zhouyi, Guicang, or Biegua
texts. There are also no mantic statements, such as judgements
regarding auspiciousness associated with images from song and
myth attached to the hexagram names as in the Guicang or individual
hexagram lines as found in the Zhouyi.14 The fact that the Biegua was
presumably in the same tomb as the Shifa suggests a familiarity with
both types of gua divination (trigram and hexagram). Whether or not
the list of hexagram names in Biegua referred to a Zhouyi or Guicang
style interpretive manual is unclear. Their contents (as summarized
in the appendix) are radically different from each other (and from
the Shifa). It is possible that hexagram texts were used to confirm
or elaborate upon the results of trigram divination. Unfortunately,
there is no evidence for this.
Before the fourth century bce, gua-​like number series have been
recorded on bones, pottery, and bronze dating all the way back to
the late Shang dynasty, around 1300 bce. Although the series often
are limited to three or six lines (yao) of numbers, they are also in
other combinations. Also the particular numbers employed at dif-
ferent times and in different regions seem to vary. Although many
attempts by scholars have been made to interpret these ancient
numbers series according to the received Zhouyi, none have been
meaningful.15 The effort is based on the traditional idea that King
Wen, the first king of Zhou, organized the 64 hexagrams in the elev-
enth century bce (see the next section). However, if we limit our-
selves to the fourth-​century bce numerical gua, such as those found
in the records of divination and sacrifice found in Chu tombs, we
may find that, in fact, the Shifa was the more common method of
divination.16

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Introduction

It is likely that Shifa-​style trigram divination was employed in the

Baoshan 包山 sacrifice and divination bamboo documents (from a
site in the Jiangling region of Hubei and dating to around 316 bce)
and other similar Chu records, such as from Geling 葛陵 (a site in
Xincai 新蔡, Henan dating to around 398 bce), Wangshan 望山, and
Tianxingguan 天星觀 (both in the Jiangling region, dating to around
331 and 340 bce).17 For an example of numerical gua, in strip 25 of
the Shifa, we find the numbers 981654 (reading from the top; note
that number 1 could also be read as 7, the third number down) �.
Generally, by the late fourth through third century bce, a simpli-
fication of the numbers used took place. The majority of gua were
depicted with either just 1s or 8s (or 6s), symbolizing a transition
into the Han period binomial relationship of Yin and Yang repre-
sented by broken or unbroken lines.18 With the Shifa we can now look
at number sets from the standpoint of trigram, not hexagram, divi-
nation. The following examples from the Baoshan divination record
and from the Shifa are examples of the typical fourth century bce gua
sets from the Chu region. We see a series of two parallel sets equaling
four trigrams:

� (Baoshan, strip 201) � (Shifa, strips 1 and 2).

In each example, the 1’s and the 6’s represented by straight and bent
lines can easily be converted visually into unbroken or broken lines
of later gua images of Yin and Yang powers. The numerical gua of the
Shifa where primarily composed of 1s and 6s, but other numbers do
appear (4, 5, 8, 9) and these carried special mantic significance and are
referred to in the following discussion as “extraordinary numbers.”19
These are not found in hexagram texts.
The reading of all even numbers as Yin and all odd numbers as
Yang began in the Han and appears in transmitted versions of Zhouyi
commentaries.20 Despite some common principles of interpretation
between the Shifa and hexagram texts, the differences are quite fun-
damental. Besides the difference in accounting (a three-​line gua ver-
sus a six-​line gua), the direction of “reading” the lines is reversed.

9
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Introduction

Traditionally, the Zhouyi lines of a hexagram are read from the bottom
rising line by line up to the top, but punctuation in the Shifa makes
it quite clear that the trigrams were read from the top down. But the
individual lines of the trigrams in the Shifa were not discussed (only
the value of the trigram as a whole and that only in terms of its rela-
tion to the entire set of four). The lines of text written (from top to
bottom and punctuated just as the trigram lines were) underneath
the trigram sets were pragmatic instructions to the diviner on how
to interpret such sets.
Sometimes the pattern of lines (the yao) within the sets of
four trigrams found in the Shifa determined meaning; other times
the appearance of extraordinary numbers in certain combinations
or positions determined meaning. This is never the case with the
Zhouyi. It is possible that the trigram sets in the Shifa were idealized
samples, for use as guides, and not the results of actual divination
activity or real-​time events (as we find presumably in the records
of divination and sacrifice found in Baoshan and other Chu tombs).
The difference between the two types being that real-​time divination
records often record the actions taken to resolve a problem and the
results of that action, whereas the Shifa does not. The value of the
trigram sets was typically binomial, either auspicious or inauspicious
for certain types of typical activities. The types of activities included
those having to do with career, family life, and housing, issues that a
Chu official might run into in his daily life. This is completely unlike
the case with hexagram texts, where, as mentioned above, bits of old
songs or liturgies were connected either to a hexagram name (as in
the case of the Guicang) or to individual lines of the hexagram (as in
the case of the Zhouyi). For these hexagram texts, the diviner (or,
later, individual members of the literati) derived meaning by consult-
ing the extensive commentaries linked to the Changes tradition, such
as preserved in the “Ten Wings” (“Shiyi” 十翼).
The trigrams in the Shifa had distinctive attributes including
names, gender, images, times, directions, and spirits that helped
determine their auspiciousness.21 The diviner gathered information

10
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Introduction

about them by consulting various sections of the manual. Many of

these accord with later records of “Eight Trigram” (bagua 八卦)
arrangements (see Chart 1.3 and appendix). The names are basically
the same and represent four male-​female pairs: Qian 乾 and Kun 坤,
Zhen 震 and Xun 巽, Kan 坎 and Li 離, Gen 艮and Dui 兌. As noted
earlier, they are only roughly linked to particular processes (xing) in
Wuxing theory, and some of the correlations are different from the
later tradition. For example, in Section 24, the trigrams are arrayed
around a human figure, which occupies the center of the four cardinal
directions. The text written around the array specifies: South (Kan,
Fire, Red), West (Zhen, Thunder, White), North (Dui, Water, Black),
East (Li, Wood, Green).22 In later traditional formulations, the cor-
respondences are Qian (Heaven), Kun (Earth), Zhen (Thunder), Xun
(Wind), Kan (Water), Li (Fire), Gen (Mountain), and Dui (Marsh).
Many of these are later correlations and are missing from the Shifa (or
in reverse, such as Kan being associated with Fire instead of Water).
In the illustration from Section 24, we see also that directional
coordinates not described in the text include Qian (Southeast), Kun
(Northeast), Xun (Southwest), and Gen (Southeast). They are not
assigned specific colors or “elements” in the text but seem to extend
nearby associations (moving in a clockwise direction, see the dis-
cussion in Section 5). This text is most concerned with the effect
of trigram agency on the person; therefore, different parts of the
human figure are marked with certain trigrams. These correlations
roughly match those listed later in the “Explications of the Trigrams”
(“Shuogua” 說卦) text included as a commentary in the “Ten Wings”
(see appendix).23 They also contrast with similar diagrams of the
human body found in fourth-​and third-​century bce almanac texts
(known as “Day Books,” rishu 日書)24 in which parts of the body are
marked with signs representing the influence of time periods upon
parts of the body rather than trigrams. Although time is not included
in the chart in Section 24, it is correlated to the influence of par-
ticular trigrams in sections nearby (Section 25 underneath it, and
Section 21 to the right).

11
21

Introduction

Diviners in pre-​Han China followed different traditions and

methodologies. When a diviner was approached with concerns by
a client, he (or perhaps “she”—​we have no idea as to the gender of
diviners; shamans, who also negotiated with the supernatural could
be either gender) may have employed multiple forms of divination
to confirm an affirmative result. Evidence for this appears in the
real-​event records of Baoshan and other Chu sites.25 The trigram
methodology as reflected in the Shifa, while quite different from
Zhouyi or other known methods, may have been simply one step in a
multiple-​stage divination event. It is possible, although impossible
to prove, that the pattern of four trigrams used in the Shifa could
also be used for other interpretative methods. For example, since
the trigrams appear in the Shifa as two vertical groups of six num-
bers (one trigram on top of another), perhaps the diviner could then
also later read the two series of six numbers as hexagrams (perhaps
using the Biegua list as reference) and given them a second reading
according to the gua statements in either the Zhouyi or Guicang. To
aid the reflection of modern readers upon these possibilities (even
though Shifa divination is not the same as in the Zhouyi), reference
to the standard hexagram numbers and summaries of the contents
of mantic statements in the transmitted Zhouyi and the Wangjiatai
Guicang texts are thus included in the appended tables. Also for
the readers’ convenience, all trigrams are presented in the numeri-
cal forms as well as in the more familiar corresponding broken and
unbroken line forms (and discussed as Yang and Yin lines).
Basically, it is important to understand that while the Shifa may
have been employed as a tool for interpreting the mantic gua, the
results of stalk divination, the methods used were not the same as
those used to interpret hexagrams. Further, the cultural and tempo-
ral contexts of the two types of stalk divination texts must be taken
into consideration. While both types of text clearly coexisted during
the fourth century bce and were available in the South, the essen-
tialization of the odd and even numbers into obvious Yin-​broken
and Yang-​unbroken lines as found in the transmitted Zhouyi had not
yet occurred. Also the Zhouyi was not the dominant method of stalk

12
31

Introduction

divination interpretation yet; it was merely one of many different

methods used to diagnose problems and calculate auspicious future
actions.

CONTEXTUALIZING THE SHIFA AND ITS USE

It is unfortunate that the discovery of the Shifa is the result of

plundering rather than archaeological excavation. The lack of a sci-
entifically controlled context strips away a great deal of valuable
information about its historical and social role. Clues must be intu-
ited from the manuscript itself instead of factored from an analysis
of the types and quantity of the burial objects, the shape of the tomb,
or the gender and age of the deceased. We must imagine the tomb by
comparing it with other tombs in the Jiangling area with major finds
of texts, for example, the early 316 bce tomb of a minor member of
the Chu royal family and legal administrator in Baoshan; the roughly
300 bce tomb of a Chu official, possibly a teacher, in Guodian 郭店;
and the mid-​third century bce tomb at Wangjiatai of an early Qin
official (or remaining Chu elite after the Qin takeover of Jiangling
in 278 bce) with the possible role of a diviner.26 Although all tombs
were eventually excavated by archaeologists (during the 1980s and
90s), the Guodian and Wangjiatai tombs had already been damaged
by plunderers.
Fortunately, those plunderers seemed to be more interested in
perceived items of value, such as metal or jade objects, rather than
texts. However, this attitude changed once the value of the texts in
these tombs was publicized. Basically, as Sarah Allan has noted for
the Tsinghua texts, the tombs in the Jiangling area, by means of a
geological quirk, have preserved a vast array of unknown texts, many
of which disappeared under the efforts of subsequent emperors to
consolidate sources of ideology.27 In these three Jiangling tombs
(Baoshan, Guodian, and Wangjiatai), dating to roughly within a cen-
tury or so of each other, we find records of divination and sacrifice
practices, various hexagram and almanac divination manuals, legal

13
41

Introduction

texts, tomb inventory texts, philosophical texts, and divination tools

such as dice, a set of bone-​and-​bamboo stalks, and an early Chinese
astrolabe (known as a shipan 式盤).28
Situating the Shifa within the literary context of these finds
reveals both the ideas and tools to which the diviners who used
the Shifa must have been exposed, as well as provides some con-
text for the performance of divination. From the Baoshan divina-
tion records we know that elite Chu men had access to a team of
diviners, with senior members and their acolytes specializing in
particular methods. In the Baoshan records, the diviners and their
methods of specialization are named. From the names of the meth-
ods, scholars suggest that diviners primarily used two types of divi-
nation, either bone or stalk methods, although many of the names
were ambiguous and may have in fact indicated other less known
methods.29 It is possible the diviners had access to a Shifa-​like man-
ual in order to interpret the results of stalk divination. Evidence
for this is found in the fact that Baoshan results are presented in
two columns of six lines, each of which can be read as two stacked
trigrams—​exactly as we find in the Shifa. As discussed earlier,
before the Shifa was discovered it was assumed that the six lines of
numbers must represent hexagrams and somehow be interpreted
by means of the Zhouyi or Guicang divination manuals, although
a clear connection between the line texts of the manuals and the
Baoshan diviners’ readings could not be made. With the discovery
of the Shifa, we now know that it is most likely that these two pairs
of six lines should be read as four trigrams. Indeed, if we apply the
rules for interpreting the mantic relationship of the four trigrams
outlined in the Shifa itself, they match well with the results given
in the Baoshan text.30
For example, with each example in the Baoshan, the diviners pro-
claim the results to be generally “auspicious” but with a few remain-
ing “concerns.” If you follow the Shifa rule that a majority of trigrams
(three out of the set of four) are either male or female, then the set
is indicated to have an auspicious result. However, if you match the

14
51

Introduction

array of the four trigrams into the “four positions” (siwei 四位) out-
lined for a relevant subject area of “concern” (such as army of gov-
ernment career, family relationships, or locations in the residence),
as indicated in Section 20 of the Shifa, and factor in the meanings
of extraordinary numbers, time, and other supernatural images and
values, such as “curses” by consulting several other sections (see
Sections 26–​29)—​just as the ancient diviner might have done—​
suddenly a much more refined picture of the patient’s troubles and
concerns begins to emerge.31
The emphasis on trigram divination in the Shifa distinguishes
it from the hemerology of almanac manuals (rishu), although both
(unlike the Zhouyi) directly address issues of daily life.32 Unlike the
Shifa, the almanacs are not predominately diagnostic. The almanacs
help men structure their lives to avoid inauspicious times. Units of
time like the Processes (xing) and the powers of Yin and Yang had cos-
mic and spiritual agency. Besides the four seasons, people since the
Shang time had to be sensitive to the powers of the 60 names for days
of the sexagenary calendar—​with a focus on the 10 “sun” (ri) days
and the 12 “astral periods” (chen 辰), which by Warring States period
likely referred to the 12 periods within one day.33 These spiritual agen-
cies became known as the cycle of Ten Heavenly Stems and Twelve
Earthly Branches (tiandi ganzhi 天地干支). They were once linked to
particular powerful ancestral spirits, but by the fourth century bce
they had become powers in their own right and were, interestingly,
like the trigrams, divided into male and female and assigned different
Earthly Branch correlations.34 The gender of a day determined when
one might recover or should be buried. Days, sometimes defined as
Yin and Yang in the almanacs, were also more or less likely to “curse”
(sui 祟) a person depending on what kind of activity was undertaken
(although ghosts and other uncanny manifestations were also worri-
some). From the almanacs, we know that the timing of actions that
in modern times are not seen as events under the control of the cli-
ent, such as sickness or childbirth, were understood as cosmically
determined. If a child was born on a particular day, it might become

15
61

Introduction

an official, a criminal, or even a shaman. Certain days determined

where an official should hold court or what kind of person might
appear in his court. We see many of these same issues mentioned in
the Shifa, but male and female trigrams (not units of time or space)
were used to diagnose present ills and future possibilities.
Both divination and almanac types of text reflect fourth-​
century bce era thinking. Despite the fact that the Shang and
Zhou royal ancestors were no longer empowered on certain days,
time and “curses” in both texts might involve the recently deceased
ancestors, such as the parents or grandparents particularly. The
almanacs prescribe particular actions for sickness on certain days.
For example, according to a third-​century almanac, if a man fell
sick on a Jia 甲 or Yi 乙 day (the first and second days of the cycle
of 10 “stem” or gan days), then it was due to a curse by his parents.
They had to be served meat inside a lacquerware vessel from an
eastern direction so that the patient could recover (notably these
were typical cases listed as reference for the diviners and not real-​
time events). On a Bing or Ding 丙丁 day (the third and fourth
days) the same spirits had to be served red-​colored meat with alco-
hol and a rooster had to be sacrificed. Colors, directions, stars, and
temporal units were all considered. For the Shifa diviner, sickness
could also be the result of a curse, but it was the numerical compo-
sition of the gua that determined the source and the remedy. Shifa
diviners had to pay attention to the significance of extraordinary
numbers that appeared in the pattern of four trigrams, check a
chart listing mantic images in the environment indicated by the
number, cross check it with a list of potential sources of curses
indicated by the trigrams, and then correlate the level of influence
of numbers and trigrams according to charts linking them with
seasons, days, and times in the day.35 In some cases, the prognosti-
cation was only valid on certain days.
One major difference between the Shifa and the almanacs seems
to be how they were used. Many (but not all) almanac texts include
more encyclopedic lists of reference information. They include more
topical sections in number and type and are significantly longer. The

16
71

Introduction

Shifa, by contrast, seems abbreviated, a set of collated topical samples

placed conveniently on a single chart, easily carried on one’s person.
Whereas a diviner who used an almanac would have to unroll and
reroll the text to find the necessary sections (which listed more cases
under each topic), the Shifa diviner could consult the entire manu-
script at once. The Shifa diviner could handily correlate multiple lists
of information (days, spirits, diagrams, etc.) with the sample trigram
patterns presented. Much as one might read a map, one could use
the table of keys to geological features and city sites, to research the
exact designation desired.
The basic cosmic pattern presented in the Shifa matches the
general features of the Yin Yang Wuxing (Yin Yang and the Five
Processes) scheme, although, as discussed earlier, it is much simpler
than the correlative schemes presented in many Han texts (see the
“Chart of All Shifa and some ‘Shuogua’ Correlations” in the appen-
dix) and not even as complete as those found in the Lü Shi Chunqiu
呂氏春秋 or many almanac texts. First of all, as mentioned, no line
or trigram is referred to as Yin or Yang. Whole trigrams were identi-
fied as male or female. In the Shifa, the relationship of the individual
trigrams within the pattern of four trigrams, or the movement of
lines within the trigrams in the patterns, might be termed as Yin or
Yang, but this is rare. Yin tended to be used in the classical sense of
overcast weather.
The Shifa scheme was not as complex as the Yin Yang Wuxing
correlations found even in many almanac manuals and certainly
not as found in Han texts. It does not include planets, flavors,
musical notes, and a host of other popular correlations, and many
of the classic correlations it does include (directions, color) never
seem to be actively engaged in the reading of the trigram pat-
terns (at least in the samples provided in the first half of the text).
Directions, the spirits associated with the directions (Planting/​
South, Thunder/​West, Harvesting/​North, Storing/​East), and colors
(red, white, black, green) are only marked in relation to the trigram
array around the body. They are not obviously taken into consid-
eration in any other context (e.g., career, travel, war, marriage,

17
81

Introduction

etc.). Correlations that one associates with later Yin Yang Wuxing
schemes and applied to all aspects of life and government are limited
to the individual situated within the Four Regions (Directions), the
much older pattern of sifang 四方, employed since Shang times.36
Individuals moved through a square-​shaped earth populated with
human and environmental spirits under the round cover of the sky
displaying the procession of the spirits of time. The generation of
number series provided a code that the diviner had to interpret.

STALK DIVINATION

The Shifa divination manual belongs to the tradition of stalk divi-

nation (sortilege, shi 筮), presumably using “yarrow stalks” shi 蓍,
and was generally distinguished in ancient books from bone divina-
tion (scapulimancy, bu 卜) using “tortoises,” gui 龜.37 It may have
originally evolved as a type of verification system for scapulimancy.
Generically the word bushi came to mean just divination by stalks,
which superseded scapulimancy as the preferred method of divi-
nation by the Han dynasty.38 The function of bushi was to “resolve
issues” (jue shi 決事) and to distinguish the “auspicious” (ji 吉) from
the “inauspicious” (xiong 凶).39 The idea that different forms of divi-
nation were used to verify the results of each other is reflected in the
316 bce Baoshan divination record for a government official in the
Chu region. In this record, stalk divination was used to verify bone or
shell divination.40
It seems that there were many different names for different
types of stalk method. The Zhouli lists nine types of stalk meth-
ods with names that are plays on the graphic elements combined
to form the character for “stalk divination” 筮 (shi), composed of
a “bamboo” semantic 竹 over the graph representing “shaman” or
“technician who negotiates with the supernatural” wu 巫, possibly
reflecting the ancient conception of the social role of some diviners.41
In the Baoshan text, a team of 12 different diviners specialized

18
91

Introduction

in 10 different divination methods. The different stalk methods

are believed to include the methods called “Centering the Stalks”
(yangshi 央筮), “The Long and the Short” (changxiao 長削 (少)),
“Uplifting Ascendant Force” (chengde 承德), “Red Onion Grass”
(tongge 彤茖), and “Respecting the Charge” (gongming 共（恭）命).42
Of these, only yangshi, chengde, and gongming styles resulted in six
numerical lines in two parallel series, exactly as we find in the Shifa.
The distinguishing features of preimperial stalk divination, such as
we find in the Shifa, is the use of numbers instead of images (e.g., a bro-
ken line represents the image of Yin). The tension between these two
types of divination is described in the ancient text, the Zuozhuan 左傳,
which chronicles tales associated with the royal affairs of states dur-
ing the Spring and Autumn period (770–​476 bce) (but edited later). It
explains the relationship between scapulimancy and stalk divination
as a distinction between the use of mantic images versus numbers.43
The hexagram texts seem to follow a tradition of scapulimancy by
transmuting the numerical sequences into cosmically symbolic images.

Zhouyi as a Canonized Tradition

Among all the stalk divination methods, the most well known is the
Zhouyi or Changes tradition. From no later than the late Warring
States period and on, the Zhouyi has enjoyed a paramount status as
one of the Five Classics (wujing 五經), which became and remained
a state-​sponsored corpus throughout imperial China.44 Beginning
in the Han dynasty, the classics had become common knowledge
among the literati, and from the Tang dynasty to the end of impe-
rial China in 1911, they were the core texts for civil examinations.
As one of the classics, Zhouyi had been linked to cultural heroes such
as mythological rulers and sage kings. The standard narrative tells
us that the founding father of human civilization, Fuxi 伏羲, cre-
ated eight images based on his observations of Heaven and Earth.45
Each of these eight images (such as Qian and Kun) contained three
lines, each of which was either broken (-​-​), representing the cold Yin

19
02

Introduction

side of the qi, or unbroken (—​), representing the hot Yang side of the
qi. These images, or trigrams, formed the core of Zhouyi. Then, the
father of King Wu 武, the founder of the Zhou dynasty, King Wen 文
(ca. 1152–​1056 bce) further combined the trigrams to make up 64
images, or hexagrams (such as the trigram Qian and Kun combined
as the hexagram Pi 否 ). Then, the narrative tells us that a third cul-
tural hero, Confucius (Kongzi 孔子 551–​479 bce) wrote commentar-
ies on the meaning of the hexagrams as well as each of their lines. He
further elaborated on the morals and significance of the hexagrams
in general. Thus, the hexagrams, the commentaries, and the elabora-
tions constituted what is now the received Zhouyi.46
Aside from this myth of invention and the moral teachings linked
to the text, the Zhouyi was originally a divination manual, and it has
continuously been perceived and used in this way throughout impe-
rial China. In the main text of the transmitted Zhouyi, each hexagram
corresponds to a specific theme, and each line often represents a dif-
ferent scenario of that theme. More important, all the hexagrams and
their individual lines are assigned a certain degree of auspiciousness,
ranging from “greatly auspicious” (yuan ji 元吉) to “inauspicious”
(xiong 兇).47 In other words, each hexagram and each line within it
bears its own unique characteristics. When one makes an inquiry and
then receives a result, she or he is told not only the general degree of
auspiciousness but is provided distinctive guidance based on the line
interpretations.
For example, hexagram number 56 is “traveling” (Lü 旅, ), and
the received Zhouyi gives the following judgement:

旅：小亨，旅貞吉。
初六：旅瑣瑣，斯其所取災。
六二：旅即次，懷其資，得童僕貞。
九三：旅焚其次，喪其童僕，貞厲。
九四：旅于處，得其資斧，我心不快。
六五：射雉一矢亡，終以譽命。
上九：鳥焚其巢，旅人先笑後號咷。喪牛于易，凶。48

20
12

Introduction

Lü: Minor progress. It is auspicious if the inquiry is about traveling.

The initial SIX (the bottom broken line): The traveling is mediocre,
from which one will receive calamities.
The second SIX: In traveling, one arrives at his lodging; he carries
his supplies, and receives servants’ loyalty.
The third NINE (the third line from the bottom): In traveling,
one burns his lodging, loses his servants. In divining, this is
ominous.
The fourth NINE: One travels to a resting place, receives their
supplies and axes. Our hearts are not at ease.
The fifth SIX: Shooting pheasants, one arrow is missing. But in
the end he commands with praise.
The top NINE: Birds burn their nests, and the traveler starts
out laughing but ends up wailing. He easily loses the ox.
Inauspicious.

Together with the image of the hexagram (the six broken or unbro-
ken lines), the first line illustrates the theme and its auspicious-
ness. In this case, the hexagram is associated with traveling, and
it is overall auspicious. This statement about the base quality of a
hexagram is called the “Hexagram Statement” (“Guaci” 卦辭).49
Then, from bottom to top, each line of the hexagram is also accom-
panied with statements describing a specific scenario related to the
general theme and whether or not it is auspicious. In this case, all
the scenarios are related to traveling and travelers. Some of them
paint a good scenario, such as finding lodging, having supplies, and
receiving help; others are rather negative, such as the lodging burn-
ing down and losing goods. Each of these statements, called “Line
Statements” (“Yaoci” 爻辭), accord a specific level of auspiciousness.
In addition, two commentaries called the “Judgment Commentary”
(“Tuanzhuan” 彖傳) and the “Image Commentary” (Xiangzhuan
象傳) further clarify the scenarios and explain why certain scenarios
are assigned particular levels of auspiciousness. Many of these expla-
nations are moralitistic.50

21
2

Introduction

Another commentary, called the “Commentary on Attached

Words” (“Xici zhuan” 繫辭傳), provides the locus classicus for under-
standing the Zhouyi divinatory stalk method used up to modern
times.51 The method hinges on the following section from the “Xici”
commentary of the Zhouyi:

大衍之數五十，其用四十有九。分而為二以象兩，掛一以象
三，揲之以四以象四時，歸奇於扐以象閏。五歲再閏，故再
扐而後掛 (卦).52

With a grand spread of 50 numbers (i.e., stalks), 49 are used.

These are divided by 2 to represent the two divisions (of Heaven
and Earth) and then one of these is set aside as representative of
the third (relationship, i.e., the human realm). Divide them by
four (stalks apiece in stages) to represent the four seasons, and
hold any remainder left from this sortilege in between fingers
to represent the leap-​year month. Since every five years there
are two leap years, then two sets of remainders need to be held
between fingers before constructing the gua.

Correspondingly, the divinatory method goes as follows:

Step 1: Take 50 stalks and take one out of the pile. While the one
stalk has ritual and philosophical meanings, it is irrelevant to
the following steps for setting up the gua.
Step 2: Randomly divide the rest of the stalks into two piles, and
take one stalk out of any one of the piles.
Step 3: Divide one of the piles by four, and remove the remainder
(either a one, two, three, or four). Do the same thing for the
other pile.
Step 4: Repeat steps 2 and 3 twice.
Step 5: Count the number of stalks in the leftover pile. There are
only four possibilities: 24, 28, 32, and 36. Dividing them by 4,
the numbers become 6, 7, 8, 9, representing “Old Yin” (lao yin

22
32

Introduction

老陰), “Young Yang” (shao yang 少陽), “Young Yin” (shao yin
少陰), and “Old Yang” (lao yang 老陽), respectively. Through
steps 1 to 5, one line of the hexagram is generated, and the
Yin or Yang feature decides whether it is a broken or unbro-
ken line. The first line is the bottom line of the hexagram.
Step 6: Repeat steps 1 to 5 five more times. The rest of the lines of
a hexagram will be generated from bottom to top.

Depending on the number of Old Yang and Old Yin lines, the final
corresponding reading will be either the statement of a hexagram or
that of a line.53
This method has two technical principles. The first is the ran-
domness associated with the initial separation of the stalks into
piles in step 2. This is a simple but crucial aspect of this divination;
the randomness distinguishes it from that applied in the almanacs
(rishu). Most of the latter kind relies on cyclically counting a series
of symbols to generate auspiciousness. For example, the jianchu 建除
system uses 12 symbols, namely jian 建, chu 除, man 滿, ping 平, ding
定, zhi 執, po 破, wei 危, cheng 成, shou 收, kai 開, and bi 閉, each of
which signifies certain levels of auspiciousness for activities. The sys-
tem assigns each of the symbols in the sequence to each day of the
month (e.g., jian for day one, chu for day two … bi for day twelve,
jian for day thirteen, etc.).54 This means that if one asks the same
question on the same day, the answer is always the same. In contrast,
based on the Zhouyi method, each result is different, even when ask-
ing identical, repeated questions. However, there is output control.
Through the aforementioned steps 2 to 4, the outcome can only be
24, 28, 32, and 36, no less, no more. This control functions as the
second technical principle for traditional Zhouyi stalk methodology.
As clear as this divinatory method might be, it is questionable how
far it goes back in history. While the method is well explained in the
writing of Song dynasty scholars such as Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–​1200 ce),
it becomes hazier before the Tang dynasty. When we go back to
the Han dynasty, even the foundation of this method becomes

23
42

Introduction

questionable: the section describing the method does not appear

in the Mawangdui 馬王堆 version of the “Xici” text.55 Worse still,
among primary sources from early China, transmitted or excavated,
there is no other record instructing diviners how to cast a Zhouyi-​
style divination.56

Excavated Yi
On the other hand, we do have several excavated Yi texts that shed
light on the textual formation of Zhouyi and its divination methods
in early China. There are two second-​century bce Zhouyi texts, the
Mawangdui text (buried in 168 bce in a tomb in modern Changsha
長沙, Hunan) and the Shuanggudui 雙古堆 text (buried around
165 bce in a tomb in modern Fuyang 阜陽, Anhui).57 In addition,
there are two third-​century bce examples: the Shanghai Museum
text (late fourth or early third centuries bce, unprovenanced),58 and
the Wangjiatai 王家臺 text (from a tomb in modern Jiangling 江陵,
Hubei). Each version provides new insights into the early history of
Zhouyi.59
First, a number of sections that appear in the received version
do not appear in these excavated texts. Most obviously missing are
all the commentaries on the hexagram and line statements that are
so critical to the later Changes tradition. Thus, the layer of moral
instruction historically associated with the hexagrams is absent
from the excavated texts. Only the Mawangdui text includes cosmo-
logical and philosophical elaborations such as “Xici” and “Shuogua”
that are transmitted with the received version but appear in the
Mawangdui as separate texts.60 Plus, the Mawangdui version con-
tains some additional passages, such as the “Disciples” (“Ersan zi”
二三子), the “Kernel” (“Zhong” 衷), and the “Essentials” (“Yao” 要),
which are associated with the Zhouyi but were not transmitted. It
is obvious that the philosophical and cosmological speculation his-
torically associated with the Changes tradition was but one trend for
understanding Zhouyi. Whereas most of the excavated texts have
similar hexagram and line statements (with some variant wording),

24
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Introduction

the Wangjiatai hexagram text is radically different.61 The wording

of the hexagram texts in the Wangjiatai text seem to be similar to
an alternative tradition of Zhouyi, the Guicang 歸藏 (Returning to Be
Stored), which was traditionally juxtaposed with the Zhouyi and the
Lianshan 連山 (Joined Mountains), another lost alternative.62 No copy
of Lianshan has been found. Basically, it seems that the transmitted
and excavated hexagram texts share the same gua names but vary in
textual content.63
The more intriguing part lies in what the excavated texts preserve
but the transmitted Zhouyi does not. The Mawangdui text’s moral and
cosmological elaborations, especially the “Ersan zi,” the “Zhong,” and
“Yao,” are still in line with the received Zhouyi, but other texts show
more diversity in their use of the hexagrams.64 The Shuanggudui
text inserts divination statements after the Zhouyi hexagram and
line statements. Those divination statements point out whether a
hexagram or a line is auspicious concerning a specific inquiry, such as
“In divining about a guilty one, it is inauspicious” (bu youzuizhe xiong
卜有罪者兇). The topics of the inquiries came from common con-
cerns in the second century bce, ranging from illness to pregnancy,
from litigation to weather.65 In contrast with this sense of expedi-
ency, the Wangjiatai text provides examples of historical (mythi-
cal) divination events and their auspicious or inauspicious results.
Instead of the Zhouyi text, it often indicates which famous histori-
cal figure received the hexagram through divination, and whether it
was auspicious. Interestingly, the auspiciousness of the hexagrams
in Wangjiatai text often contradicts that of the same hexagrams in
Zhouyi. These different hexagram texts reflect the diversity of meth-
ods used in early China.
Among all the contrasts between the received Zhouyi and the
excavated texts, the issue of numbers stands out. Many of the exca-
vated texts do not seem to use broken and unbroken lines to consti-
tute the hexagrams, but numbers. For example, the Wangjiatai text
seems to use numbers 1, 6, and 8 to constitute a binary for hexa-
grams (the odd number 1 stands for the unbroken line, and the even
numbers 6 and 8 stand for the broken one). Besides these texts,

25
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Introduction

there are examples of gua from the Warring States or earlier peri-
ods that contain combinations of the numbers 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.66
The variations of numbers (over time and in different regions) sug-
gest that the formation of gua in divination was earlier based on
different technical principles than in the imperial age Zhouyi tradi-
tion. At the minimum, the variety of numbers reveals a different
practice of output control.
Shifa fits right into this earlier layer of gua production. Instead
of hexagrams, it relied on eight trigrams. Naturally, it does not have
any hexagram or line statements, but like the Shuanggudui text, it
contains interpretive divination statements. Like the Wangjiatai
text, the Shifa trigrams are constituted by numbers, but these
are limited to 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9, suggesting a specific divinatory
technique.67 It does not have moral elaborations like the Zhouyi at all,
but it does reflect cosmology and diagnostic technology. Moreover,
unlike all the other texts, it contains examples to illustrate the ratio-
nales of interpretation. The next sections provide details of the Shifa
divination.

FEATURES OF THE MANUSCRIPT

The Shifa is brush written with black ink with Chu-​style script, lines,
punctuation, and a human figure on sixty-​three 35 cm long bamboo
strips. The strips were numbered at the bottom and bound together
with an interlacing of three strings. The back was also reinforced
with two bands of silk fabric, fragments of which still remain. The
text could be conveniently carried, unrolled, and placed flat in front
of the diviner like a map. It was oriented to the South as were the
earliest Chinese maps. Although ritual texts suggest that diviners
should face South when divining burial locations, we cannot verify
that the Chu diviners looked at the text facing South.68 Nevertheless,
we know that since antiquity facing South was the position of power
and authority, as attested in Western Zhou bronze inscriptions when

26
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Introduction

the king transmitted the “command” (ming 命) as an award to his

officers. The “command” was believed to come from Heaven to the
lower officials via the king. It was also the most powerful direction
in other Chu texts. South was the only directional spiritual agency
mentioned in the Baoshan texts, and in the Shifa, the trigram rep-
resenting South is placed over the head of the figure in Section 24.
The archaic writing of the names of the trigrams are generally the
same or in phonetically or graphical related versions of those found
in hexagram texts. A few examples include the following: Qian 乾
is written �; Kun 坤 is written 𡘩, Zhen 震 is written as �. Two
regional variants that also appear in the Wangjiatai Guicang include
the following: Li 離 is written as Luo 羅, Kan 坎 is written as � (read
as Lao 勞).69 So as not to confuse readers, the trigrams in this study
are referred to by their traditional names.
Another distinguishing feature of the Shifa is the breakdown of
the manual into different subject areas, many of which form primi-
tive charts or tables for reference. The Tsinghua team divides the
subject areas into 30 sections. Section 30 lists 17 “commands” or
“mantically charged topics” (ming) that are key topics of concern in
an elite male’s life. Reading from the right to the left, we can under-
stand that the first half of the manual was dedicated roughly to these
topics and included idealized or sample trigram patterns to be inter-
preted as auspicious or inauspicious in answer to varied questions on
the topic. These sections (Sections 1–​19) begin with four trigrams
in a “four positions” (siwei 四位) pattern, which is depicted as two
parallel columns of six numbers each. The second half of the manual
is dominated by handy reference charts and by other types of inter-
pretative texts. The sense is that the diviner consulted more than one
section of the manual at a time for a single divination event or topic
of concern. The manual was an extremely convenient portable device
that could be used on a daily basis.
There are a number of hints in the Shifa manuscript that it is
not only a copy but likely also represented an abbreviated colla-
tion of other available manuscripts. Most indicative is the number

27
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Introduction

and order of the topic sections. For example, the list of 17 topics in
Section 30 does not appear in the same order in the text, and in some
cases two topics might be combined into a single section rather than
listed separately. Another hint that the text was copied is the erratic
nature of the punctuation, suggesting a semiliterate or rushed copy-
ist. Some sentences are marked with regular breaks and others not at
all (and occasionally mispunctuated, see Case 1.9). Some breaks are
marked with a heavy mark and others with a light mark (signified in
our transcription in the following chapters with symbols of differ-
ent shape). In some cases the heavy mark seems to indicate the final
stop, but not always. In one case, the scribe repeated the same phrase
twice, and in another place the Tsinghua editors suspect a graph was
dropped. Also, some topics that are only given one or two entries in
the Shifa are extensive with multiple entries in similar sections in the
almanacs.

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C hapter 1

General Principles
of Shifa Interpretation

When we start reading the Shifa, the first thing we see is four tri-
grams in a 2 x 2 matrix. How are we to understand this arrangement
and its meaning? Do they function as four trigrams, two hexagrams,
or a gigantic dodecagram? The answer is none of these. In this sec-
tion, we will introduce the general principles for interpreting Shifa
results, some of which are given straightforwardly in the texts, and
the others are speculative based on our observations.
Sharply distinctive from the Zhouyi, the divinatory reading in
the Shifa relies on the positioning of four out of the eight trigrams.
In the received divination traditions of the Changes, each of the gua
(trigrams or hexagrams) has its own distinctive meaning and divina-
tory reading. In practice, when one through the process of divination
receives a hexagram or a line from a hexagram, the Changes always
provided a reading specific to it. This is not the case in Shifa; a trigram
gains its meaning only in context of the three other trigrams. A single
trigram, such as Qian or Kun, thus says very little about the result in
the Shifa divination.
The meaning of the four trigrams depends on certain algorithms
with which the sets of four trigrams are coded. For example, in
Section 24, the Shifa divides the trigrams into left (Xun, Zhen, Gen,
Li) and right (Kan, Kun, Dui, Qian).1 The total numbers of “left” and
“right” represented by the four received trigrams dictate certain
results. In divining about “Obtaining” (Section 2), the text explains

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

that if there are three left trigrams (Xun, Gen, and Li, in this case),
and one right (Kun in the case), it is positive for obtaining what is
desired. Similarly, if there are three right ones (Kun, and two Dui)
and one left (Li), the result is also positive.2 It would seem then that
a positive result follows the idea of majority rules; in other words,
when a certain distinguishing feature is shared by three out of four
trigrams, then the result is positive.
The Shifa provides some of the necessary external factors to
understand the rationale behind the algorithms. The left/​ right
dichotomy, for example, comes from the correspondence between
trigrams and directions described in Section 24. In this section, Li,
Kan, Dui, and Zhen occupy the four cardinal directions, and the other
four trigrams take the four corners (see Chart 1.1). Based on this dia-
gram, the text further divides them into left and right (as the imag-
ined diagonal line shows in Chart 1.1).

Kan Kun
South
Xun
Zhen Right Dui
East West
Left

Gen Li Qian
North

Chart 1.1 Trigrams and the Four Directions

In other words, the significance of the trigrams is determined

by the sequences of trigrams and their correlations with certain
factors. So, based on the directional correspondences of the four
trigrams, the positive results of cases in Section 5 are determined
by the representation of all four cardinal directions in the trigram
pattern.3

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

Besides space, time is another way to code the trigrams. The Shifa
links the trigrams (except Qian and Kun) to the four seasons4 and
assigns relative values of auspiciousness to them (see Chart 1.2). In prog-
nosticating about death (Section 1), the correspondences of trigrams
in Spring determine whether death is imminent or not depending on
whether three auspicious or inauspicious trigrams appear in the result.5
The Shifa also associates the time markers, traditionally known as the
Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, with all eight trigrams (Sections
25 and 27). In divining “Spiritual Blame” (Section 9), the results are
determined by whether the result contains the trigrams that correspond
to the Heavenly Stem of the day on which the divination took place.6

Greatly Slightly Greatly Slightly

Auspicious Auspicious Inauspicious Inauspicious
Spring Zhen, Xun Kan Gen, Li Dui

Summer Kan Zhen, Xun Dui Gen, Li

Autumn Dui Gen, Li Kan Zhen, Xun

Winter Gen, Li Dui Zhen, Xun Kan

Chart 1.2 Seasons and Trigram Auspiciousness

Gender is the third factor considered in the trigram code. The

Shifa understands Qian, Zhen, Kan, and Gen as male trigrams;
Kun, Xun, Li, and Dui as female trigrams. In prognosticating about
“Obtaining” (Section 2), the appearance of a majority of either male
or female gender indicates a positive answer. The client will receive
the desired object or obtain the desired objective.7 Interestingly, in
the case of “meeting” (Section 8), the appearance of three female
trigrams positively indicates the visit of a male, and vice versa.8
How did the author(s) of the Shifa establish the relationship
between the trigrams and their specific values, such as gender in

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

certain cases? The text never explains, but from time to time the
author(s) seems to rely on the broken and unbroken lines (also
expressed by 6 and 1, respectively) in a trigram to establish cor-
respondences. For example, the gender of a trigram is based on
the value of the lines (1 or 6, unbroken and by the single unpaired
remainder out of the three lines of a trigram (Chart 1.3).

Male Female

☰ Qian ☷ Kun
☶ Gen ☱ Dui
☵ Kan ☲ Li
☳ Zhen ☴ Xun

Chart 1.3 Gender and Trigrams

Because Qian and Kun contain pure unbroken and broken lines,
respectively, it is easy to understand why they receive their genders,
assuming we understand that as same as the later convention of even
and odd numbers corresponding to Yin/​female/​broken and Yang/​
male/​unbroken. Nevertheless, the gender for the six hybrid trigrams
was decided by the minority rule, the remainder. If two out of the
three lines were male, the trigram was female. There are other exam-
ples of the minority rule in Shifa divination. Taking again the divina-
tion on “Meeting” (Section 8) as an example, the rules state that if
three male trigrams appear in the result, the visitor will be a female,
and vice versa. The minority gender wins out.
In the Earthly Branches system, the male trigrams are arranged
by the upward movement of the unbroken line from the bottom up:
Zhen ☳, Kan ☵, and then Gen ☶, and then each of them is paired
with its opposite female trigram, with the broken line moving from
bottom to top: Xun ☴, Li ☲, and Dui ☱, respectively. The resulting
sequence is shown in Chart 1.4.

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

子午 丑未 寅申 卯酉 辰戌 巳亥
Zi, Wu Chou, Wei Yin, Shen Mou, You Chen, Wu Si, Hai

Zhen ☳ Xun ☴ Kan ☵ Li ☲ Gen ☶ Dui ☱

Chart 1.4 Earthly Branches and Trigrams

A hypothesis drawn from the later Zhouyi tradition can explain

this arrangement: the three lines represent Heaven on top and Earth
on the bottom. The movement of the Yang line upward determined
the sequence of the Earthly Branches. Also, in Zhouyi tradition, the
Yin or opposite trigrams to the Yang trigrams were produced as pas-
sive shadows or mates to the primary Yang/​male trigrams.9 Hence,
the female counterparts appear in the chart second and next to
their mates.
Similarly, in the Heavenly Stems system, the trigrams are
arranged by the downward movement of the unbroken line from top
to bottom, Heaven to Earth, starting with the pure unbroken line
trigram: ☰ Qian, Gen ☶, Kan ☵, and then Zhen ☳. Again, they are
paired with their female opposites (see Chart 1.5).

Qian ☰ Kun ☷ Gen ☶ Dui ☱ Kan ☵ Li ☲ Zhen ☳ Xun ☴

甲壬 乙癸 丙 丁 戊 己 庚 辛
Jia, Ren Yi, Gui Bing Ding Wu Ji Gen Xin

Chart 1.5 Heavenly Stems and Trigrams

It does not seem to be a coincidence that the unbroken line in

the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches systems starts from top
and bottom, respectively. The movement of the male line upward or
downward (and his female counterpart) over the course of the list of
10 or 12 time markers possibly symbolized some relationship of Yang qi
to the passing of time.

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

In the received Zhouyi tradition, we can still see a coding logic also
focused on gender relationships and a relative Yang and Yin dichot-
omy. For example, in “Shuogua,” the trigrams are provided a family
structure: Qian ☰ as the father, Zhen ☳ the older son, Kan ☵ the
middle son, and Gen ☶ the younger son; Kun ☷ the mother, Xun
☴ the older sister, Li ☲ the middle sister, and Dui ☱ the younger
sister.10 The upward movement of the signifying Yang or Yin line
denotes the seniority of the children, with the bottom position rep-
resenting the eldest. The difference between this order in “Shuogua”
and the sequences in the Shifa is that neither the Shifa nor other
Zhouyi traditions clearly indicate whether or not the family hierarchy
was also a meaningful part of the divinatory rules.11
A hierarchical coding system of relative trigram power is
reflected in the first-​century bce Han tradition of “trigram qi” (gua
qi 卦氣), in which the trigrams or hexagrams represent the fluc-
tuation of qi over time.12 Certain periods of a year had different
values of qi. In this tradition, the unbroken and broken lines of a
hexagram symbolized the relationship between the amount of Yin
or Yang qi at particular times of the year. Hence, the 64 hexagrams
represented the annual movement of the relative values of these
qi types. The arrangement of trigrams according to the gender of
their lines and time in Shifa suggests early roots for the later, more
fully developed Han ideas. One difference between the expressions
of trigram qi in the early and later systems is function. In the Shifa,
the relative value determined the auspicious or inauspicious nature
of a divinatory result. In the later expression, the concern was con-
trol over the cosmos through knowledge. Similarly, we see that the
Zhouyi evolved from a divination manual into coded text describing
cosmic forces. Because these rules dictate the meaning of certain
arrangements of the trigrams, they could also produce an optimal
arrangement of them. This would represent the optimal order of
the cosmos and the fluctuation of powers such as Yin and Yang.
Therefore, the ideal arrangement of the trigrams could serve as a
compass that shows the readers the right “Way” of the cosmos.13

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

REL ATIVE POSITIONING

The relative positions of the four trigrams within the 2 x 2 matrix

determine the outcome. There are a number of different types of fac-
tors that influence how the relationships were evaluated.
The most straightforward kind of relative positioning is the
juxtaposition of trigrams with the same features indicated by the
two technical terms, “gathered” (cui 萃) and “pure” (chun 純). These
terms seem to indicate that at least two trigrams that share simi-
lar features (such as gender) appear in adjacent positions, such as
Qian in both the top left and top right positions or in the bot-
tom left and right positions (occupying the upper or lower register
of the 2 x 2 matrix).14 The “gathering” or “pureness” of trigrams
was often considered along with other features, such as gender or
moon phase, to fix a reading.15 For example, in Section 14, there
are eight sets of 2 x 2 patterns of trigrams. The first four have clus-
ters of Qian, and the second four have clusters of Kun trigrams.
The text emphasizes the appearance of many Qian during the end
of the month and of many Kun during the beginning of the month
to indicate auspiciousness.
In the Shifa, one kind of this positioning is denoted as “wife and
husband” (qifu 妻夫). It indicates a pair of opposite trigrams posi-
tioned horizontally adjacent to each other (Chart 1.6).16

Example 117 Example 218 Example 319

Left Right Left Right Left Right

Top ☷ ☰ ☱ ☶ ☲ ☴
Kun Qian Dui Gen Li Xun

Bottom ☴ ☷ ☳ ☰ ☷ ☰
Xun Kun Zhen Qian Kun Qian

Chart 1.6 “Wife-​and-​Husband” Positions

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

In Examples 1 and 3, Kun has three broken lines that are opposite
to the lines in the three positions of Qian, its male counterpart. In
Example 2, Dui’s broken, unbroken, and unbroken lines from top
down are the opposite of the unbroken, broken, and broken lines
from top down of her male counterpart, Gen. Many Zhouyi traditions
have used this concept of opposite pairs, either in terms of the tri-
grams or hexagrams, and it is the case for Shifa as well.20 The term
“wife-​and-​husband” seems to refer to the feature of complementary
pairs of opposite genders.21
Besides “husband and wife,” Shifa uses another metaphor for a
different type of relative positioning: zhao and mu 昭穆 (“shining-​
and-​somber”). The term zhaomu in ritual texts, such as the Liji 禮記,
generally refers to the left and right positioning of tombs, ancestral
shrines, or offerings according to lineage relationship in the tradi-
tional mortuary system. In the Shifa, zhao and mu might simply indi-
cate left and right.22 For example, there are two separate cases where
Qian and Kun are juxtaposed horizontally, with Kun to the left of
Qian. When zhao and mu appear in the trigram sets, the results are
positive.
Another type, “vacancy” (xu 虛, a possible loan for ju 居, “position”),
involves the positioning of the individual lines instead of the trigrams.
For example, the four trigrams, also appear as two parallel sets of six
lines: the top line on the left set is paired to the top line on the right set, the
second line from the top on the left set is paired to the second line from the
top on the right set, and so on. In this way, we have six pairs of two adja-
cent parallel lines moving from top to bottom (Chart 1.7). A “vacancy”
thus means that, in one of these pairs, there is one unbroken line. In the
“Xici” commentary of the Zhouyi, the term “six vacancies” (liu xu 六虛)
also appears, but it is used differently. There it refers to the six lines
of a hexagram and not to a pair of two sets of six lines. In order for a
“vacancy” to be counted, at least one Yang line was required in the tier
(Chart 1.7). In Section 1, “Life and Death” (“Shengsi” 生死), there are
two examples.23

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

Position Example 1 Example 2

1 –​ –​ –​ –​
2 –​ –​ -​-​ -​-​
3 -​-​ –​ –​ -​-​
4 –​ –​ -​-​ –​
5 -​-​ –​ -​-​ –​
6 –​ –​ –​ –​

Chart 1.7 “Vacancy” Examples

Whereas in Example 1, every pair at least has one unbroken line,

in Example 2, the second pair has two broken lines, which makes this
pair different from the rest. The text calls the pattern of case 1 “six
vacancies” (liu xu 六虛) and case 2 “five vacancies” (wu xu 五虛).
Another type of relative positioning refers to only one particu-
lar line out of each of the four trigrams. For example, when divining
about governmental and military affairs, the text asks us to look at
the middle line of each trigram. If all of them have the same kind of
line, a military conflict will appear.24 Once again, the relative posi-
tioning involves the position of the lines within the trigrams rather
than the relative positions of the trigrams that is significant. Unlike
the “vacancy” type mentioned earlier, the diviner ignores the other
two lines of a trigram and ignores the time or gender values of the
trigrams that appear. In other words, this type of determination
reduces the trigrams into two kinds: those with unbroken middle
lines and those with broken middle lines.
The last type of relative positioning requires consideration
only of certain tiers or positions of the paired lines, involving a

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

reconfiguration or creation of new trigrams from within the old ones.

For example, when divining the gender of a baby, the text requires
the diviner to view the six pairs of lines and combine tiers 3, 4, and 5
into a pair of new trigrams (see Chart 1.8).

Pairs of Lines Case

1 –​ -​-​

2 –​ -​-​

3 -​-​ -​-​

4 –​ –​

5 -​-​ -​-​

6 –​ -​-​

Chart 1.8 Line Reconfiguration Examples

By ignoring the top two pairs and the bottom pair, the lines on
the left column constitute the trigram Kan. In this case, it is also the
case for the lines in the right column. The text further states that if
the reconfigured trigrams are both male, the new baby’s gender will
be male as well; if they are both female, the new baby will be female.
In this example, two Kan thus predict a male baby.25 This type of rela-
tive positioning in the Shifa shows clearly that unlike the hexagrams
in the Zhouyi tradition, the integrity of the trigram is not stable.

FIXED POSITIONING

Besides the relative positioning of lines and trigrams, the fixed posi-
tions of the trigrams called “position,” or wei 位, could affect the
result with individual trigrams playing roles specific to their position
in the square. In Section 20 called “The Chart of the Four Positions”

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

(“Siwei biao” 四位表), the social, political, and spatial environment is

mapped out into four positions which could likely be used to match up
with divinatory results or the four trigrams (see the chart in Section
20). 26 For example, if the client, marked “self” in the second and
third of the “four positions,” was divining the influence of his family
or political connections upon himself, the diviner might match the
four trigrams to these parts of “The Chart of the Four Positions.”27
Section 20 also reveals a relative hierarchy of trigram influence. If the
blocks of a trigram set are marked A through D and following the direction
that the trigrams and text were read, from top to bottom, right to left:

CA
DB

the position B would represent the inner or most intimate relation-

ship to the client, that of “self,” the “middle” branch of the army,
or the private rooms of the residence. Position A represents people
or things that are in the higher position than one’s own role, and
position D represents those in an accompanying role, such as the
wife. Position C indicates the outer or most peripheral roles to the
inquirer. In the Zhouyi, we often see a similar structure: the inquirers
are supposed to follow the guidelines for the gentlemen (junzi 君子),
whereas the great men (daren 大人) and petty men (xiaoren 小人) are
mentioned in relationship to the gentlemen.28
The fixed positioning of four trigrams and their correlative mean-
ings according to other charts in the Shifa, such as Section 24, can
determine the results. For example, in Section 11 the appearance of
trigrams that are correlated to the four natural agents (Wood, Fire,
Metal, or Water) in the same directional order as in Section 24 influ-
ence weather prediction. For example, if Dui, representing Metal,
and Xun, representing Wood, appear together in the top row (CA),
the weather will be cloudy. Similarly, if Kan, representing Water, and
Li, representing Fire, appear together in the bottom row (DB), the
weather will be windy. Whereas the height (top register vs. lower reg-
ister) is taken as meaningful, there is no similar rationale regarding

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

the left side or the right side of the trigram set. This asymmetry
reminds us of the fact that Zhouyi traditions have two trigrams, all
the lines are positioned vertically, and many rules in these traditions
were based on the vertical arrangement.
The Shifa uses the beginning and the end of the lunar cycle as a
metaphor for another type of fixed positioning. The top right posi-
tion (A) is the beginning-of-the-month position (yue zhao 月朝),
and the bottom right position (B) is the end-of-the-month position
(yue xi 月夕). Often this positioning is used together with the word
“pure” (chun 純) to refer to an either pure Yin or pure Yang trigram.
For example, in Section 3, when the same trigram appears in the
top right corner (A) and either of its adjacent corners B or C, it is
called “pure at the beginning-of-the-month.” When the same trigram
appears in the bottom right corner and its adjacent corner (A), it is
called “pure at the end-of-the-month.” In divining about sacrifice, the
arrangement will lead to a positive answer.

THE USE AND NATURE

OF EXTRAORDINARY NUMBERS

Besides relationships between the four trigrams, another noticeable

feature of Shifa divination is the employment of the extraordinary
numbers: 4, 5, 8, and 9. In the Shifa, while these numbers can be
translated into unbroken and broken numbers (like the more com-
monly used 1s and 6s), their appearance tends to have special impli-
cations that go beyond simply the dichotomy between broken and
unbroken lines. In this section, we will see how these extraordinary
numbers matter to the Shifa divination.
Regardless of whether we use unbroken versus broken lines, 1s or 6s,
the dichotomy between two kinds of lines is very clear in the Shifa just
as in the later Zhouyi traditions. The four extraordinary numbers also
follow the dichotomy: the odd numbers 5 and 9 symbolize the unbroken
line, and hence are equal to 1; the even numbers 4 and 8 symbolize the
broken line, and hence are equal to 6. For example, the combination

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

六 (6)
五 (5)
四 (4)

would still be understood as Kan ☵, with the two broken lines on top
and bottom, and an unbroken line in the middle.29
As explained in the Introduction, the text does not explain why
it uses these four numbers specifically or what the precise divina-
tory process was. According to Kong Yingda 孔穎達 (ce 574–​648)
and Zhu Xi 朱熹 (ce 1130–​1200), the numbers 4, 5, 8, and 9 could
be derived from the remainders during the division process of the
50 yarrow stalks mentioned in the “Xici” commentary (translated in
the Introduction). Theoretically then, if the Shifa diviners employed
a similar method, the four extraordinary numbers could appear
(although the ratio of Yin and Yang lines would be uneven).30
When they appear in the trigrams, they are often read as having
negative influence. In Section 1, “Life and Death,” lines composed of
special numbers are called “evil lines” (e yao 惡爻).31 The “evil” quality
of the extraordinary numbers has different implications according to
the position of the trigram in which they appear. If they appear in the
top two trigrams (C, A), inauspiciousness will occur “outside” (wai 外);
if they appear in the bottom two trigrams (D, B), inauspiciousness
will occur “inside” (nei 內); if they appear in both registers at once,
then military campaigns and natural disasters will occur.32 As men-
tioned in the fixed positioning, the bottom two trigrams represent
the inquirer and his or her inner group, and the top two trigrams
represent the outer group, such as one’s lord or subject. Following
this framework, the Shifa implies that the four numbers were inaus-
picious as long as they are part of a trigram. In the section “Curses”
(“Sui” 祟 Section 29), the text lists sources of curses associated
with different trigrams. Some sources were indicated only if cer-
tain combinations of the special numbers appeared. The appear-
ance of the four numbers had special agency. Functioning like
ghost detectors, they told the diviners what spirits were haunting
a person or place.

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

Do the four numbers have equal status, or are bigger numbers

somehow stronger? The text does not seem interested in further
ranking their effects, but it basically claims that no matter how “big
or small” (ru da ru xiao 如大如小), they all indicate an inauspicious or
baleful condition (lin 吝). In Section 28 the extraordinary numbers
are correlated with the Earthly Branches, but their sequence does not
follow the numerical sequence, 1–​9, but 981(7)654 instead (with two
Branch signs assigned a single number).33 There is no obvious case
in the Shifa where the absolute numerical value seems to affect the
results.

THE APPLICATION OF THE EXTRAORDINARY

NUMBERS IN THE READING

Generally in the Shifa, the extraordinary numbers indicate an inaus-

picious tone in the interpretation of the trigrams. For example, when
divining about life and death (Section 1), if an extraordinary number
appears in one of the trigrams, death will come immediately. Even
though all the cases in this section indicate the approach of death,
the cases without the special numbers indicate just “waiting for
death” (dai si 待死), instead of immediate death.34 The appearance of
the numbers intensifies the situation.
Nevertheless, this general principle for the extraordinary num-
bers functions as no more than a rule of thumb; in several cases, cer-
tain arrangements of the numbers, whether special or not, lead to
positive answers. For example, in divining the possibility of obtain-
ing what one wants (Section 2), if an 8 appears and the divination
takes place in Spring, the desired goal will still be reached. The same
result can be said for the combination of 5 and Summer, 9 and
Autumn, and 4 and Winter.35 In these cases, the timely appearance
of certain extraordinary numbers contributed to the overall positive
result. For military campaigns (Section 16), if the numbers appear
from bottom to top as 9, 8, 1 (7), 6, 5, and 4 (the normative order
for correspondence to the Earthly Branch signs), the “inner” group,

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

presumably the client’s group, will defeat the “outer” group. If the
numbers appear in reverse order, the outer group will overcome the
inner.36 Both examples show that as long as the extraordinary num-
bers appear in certain ways that seem to relate to the right cosmo-
logical order, they will not indicate inauspiciousness.
In several cases, other rules trump the effects of the extraordi-
nary numbers. In prognosticating about “Completing” (“Cheng” 成,
Section 17), a fixed positioning rule dictates the result: if the bottom
line of the two top trigrams and the top lines of the two bottom tri-
grams are the same kind of lines, the accomplishment will be positive
(Chart 1.9).37 The text then gives an example with four 5s in those
positions. As mentioned earlier, this arrangement should lead to
inauspiciousness for the client, and the attempt to accomplish some-
thing should be fruitless. However, the text ignores the effect of the
5s and states that “accomplishment” will take place. In the series of
examples involving the beginning-of-the-moon and end-of-the-moon
positions mentioned earlier, the extraordinary numbers are also
ignored. Despite the appearance of the number 9, auspiciousness
(ji 吉) is consistently indicated, as long as the gathering of the same
trigrams around the two moon positions takes place.

Pairs of Lines Case

1 –​ -​-​

2 –​ –​

3 –​(5) –​(5)

4 –​(5) –​(5)

5 -​-​ -​-​

6 –​ -​-​

Chart 1.9 “Accomplishment” Example

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

In conclusion, although extraordinary numbers theoretically

indicate negative situations, in practice the outcome might be com-
promised by other rules. The Shifa does not provide any rational-
ization for the conflicts between rules, so this rationale is a matter
of speculation. It is possible to apply rules such as “two negatives
make a positive” in mathematics, or the Yin and Yang forces of dif-
ferent numbers counterbalance each other in order to make a cohe-
sive interpretation of the text. But creating cohesive and penetrating
rules did not in fact seem to be a concern of the Shifa author(s).

THE RULES: APPLICATIONS

AND IMPLICATIONS

What we can infer from these diverse and sometimes contradictory

rules is that the author(s) had unstated predispositions with regard
to applying rules to particular situations. In some cases the configu-
ration of all the lines and trigrams seems to trump the relative effects
of individual trigrams or numbers. The rules introduced earlier—​
relative positioning, fixed positioning, “wife-​and-​husband,” and so
on—​seem to apply only to certain topics. Therefore, the diviner must
adjust his or her selection and application of the rules to the context
of the inquiry. For example, there are several ways to divine about
whether or not the client will obtain what he or she wants. These
include the male-​female trigram approach, the “wife-​and-​husband”
approach, and the left-​and-​right trigram approach. In contrast, there
is only one approach to divining about warfare, which is the sequence
of the six numbers and how well they match up with the Branch Sign
index of signs. In addition, it is apparent that some rules are more
popular than other rules. For example, the male-​female and left-​right
trigram approaches are used much more often than other rules.
These tendencies suggest that the ways to interpret the cases
of trigram patterns given in the first half of the text varied. Such
diversity of rule application may suggest the results of real-​life daily
practice, although some of the cases, such as those in the sections

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G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S O F S H I FA I N T E R P R E TAT I O N

on warfare or weather, must be ideal cases. Perhaps in a day-​to-​day

practice, practitioners and clients would not concern themselves
with overall consistency, noticing only the appropriateness of inter-
pretative method to the immediate situation at hand.38 They were
less worried about theory than practice.
The first half of the text contrasts with the latter half, which pro-
vides reference materials useful in interpreting the sample cases in
the first half. The material provided in the second half of the manu-
script tends to provide rules for systematizing the divination, but in
many specific cases these rules are ignored. For example, the chart in
Section 24 provides multiple-​layered correlative factors—​eight tri-
grams, four directions, four colors, four agents or natural processes
(xing), four seasonal deities, eight areas of the human body—​as if
behind the Shifa divination there were a comprehensive cosmology
as well as other methodologies beside trigram divination at work.39
Only the eight trigrams and four agents are ever actively engaged
in the cases discussed. The four colors and eight human body cor-
relations, for example, are never mentioned. Similarly, the general
principle about the extraordinary numbers is never fully enforced
in the divinatory interpretations. Conversely, the case studies apply
rules for gender and trigram correlations that are not outlined by any
chart in the second half.
The gap between the cases and the reference material reveals
the multiple interpretative layers in the Shifa, only some of which
are provided with specific examples. We can speculate a scenario for
the composition of the text: (1) certain people divined by interpret-
ing patterns of four trigrams (instead of two hexagrams); (2) typi-
cal cases were recorded and explained; (3) supplementary materials
were added as textual aids; (4) some cases were idealized and further
supplementary materials required. Although the diviners for differ-
ent situations may have consulted all the cases and reference mate-
rials, the rules for how to use them are not all specified within the
text itself. Through the process of adding layers, the gap between the
added materials and the specific cases widened to the extent that in
the Shifa we see today, the relevance of specific sections are no longer

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

obvious. This is in fact a common phenomenon for divination manu-

als in ancient China. If we look at the received Zhouyi, many sections
are cosmological elaborations of original divination events. By the
Han dynasty, literati preferred these reference materials and com-
mentaries to the original cases as philosophical texts to understand
the cosmos rather than engaging specifically in the lesser tradition of
fortune telling.
How much this type of separation of philosophical versus practi-
cal functions applied during the Warring States period to the differ-
ent halves of the Shifa cannot be known. Just as whether or not the
entire Shifa text was seen as a hermeneutically closed system also
cannot be known. The translation and discussion herein attempt to
apply the rules of this theoretical system rather than reach beyond
the text to speculate on what other tools or texts the diviner may
have also been employing.

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C hapter 2

Traces of Shifa-​Style Divination

Because the Shifa manuscript most likely came from the Chu region,
the first place to look for reflections of the existence of Shifa-​style
trigram divination would be in the divination records of Chu. These
records, found in fourth-​century bce tombs, include the results of
many different types of divination, which scholars generally divided
into either shell or stalk (bu or shi) types. Previous to the discovery
of the Shifa, scholars attempted to read these as hexagrams, but with
no obvious connection to the ritual actions performed as a result.
A recent study that analyzes these records according to the Shifa tri-
gram methodology has much better results, actually providing some
insight into the ritual actions of the diviners and possibly into the
aspects of the client’s issues of most concern.1
In transmitted texts, there are reflections of using contrary inter-
pretative methods to interpret the same stalk divinatory results. We
see in one account attention paid to the trigrams but also how poli-
tics prejudice which method is applied. In the “Jinyu 晉語” section of
the Guoyu 國語, a diviner used stalks to determine whether the ruler
should attack another state and create a dependent territory out of
captured land, or “set up a new lord” of the region.2 Another official
used a different method of interpretation to reject the first diviner’s
negative interpretation. The original diviner’s method focused on
results that were closer to a Shifa-​style reading, and the interven-
ing official applied an analysis based on the “images” and texts in
the Zhouyi tradition. The stalk divination produced two series of six
numbers, just as we see in the Shifa; they were labeled as hexagrams,

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

even though their trigram components formed the basis of the analy-
sis. The relationship between the two hexagrams is that first one was
considered the “prognostication” and then the other expressive of
lingering “concern.” So it seems that the second hexagram could act
as commentary on the first:

Gongzi Qin performed stalk divination asking: “What about the

Jin state?” He obtained the hexagram Zhun 屯 as prognostica-
tion (zhen 貞) and the hexagram Yu 豫 as a concern (hui 悔),
all with number 8s. 公子親筮之，曰：「尚有晉國。」得貞
屯、悔豫，皆八也。
The Stalk Archivist divined and explained: “It is not auspicious.
It is closed and cannot be penetrated. The lines have no action.”
筮史占之，皆曰：「不吉。閉而不通，爻無為也。」

The hexagram Zhun 屯 (number 3) is composed of trigrams Kan

坎 above and Zhen 震 below. The hexagram Yu 豫 (number 16) is
composed of trigrams Zhen above and Kun 坤 below. If we translate
them in terms of numbers, Zhun would be 818881 and Yu would be
881888 (or possibly with more 6s than 8s). As a 2 x 2 trigram pattern,
it would be:

☵ Kan   ☳ Zhen
☳ Zhen ☷ Kun

The first diviner interpreted the predominance of extraordinary Yin

numbers (the 8s) to be ominous and claimed that the “action” was
“closed off.” This may refer to the phenomena of the two Zhen “block-
ing” (kang 亢) a relationship between the remaining trigrams or their
lines. In the Shifa (Case 1.8), Qian and Kun are locked into diagonal
corners by two Gen. The first diviner seems to have viewed both the
appearance of the 8s and the problem of “blocking” as negative. The
second diviner using the Zhouyi “image” method of interpretation
came up with a result much more satisfactory to the Jin ruler. This
preferred interpretation is quoted at length:

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T R A C E S O F S H I F A -​S T Y L E D I V I N A T I O N

Controller of Works Jizi said: “It’s auspicious. According to

the Zhouyi it is beneficial to establish a Protector Lord. If the
Jin state is not meant to aid the Royal House, then how can
(another) Protector Lord be established? I command (ming) that
the stalks be read as ‘It is the Jin State’ since the stalks have
reported (gao 告) to me ‘beneficial to establish a Protector Lord.’
So how can the service to the state get any more auspicious?!
司空季子曰：「吉。是在《周易》，皆利建侯。不有晉國，
以輔王室，安能建侯？我命筮曰『尚有晉國』 ，筮告我
曰『利建侯』，得國之務也，吉孰大焉！
Trigram Zhen, is the chariot; trigram Kan, is water; trigram
Kun is earth, Zhun, is thickness (generosity), and Yu, is joy.
Chariot arrangements have their inner and outer formations,
following in order to be instructed by the other; the source of
springs comes of its own matter; earth has thickness (generos-
ity) and joy its substance (fruit). How can this not refer to the Jin
state? 震，車也。坎，水也。坤，土也。屯，厚也。豫，樂
也。車班外內，順以訓之，泉源以資之，土厚而樂其實。不
有晉國，何以當之？
Trigram Zhen is thunder and the chariot. Trigram Kan is labor
(lao 勞),3 water, and the group (i.e., troops). The base of thunder
and chariot elevates water and the group. A chariot with thunder
is the ‘military’ (wu 武) aspect and the group when obedient is the
‘cultivated’ (wen 文) aspect. When Wen is the foundation, then
thickness (generosity) grows. Thus the omen text of the hexa-
gram Zhun says: ‘Prime Offering (appreciation); Beneficial to
Prognosticate: Do not when implementing it go slowly; it is ben-
eficial to establish a Protector Lord.’ The basic (quality) of trigram
Zhen is thunder, and being the oldest (boy). Therefore it is called
‘Prime’ (yuan 元). The group being obedient is felicitous, there-
fore it is called ‘Offering (appreciation)’ (heng 亨). Among the
inner trigrams is Zhen-​Thunder, so it is said that it is ‘beneficial
to prognosticate’ (li zhen 利貞). 震，雷也，車也。坎，勞也，
水也，眾也。主雷與車，而尚水與眾。車有震，武也。眾而
順，文也。文具，厚之至也。故曰屯。其《繇》曰：『元亨

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

利貞，勿用有攸往，利建侯。』主震雷，長也，故曰元。眾
而順，嘉也，故曰亨。內有震雷，故曰利貞。
The Chariot (trigram) is up above and the Water (trigram) is
below, so it must indicate the elder (adult brother) (bo 伯). Minor
affairs cannot be dealt with; they are blocked. Hence it says “do
not when implementing it go slowly (wu yong you you wang 勿用
有攸往); a single man must perform the action. The group obeys
and creates military might. Thus it said: ‘it is beneficial to estab-
lish a Protector Lord’ (li jian hou 利建侯). 車上水下，必伯。小
事不濟，壅也。故曰勿用有攸往，一夫之行也。眾順而有武
威，故曰『利建侯』。
Kun is the mother and Zhen is the eldest boy.4 The mother’s
oldest child is strong and thus called Yu. Yu’s omen text says: ‘It
is beneficial to establish a Protector Lord and put the army into
action.’ ‘Residing in Joy’ refers to sending out the military might.
Thus these two hexagrams are for obtaining (de 得) a state.” 坤，
母也。震，長男也。母老子強，故曰豫。其繇曰：『利建侯
行師。』居樂、出威之謂也。是二者，得國之卦也。」

The second diviner ignored the appearance of extraordinary num-

bers and focused on the interplay of image and Zhouyi mantic text to
construct an auspicious result for the Jin lord. Although the Zhouyi
interpretative tradition is radically different from the Shifa, we find
in this second interpretation a few common points with the man-
tic material in the Shifa. Some but not all of these Yin-​Yang Wuxing
style images are also reflected in the Shifa (see Section 24) except, of
course, the purposeful Chu reversal of Kan and Li representing Water
and Fire in the Zhouyi. There is also a shared reflection of the trigrams
in a “Shuogua”-​style family hierarchy, although this hierarchy is only
weakly expressed in the Shifa.
The goal of the Jin’s ambition was “to obtain” (de) a state. Section 2
of the Shifa provides 11 cases regarding “obtaining.” In a number
of cases (2.1, 2.5, 2.6), the auspicious trigram pattern involved the
majority of either male or female trigrams. Case 2.4 actually includes

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T R A C E S O F S H I F A -​S T Y L E D I V I N A T I O N

two Zhen and one Kan, the same three male trigrams as in the Guoyu
example. The one female trigram in Case 2.4 is Xun instead of Kun.
Neither the diviner nor the official interpreting the hexagrams in the
Guoyu mentions the majority rule that is so predominate in the Shifa.
Other examples from Section 2 in Shifa also reveal a difference.
For example, in Cases 2.2 and 2.3, if the majority of the trigrams
appear on either the “right” or “left” side of the trigram array in
Section 24 (see “Principles” earlier), then the result would be auspi-
cious. This does not work for the Guoyu example, as Kan and Kun are
on the right and Zhen on the left, so there would be no majority. In
Case 2.7 (where Kun and Qian are in a diagonal relationship blocked
by two Dui in the corners), the trigrams are perceived as moving from
Yang (Qian) to Yin (Kun) influence; the goal would only be partially
achieved.
Blocking was also noticed by the second official in the Guoyu
passage, but he used the omen texts of the Zhouyi to prove how the
blockage could be penetrated and a state achieved. The first diviner
did not resort to omen texts and simply analyzed the gua pattern.
Even though both diviners talked in terms of hexagram names, it was
the trigrams that they focused on. Although neither interpretative
method expressed in the Guoyu passage reflected the Shifa method
completely, we see some reflections regarding shared metaphors in
the images as well as some shared concepts regarding “blocking” and
extraordinary numbers.
Shifa as a divinatory method was not visible in imperial China,
but many of its principles have surfaced from time to time in peo-
ple’s understanding and use of the hexagrams. For example, earlier
in this section, we already saw how the Western Han literati linked
the auspiciousness of a trigram to the seasonal changes, which cor-
responded with the relevant principles in Shifa. The idea behind
“wife-and-husband,” two trigrams with opposite line arrangements
(such as Dui ☱ and Gen ☶), was used by the Eastern Han literati
to understand the formation of the hexagrams and to arrange their
sequence.5 In Section 16 of the Shifa, the two examples show an

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

upside-​down pair: the first example has 4561(7)89 from top to bot-
tom, and the second ­example 981(7)654. Qing scholars such as Qian
Daxin 錢大昕 (1728–​1804) noticed that in the received sequence of
the hexagrams, 56 hexagrams were paired based on this principle of
inversion, such as Zhun and Meng , Xu and Song , Shi
and Bi , just to point out the pairs for the first hexagrams in the
sequence. This phenomenon was named “overturned hexagrams”
(fan gua 反卦, fu gua 覆卦, or fu ti 覆体).6 This kind of pairing was
also found among the hexagrams that were engraved on pottery from
late Western Zhou.7 These tantalizing similarities do not necessarily
mean that the Shifa was directly linked to such examples. However,
they do show that the principles manifested in the Shifa belong to a
larger and broader tradition of thinking and playing with gua, from
which the orthodox Zhouyi tradition is but one offshoot.

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C hapter 3

Transcription and Translation

In the Shifa, number 1 represents the unbroken or solid line, or

Yang line (yang yao 陽爻) in the received Zhouyi tradition; num-
ber 6 represents the broken line, or Yin line (yin yao 陰爻) in the
received tradition. Hereafter we refer to numbers 1 and 6, and
the extraordinary numbers, 5, 9 and 4, 8 as unbroken and broken
lines, respectively, for the convenience of reference and the fact
that they often serve as symbolic dichotomies to form trigrams
instead of functioning as arithmetic numbers. However, keep in
mind that the Shifa never refers to the components of a trigram
directly as Yin or Yang or as “broken” or “unbroken.” It refers to
them only as “lines” (yao 爻)1 and separated them according to
their odd and even mathematical qualities 1 (7), 5, 9 and 6, 4, 8. In
some cases, the appearance of the extraordinary numbers, 5, 9, 4,
8, influenced the results.
The main section of this book consists of transcription, trans-
lation, and discussion. The trigrams and texts of each section are
transcribed herein in two ways. First, they are shown in numerical
form and Chinese kaishu-​style characters presented in left-​to-​right
Western style. Then the traditional trigram images of broken and
unbroken lines with their names (Pinyin and kaishu characters) are
presented in the same order as in the Shifa, that is, reading from top
to bottom, right to left (as per the ABCD positions described in the
rules earlier). For the reader’s convenience, the numbers of the cor-
responding hexagrams in the Zhouyi are noted at the bottom of the
traditional images. Following this is the English translation. Each set

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

of trigrams in each section is given a case number. For example, the

second set in Section 1 is numbered 1.2. Trigram sets that are related
in methodology are bunched together and followed by an explana-
tory “Interpretation.”
Punctuation in the text was uneven. Some sections include care-
ful and consistent periods to mark off phrases within a sentence, and
others contain none at all. The periods are sometimes of different
sizes, some quite large, others barely visible. We have tried to pre-
serve these in our transcription with the symbols: ◆ for large periods
and • for small periods. For the reader’s ease, we also include modern
punctuation.
In the back of this book are a number of illustrative charts, a glos-
sary, a list of all hexagram names corresponding to fourth-​century
Chu divination texts, and a summary of the Wangjiatai (Guicang) and
transmitted Zhouyi hexagram contents. It is expected that readers
will want to try their hand at interpreting the trigram configurations
and perhaps experiment with the idea that early diviners consulted
hexagram texts as a secondary level of analysis.
The individual cases of 2 x 2 trigram sets arranged in the first
half of the text are found in Sections 1 through 19. Each case within
a section is numbered by section and order of cases within a single
section. So, for example, Section 1 has nine cases, and so each case
is marked as 1.1 through 1.9. Because there are sometime sub-
groupings of related cases within a section, the discussion may fol-
low the translations of either the individual or subgrouped cases
within a section.
The layout of the translations and discussions follows the
Tsinghua understanding of section order; that is, beginning with
Section 1 in the upper right-​hand corner and ending with Section
30 along the edge of the left side of the text. Although the sections
of the original manuscript did not have titles, the Tsinghua titles are
included for easy reference.
The entire text is generally read in sections, downward from the
upper right-​hand corner to the lower left-​hand corner. The punctua-
tion suggests that the gua were read first in this ABCD order and then

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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

Illustration 3.1 Section 24. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)

the text underneath them was also read in this order. Only in Section 24,
a diagram in roughly a 亞 shape, is the text read in unusual directions
(see Illustration 3.1).
The two halves of the manuscript divide roughly between
Section 19 and Section 20, both of which cover strips 32–​36 (with
Section 19 on top). Before this division are two larger divisions with
many sections all including trigram cases (except Section 18). The
largest runs from strips 1–​23 and includes Sections 1–​13. Then strips
24–​31 include Sections 14–​18. Sections 1–​19 all include case studies
of trigram divination.
The second half of the manuscript is less evenly divided into sec-
tions. Often sections are fit into each other in an interlocking way

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

as if squeezed into the remaining strips, strips 37–​63. Including

Section 20 on strips 32–​36, there are 10 sections of reference
materials, many of which might be considered to be charts of
information.
Sections vary in size and seeming importance. Among the sections
included on strips 1–​23, the largest sections of trigram cases occupy
two full registers. These are Section 1 “Life and Death” (sisheng 死生)
and beneath it Section 2 “Obtaining” (de 得) (see Illustration 3.2).
Lines delineate the four registers of sections on strips 1–​23 from
each other (see Illustration 3.3). While the texts in the two registers
exhibit an effort to punctuate the gua and the texts, that was not the

Illustration 3.2 Sections 1 and 2. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed.
2013, 76)

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case in registers three and four, each of which includes multiple small
topical areas, suggesting that the issues in these two registers may have
been of less importance to the client, presumably a tomb occupant
someplace in Jiangling.
The sections in the third register include Section 3 “Presenting
Offerings (xiang 享) (strips 1–​4), Section 4 “Changes” (bian 變) (strips
5–​8), Section 5 “Arriving” (zhi 至) (strips 9–​13), Section 6 “Marrying
a Wife” (qu qi) (strips 14–​17), and Section 7 “Negotiation” (chou 讎)
(strips 18–​23). The central string holding the entire Shifa together
(one of three) went below the third register.
The fourth register includes Section 8 “Meeting” (jian 見) (strips 1–​6),
Section 9 “Spiritual Blame”2 (jiu 咎) (strips 7–​9), Section 10 “Recovering
from an Illness” (chou 瘳) (strips 10 and 11), Section 11 “Rainy and Clear
Weather” (yu han 雨旱) (strips 12–​18), Section 12 “Male or Female”
(nannü 男女) (strips 19–​21), and Section 13 “Traveling” (xing 行) (strips
22 and 23). Punctuation in register four was slightly more regular than
in register three.
The next section of text in the first half, covering strips 24–​31
(see Illustration 3.5), also had four registers delineated by lines.
But whereas the registers in the first sector were almost all equal
in dimension, those in the next sector are not. The four regis-
ters are graduated in length from tall to short. Five sections are
covered, one per register, except for register three, which had
two. Register one has Section 14 “Prognosticating on Husbands
and Women” (strips 24–​ 31). Register two has Section 15
“Minor Attainments” (xiao de 小得) (strips 24–​31). In this section
each trigram pair is followed by an average of three words. The punc-
tuation in the gua clearly indicates that they should be read as sets of
two pairs (see Illustration 3.4).
The third register has two sections each with an average of two
or three words under each trigram pair. From the punctuation we
know that they were read as two sets of two pairs. This register
includes Section 16 “War” (zhan 戰) (strips 24–​27) and Section 17
“Accomplishment” (cheng 成) (strips 28–​31). The punctuation clearly
divides the trigram pairs and texts into two sets.

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S t a lk D i v i n a t i o n

Illustration 3.3 Sections 3–​13. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)

The fourth register does not have trigrams and includes mini-
mal punctuation. Each line has three words. It should perhaps be
considered as reference material that has been squeezed into avail-
able room. This section, Section 18 “Intended Service” (zhishi 志事)
(strips 24–​31), focuses on the importance of picking the correct Stem
and Branch sign. Trigram cases for “Intended Service” are found in a
following section.

58
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Illustration 3.4 Sections 14 and 15. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed.
2013, 76)
06

Illustration 3.5 Sections 16–​18. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)
16

T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

The next sector of text, covering strips 32–​36, consists of two

registers and also represents a transition from trigram case studies
to reference material. The top register (with the gua outlined with
lines) is shorter than the bottom one, which is a diagram (with each
of “four positions” also divided up with lines). The upper register (see
Illustration 3.6) includes Section 19 “Intended Service and Military
Troops” (zhishi junlü 志事軍旅) (strips 32–​36) and seems to be related
to Sections 18 and 20, but not clearly so to Section 16 on warfare.

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Illustration 3.6 Section 19. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)
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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

The lower register is Section 20 “The Four Position Chart” (siwei

biao 四位表) (strips 32–​36). This chart displays four squares each
with a grid dividing subgrouped topical areas into four aspects of
relative closeness to the client’s life. The topical areas concern the
primary issues in an elite man’s life: army, family, political, and liv-
ing environment (his residence). The influence of each aspect within
each topical square may have been determined by a matching trigram
from a 2 x 2 set.

63
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Illustration 3.7 Section 20. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)
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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

From this point on in the text, all sections provide reference

material or elaborations on the rules implied by the case studies. The
next three sections run full length down the manuscript, from strips
37–​42, and are fit in around each other and other adjacent sections
(see Illustration 3.8). These include Section 21 “Auspiciousness and
Inauspiciousness According to the Four Seasons” (si ji ji xiong 四季吉
凶) (strips 37 and 38, and half of 39), Section 22 “The Cycle of Qian
and Kun” (qian kun yunzhuan 乾坤運轉) (strips, half of 39 through most
of 40), and Section 23 “Results” (guo 果) (strips, some of 40 through
part of 42, fitting around the diagram in Section 24).

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Illustration 3.8 Sections 21–​23. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed.
2013, 76)
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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

The next sector of text, covering strips 42–​61, fits around Section 23
on the right and is bordered on the left by Section 30, which runs full
length down the entire manuscript, covering strips 62 and 63. The
sector covering strips 42–​61 is divided into three registers. Register
one includes Section 24 “Pictures of the Trigram Array and the
Human Body” (strips upper part of 42–​61), a diagram displaying the
eight trigrams arrayed around a human figure (which is also marked
in eight parts by the trigrams). The human figure is exactly the type
found in almanac texts except for the trigram markings. This picture
is outlined with lines in a rough 亞 shape which separate the picture
from bits of text arrayed by direction, and correlated to color, natural
agent, and a seasonal deity (see Illustration 3.1).
The Tsinghua editors named the two sectors that make up register
two as Sections 25 and 27, with Sections 26, 28, and 29 taking up
the third register (see Illustration 3.9). The second register includes
Section 25 “Heavenly Stems and Gua” (tiangan yu gua 天干與卦)
(strips 43–​50, strip 51 in this section is blank) and Section 27 “Earthly
Branches and Gua (dizhi yu gua 地支與卦) (strips 52–​57). These two
sections are roughly of equal dimension and are clearly related.
The third register includes three sections, which are roughly the
same width as the two sections in register two. Section 28, which is
clearly related to Sections 25 and 27 in register two, is a short text, the
same width as Section 27, but that physically intrudes into Section 29.
Sections 25, 27, and 28 are delineated by lines and focus on the cor-
relations between gua, time, and numbers. The third register includes
Section 26 “Curses” (sui 祟) (strips 43–​ 51), Section 28 “Earthly
Branches and Lines” (dizhi yu yao 地支與爻) (strips 52–​57), and
Section 29 “Line Images” (yao xiang 爻象) (strips 52–​60). Section 26
and Section 29 focus on determining maleficent influences from
ghosts, demons, or objects in the environment.

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Illustration 3.9 Sections 25–​29. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)
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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

Finally, the last sector of the text encompasses the entire length
of strips 62 and 63 and functions like an index to the trigram case
studies covered in the right half of the manuscript (see Illustration
3.10). It is Section 30 “Seventeen Commands (mantic subjects)”
(shiqi ming 十七命). There are actually 18 sections in the first half of
the manuscript that include trigram case studies. So perhaps either
the ancient diviners did not view the topics divided exactly the same
way as the modern Tsinghua editors, or the Shifa must be considered
a rough manuscript compiled out of other materials that did not fit
perfectly as a single system.

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Illustration 3.10 Section 30. Redrawn by Lala Zuo (adapted from Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 76)
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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

SECTION 1. “LIFE AND DEATH” 死生

The diviner may have used this section of trigrams to diagnose

the prognosis of severe illnesses. Basically this section obeys the
principle that the appearance of a majority of one classification
of trigram overrules the minority. Nine separate cases are consid-
ered (1.1–​1.9).

1.1 Strips 1 and 2

111 111  116 161◆ 六虛（居）其病哭死 ◆

☴巽 ☰乾 Xun Qian
☲離 ☰乾 Li Qian
37 1

When there are six vacancies (positions with an odd number), per-
haps there will be illness, tears, and death.

1.2 Strips 3 and 4
166 111 161 661◆ 五虛（居）同一虛（居），死。 ◆
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
☳震 ☰乾 Zhen Qian
21 26

When five vacancies (positions with an odd number) join in one

place, it indicates death.

Interpretation
These two cases ask us to look at the four trigrams as two vertical
columns with six lines in each column. In the first case (Case 1.1),

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there is at least one Yang line in each of the six positions in either
the left and/​or the right columns. Therefore, it is called “six vacan-
cies” (liu xu 六虛), which was phonetically and semantically close
to “six positions” (liu ju 六居) in Old Chinese. The second case
(Case 1.2) has almost the same situation, except that in the second
line position from the top there are broken lines in both columns.
Therefore, it is called “five positions” (wu ju 五居), indicating that
the remaining “vacancy” or position is occupied by a different kind
of line. In these two cases, the correlation between the lines in the
same position or tier in the two parallel columns provides a single
decisive trigram answering “positively” the question of whether the
patient will die.
The Tuan 彖 commentary to the Zhouyi refers to the six lines
of the hexagram as the “six positions” (liu wei 六位) but gener-
ally understands these as the images of six dragons (probably six
images of a single asterism moving across the sky) mentioned in
the line texts.3 In the Western Zhou bronze inscriptions, the graph
written 㡴 was read as ju 居. Since later in the Shifa the graph 凥 is
read as chu 處, we read xu 虛 as perhaps a misreading of an ornate
version of 㡴. In fact, the Old Chinese pronunciation of ju, chu, and
xu was quite close, so it is easy to see how they might have been
confused.

1.3 Strips 5 and 6
661 616 616 611◆ 三吉同凶，待死。◆
☵坎 ☳震 Kan Zhen
☱兌 ☵坎 Dui Kan
60 40

When three auspicious (trigrams) join a (single) inauspicious (tri-

gram), it indicates approaching death.

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1.4 Strips 7 and 8
611 611 161 661◆ 三凶同吉，待死。◆
☲離 ☱兌 Li Dui
☳震 ☱兌 Zhen Dui
21 58

When three inauspicious (trigrams) join a (single) auspicious (tri-

gram), it indicates approaching death.

1.5 Strips 9–​11
661 616 616 659◆ 三吉同凶，悪爻處之，今焉死。◆
☵坎 ☳震 Kan Zhen
☱兌 ☵坎 Dui Kan
60 40

When three auspicious (trigrams) join a (single) inauspicious (tri-

gram) and evil lines reside in it, then it indicates immediate death.

1.6 Strips 12–​14
611 611 161 956◆ 三凶同吉，悪爻處之，今焉死。◆
☲離 ☱兌 Li Dui
☴巽 ☱兌 Xun Dui
50 58

When three inauspicious (trigrams) join a (single) auspicious (tri-

gram) and evil lines reside there, it indicates immediate death.

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Interpretation
These four cases (1.3–​1.6) concern the relative auspicious or inaus-
picious nature of each trigram according to the seasons, outlined in
Section 21. The auspiciousness of a trigram in the a forementioned
cases follows the Spring section of Section 21, where Zhen and
Xun are greatly auspicious (da ji 大吉), Kan is slightly auspicious
(xiao ji 小吉), Gen and Li are greatly inauspicious (da xiong 大凶),
and Du is slightly inauspicious (xiao xiong 小凶). This approach is
sensitive to a principle similar to the “majority rule,” where three
out of four trigrams with the same nature provide an affirmative
answer to the question. Later on, we will see how this majority rule
operates based on other inherent aspects of the trigrams, such
as gender.
In these cases, the seemingly auspicious signs do not guaran-
tee a good or promising future. The auspiciousness of the three
trigrams does not connect to whether the result of the inquiry is
auspicious but simply to an affirmative answer to the question
asked. In other words, if, as the topic of this section mentions, the
inquiry concerns whether death will take place, the majority rule
guarantees an affirmative result, in the sense of “yes, death will
take place.”
The extraordinary numbers indicate a more critical situation.
When a 9 and 5 appear in trigrams in the left bottom corners in
Cases 1.5 and 1.6, the interpretation is “immediate death” (jin
yan si 今焉死) instead of “approaching death” (dai si 待死) as in
Cases 1.3 and 1.4, where there are no extraordinary numbers.
The inauspicious nature or “balefulness” (lin 吝) of the extraordi-
nary numbers appearing in an upper or lower register of the four
trigrams is explained in Section 29. Interestingly, among all the
given cases, these two cases are the only ones where the appear-
ance of extraordinary numbers obviously suggests an inauspi-
cious ending for the patient. In most other cases, other rules
predominate. In Case 1.4 where extraordinary numbers are not

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a factor, we see that the Li and the two Dui are not auspicious in
the Spring.

1.7 Strips 15–​17
661 666 116 161◆ 筮死妻者，相見在上，乃曰死。
☴巽 ☳震 Xun Zhen
☲離 ☷坤 Li Kun
37 16

When using stalks to divine about a dying wife and a match (set of
numbers) appears in the upper (register of trigrams), then this is say-
ing that she will die.

1.8 Strips 18–​20
166 666 111 166◆ 筮疾者，一卦亢之，乃曰將死。◆
☰乾 ☶艮 Qian Gen
☶艮 ☷坤 Gen Kun
33 23

When using stalks to divine about illness, when a single trigram

blocks the others, then this is saying that the patient will die.

1.9 Strips 21–​23
616 661 161 611◆ 筮死夫者，相見在上，乃曰死。◆
☲離 ☵坎 Li Kan
☱兌 ☳震 Dui Zhen
38 3

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When using stalks to divine about the dying husband and there is a
match up above, then this is saying that he is going to die.

Interpretation
In this third way of divining about death, the text is focused on the
pattern of two visually opposite trigrams. In Case 1.7, the broken
and unbroken lines in the two upper trigrams, Zhen and Xun, are
complete opposites in arrangement from each other and in essence
cancel each other out. The term “looking at each other” or “match-
ing” (xiangjian 相見) refers to a pair of trigrams that contain opposite
line patterns with each other and are juxtaposed horizontally in a
trigram set. The same pattern occurs in Case 1.9, where the broken
and unbroken line arrangement in Kan is the opposite to that of Li.
In contrast, in Case 1.8, two Gen trigrams interrupt (“block” kang 亢)
Qian and Kun from appearing on the same side or the same regis-
ter. In other words, when Qian and Kun, or other opposite trigrams
appear in diagonal positions, they are not considered “matching.”
When the “matching” pattern takes place, the result seems more
affirmative (“death,” si 死), as opposed to a slightly more tempered
result, as in Case 1.8 where the person eventually “will die” (jiang si
將死). As we will see in other examples, two trigrams are considered
as pairs only when they are adjacent positions, either horizontally or
vertically, but not diagonally.
In sum, in Case 1.7, the answer to the question of whether the
wife will die is affirmative because of the appearance of paired tri-
grams (Zhen and Xun). In Case 1.8, Gen blocks the pairing of Kun
and Qian, suggesting perhaps that while death will come, it will not
be immediate. Case 1.9, like Case 1.7 (strips 15–​17 earlier), involves a
pattern of unbroken and broken lines in the upper two trigrams that
directly cancel each other out.

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SECTION 2. “OBTAINING” 得

2.1 Strips 1 and 2
111 666 666 116◆ 妻夫同人，乃得。◆
☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun
46 12

When wife and husband join as (one or with another) person, then
(what you want) will be obtained.

Interpretation
The approach to this case is the same as in Cases 1.7 and 1.9 ear-
lier; the term “wife-​and-​husband” (qifu 妻夫) indicates the pair-
ing of trigrams with completely opposite arrangements of broken
and unbroken lines that can “join as one person.” Alternatively,
they “join another person,” either the second Kun or the remain-
ing Xun, both female trigrams. The reading of the three (1 Qian +
2 Kun) together is suggested by the next two cases (2.2 and 2.3),
where three of one kind of trigram “accompany” or “join” a remain-
ing one.

2.2 Strips 3 and 4
161 166 116 666◆ 三左同右，乃得。◆
☴巽 ☲離 Xun Li
☷坤 ☶艮 Kun Gen
20 56

When three (trigrams) on the left join (one) on the right, then (what
you want) will be obtained.

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2.3 Strips 5 and 6
666 611 611 161◆ 三右同左，乃得。◆
☱兌 ☷坤 Dui Kun
☲離 ☱兌 Li Dui
49 19

When three on the right join (one) on the left, then (what you want)
will be obtained.

Interpretation
To understand what is meant by “left” (zuo 左) and “right” (you 右),
the reader must refer to the arrangement of the trigrams arrayed
around the human figure in Section 24 (see Illustration 3.1). In
Case 2.2, Li, Gen, and Xun are all “left” of a virtual median line
that cuts diagonally from the left side of South to the right side
of North. Kun is to the “right” of the line. Case 2.3 is based on the
same principle; Kun and the two Dui trigrams are to the “right”
and Li to the “left.” This follows the rule that the majority of a
certain type of trigram indicates an affirmative response to the
inquiry, in this case, whether or not a desired objective or object
will be achieved or not.

һ Kan
Һ Xun ҽ Kun
Left Trigrams Right Trigrams
ҹ Zhen ҷ Dui
Ҽ Gen Ҷ Qian
Ҹ Li
Chart 3.1 “Left and Right” Trigrams4

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2.4 Strips 7 and 8
616 661 661 916◆ 三男同女乃得◆
☳震 ☵坎 Zhen Kan
☴巽 ☳震 Xun Zhen
32 3

When three males (trigrams) join a female (trigram), then (what you
want) will be obtained.

2.5 Strips 9 and 10
666 161 611 111◆ 三女同男，乃得。◆
☱兌 ☷坤 Dui Kun
☰乾 ☲離 Qian Li
43 36

When three female (trigrams) join a male (one), then (what you
want) will be obtained.

Interpretation
The previous cases were determined according to the “majority
rules” law as determined by the value of the trigrams’ relative aus-
piciousness during Spring and whether they were on the left/​right
sides of the circular array in Section 24. Now a new factor is intro-
duced, the “gender” of the trigrams. In Case 2.4, Kan and the two
Zhen are male trigrams and Xun is female. In Case 2.5, Kun, Li and
Dui are female trigrams and Qian is male. The gender of the indi-
vidual trigrams is determined by the one line that differs among
the three (the remainder). For example, Kan has two broken or Yin
lines surrounding a single unbroken or Yang line, so it is male. It

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is the opposite of its female counterpart, Li, which has two Yang
lines surrounding a Yin line. The only exceptions are Qian and Kun,
which are completely dominated by one type of line or another, total
Yang or total Yin. Cases 2.4 and 2.5 are the only cases in the Shifa
(outside of Qian and Kun being referred to as husband and wife)
wherein the gender of the trigrams is clearly specified. However,
other texts, such as the Guoyu passage discussed in Chapter 2 and
the “Shuogua” commentary hint at or specifically outline a hierar-
chy of ranked male and female trigrams, even going so far as to
categorize them in family terms, such as father and mother, and
elder, middle, and younger brothers and sisters.5 The suggestion
that trigrams might be categorized as “people” (ren 人) is seen in
Case 2.1 earlier.

2.6 Strips 11 and 12
661 616 459 116◆ 見覆數，乃亦得◆
☱兌 ☳震 Dui Zhen
☴巽 ☵坎 Xun Kan
28 40

If inverted numbers appear, then (what you want) will be obtained.

Interpretation
This case again relies on examining visual patterns of the trigrams.
The numerical inversion (fushu 覆數) refers to Dui and Xun on the
left as precise visual inversions of each other. Notably the extraor-
dinary numbers 459, which appear in the Dui trigram in the upper
right, do not seem to influence the outcome. And even though the
term fushu literally means “inverted numbers,” it is not an arithmeti-
cal inversion because the numbers given for Dui are 459 and for Xun

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are 116, respectively. The inversion only works if we translate the

number 459 into 611 and view the whole (611–​116) as a binary sys-
tem of unbroken/​broken, Yang/​Yin, and so on. The idea of inversion,
essentially two trigrams or hexagrams in inverse binary relationship
to each other or one upside down in relation to the other, is also
found in one of the received Zhouyi traditions. Yu Fan 虞翻 (ce 164–​233)
paired examples of inverted hexagrams and called them “overturned
hexagrams” (fan gua 反卦). He used this concept to arrange the hexa-
grams. Hang Xinzhai 杭辛齋 (1869–​1924) called this kind of pair-
ing “inverted hexagrams” (fu gua 覆卦).6 In contrast, the Shifa deals
with the inversion of trigrams, not hexagrams, and it is focused on
divinatory interpretation instead of the mantic image of the line
arrangement. Both hexagrams represented by the trigrams in Case
2.5 include images of spiritual flight (see the appendix table on hexa-
gram correlations). Although the Shifa does not explicate a symbolic
image, the concern with inverted patterns of gua (trigrams or hexa-
grams) was common to both traditions.

2.7 Strips 13–​15
611 111 666 611◆ 作於陽, 入於陰，亦得；其失十三。◆
☷坤 ☱兌 Kun Dui
☱兌 ☰乾 Dui Qian
19 43

If (the trigrams) begin in Yang and enter into Yin, (what you
want) will likewise be obtained, (but you will) perhaps lose a third
(of it).

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Interpretation
Although this case seems to suggest a movement from the bot-
tom right (the inner most position in the ABCD configuration, see
Chapter 1 above) to the top left register (the outermost position),
or, in this case, from Qian to Kun, it is not precisely clear what Yang
and Yin indicate. One possibility is that they refer to the Yang and
Yin values of the trigrams Qian and Kun, which represent pure Yang
or Yin lines. As described in the Principles earlier, the relative nature
of “inner” and “outer” positioning can be understood from informa-
tion in two other sections. According to the last line of Section 29,
the lower register of trigrams represents “inner” and the upper reg-
ister represents “outer.” Therefore, the most inner position here is
Qian, and the outsider position is Kun, which implies a movement
from inside to outside. If the array of four trigrams are mapped
onto the “four positions” (siwei 四位) in Section 20, we find that
Qian occupies the position of “self” in the boxes governing “family”
and “government positions” and the position of “chamber” in the
box governing “residence,” in contrast to the upper boxes, which
seem to represent more external relationships. Kun in these same
boxes occupies the positions of “servants,” “minister,” and “out-
side.” The movement then is from oneself, a Yang, outside to a Yin.
Another possible interpretation of the numerical patterns is that
Yang indicates the dominance of unbroken lines in the right side
where the lines would begin to be read, and then moves into broken
lines as the reader moves on to the left side.
It is hard to decide which possibility is more likely because this is
the only occasion that the Shifa introduces the Yin and Yang dichot-
omy. Also, curiously, the sets of trigrams presented here are very
similar to Case 1.8, where Gen was seen as “blocking” Qian and Kun.
In this case Dui should also “block” them, but the text instead claims
a positive result, albeit one mitigated by a percentage loss. One dif-
ference in the pattern is that in Case 1.8, Qian is on the top right,

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and Kun is at the bottom left, putting Kun in the proper “inner”
auxiliary position but Qian in the improper “outer” position.

2.8 Strips 16 and 17
111 666 116 811◆ 春見八, 乃亦得。◆
☴巽 ☰乾 Xun Qian
☱兌 ☷坤 Dui Kun
61 12

If in Spring there appears an 8, then (what you want) will likewise be

obtained.

2.9 Strips 18 and 19
661 116 611 165◆ 夏見五，乃亦得。◆
☱兌 ☳震 Dui Zhen
☲離 ☴巽 Li Xun
49 32

If in Summer there appears a 5, then (what you want) will likewise

be obtained.

2.10 Strips 20 and 21
616 161 611 916◆ 秋見九乃亦得◆
☱兌 ☵坎 Dui Kan
☴巽 ☲離 Xun Li
28 63

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If in Fall there appears a 9, then (what you want) will likewise be

obtained.

2.11 Strips 22 and 23
166 611 161 114◆ 冬見四，乃亦得。
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
☴巽 ☱兌 Xun Dui
50 41

If in Winter there appears a 4, then (what you want) will likewise be

obtained.

Interpretation
The determination of these four cases is based on the correlation
between the four extraordinary numbers and the four seasons: 8
appears in Dui in the Spring, 5 in Li in the Summer, 9 in Xun in
the Autumn, and 4 in Xun in the Winter. The four seasons do not
seem to correlate specifically with trigrams or with the correlations
typical in the Yin-​Yang Wuxing scheme. For example, if we matched
the direction-​trigram correlations given in Section 24, these would
be East-​Spring (Zhen), South-​Summer (Kan), West-​Fall (Dui), and
North-​Winter (Li).
Nor do the trigrams with the special numbers seem to correlate
with auspicious trigrams according to the seasonal chart in Section 21.
It is tempting to assume that the seasons simply indicate the tem-
poral parameter for the divination event, but this would be the first
case in which time was mentioned without a reference to the internal
quality of the trigram set or pattern. In other words, it would be the
first case that a correlative aspect of the trigram (often described in
the reference charts in the second half of the manuscript) was not
explained. As the Tsinghua editor noticed, the left columns of the

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four cases list the trigrams in a sequence that represents relative rank
in an alternation of male and female trigrams as presented in the
“Shuogua” (and elsewhere): Qian and Kun, Zhen and Xun, Kan and
Li, and Gen and Dui. It is possible that these pairs indicate a Yin-​Yang
alternation of productive forces beginning with the season with the
most qi, Spring, and ending with the least, Winter. There is no chart
or list of such correlations elsewhere in the Shifa, but as suggested in
the “Introduction,” in many ways the Shifa seems to be composed of
extracts from other texts. This may be an example of missing infor-
mation or where the diviner had access to other resources beyond
this manual.
The extraordinary numbers here do not seem to add an inaus-
picious effect to the results as per the rule outlined in the last line
in Section 29. This is an example were one rule—​that of the four
seasons—​trumped another rule. When the rules outlined in the sec-
ond half of the manual are compared with the cases in the first half
(those with trigram sets), we often see contradictions in the rules
applied.

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SECTION 3. “PRESENTING OFFERINGS” 享

3.1 Strips 1 and 2

666 666 666 116 凡享，月朝純牝，乃饗。

☷坤 ☷坤 Kun Kun
☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun
46 2

Whenever presenting offerings, if pure female (trigrams) appear at

the beginning of the month, then likewise (use a female animal) for
the feast.

3.2 Strips 3 and 4
111 111 111 166 月夕純牡，乃亦饗。◆
☰乾 ☰乾 Qian Qian
☶艮 ☰乾 Gen Qian
33 1

If pure male (trigrams) appear at the end of the month, then likewise
(use a male animal) for the feast.

Interpretation
These two cases ask us to look at the gathering of certain trigrams
around certain fixed positions. The two terms, “beginning-​of-​the-​
month position” (yuezhao 月朝) and “end-​of-​the-​month position”
(yuexi 月夕), indicate two specific positions of the four trigrams: the
top right position and bottom right position, respectively. And the
word “pure” (chun 純) indicates the appearance of same type of tri-
grams around those positions. For example, in Case 3.1, the female
trigram Kun occupies the beginning-​of-​the-​month position, or the

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top right corner, and there are two other female trigrams (both Kun)
to its left and beneath it. In Case 3.2, the male trigram Qian occupies
the bottom right corner, or the end-​of-​the-​month position. On top
of it, there is another male trigram Qian, and another one to the left
of that.
The correlation between the moon positions and their positions
in the trigram sets is not obvious from these cases alone and must
be drawn by analogy from other cases using similar terminology. If
three Kun or two Qian appear together in positions ABC (see dis-
cussion of positions ABCD in Chapter 1), it is difficult to determine
which of the three really occupies which moon position despite the
information that Kun is linked to the beginning of the month and
Qian to the end of the month.
Section 14 helps to narrow the possibilities. It gives eight cases
applying a similar rationale but using the term “gathering” (cui 萃)
instead of “pure.” Many of the cases in Section 14 have Qian and
Kun also occupying positions ABC, but a couple of examples include
only positions A and B. Therefore, we know that the two positions,
beginning of the month and end of the month, must be limited to
these two.
Further clarification comes from Section 22, which elaborates on
the moon positions. This section mentions the joint movement of
Qian and Kun to the positions of Xun and Gen; these four trigrams
originally occupy the four corners of the trigram array in Section 24
(Illustration 3.3) and form a square. Therefore, it is likely that this
cosmological pattern was considered the normative positions for
the trigrams (see Illustration 3.4). Based on this, Kun would have
a normative position on the top right corner, and Qian would have
its normative position on the bottom right corner (positions A and
B). These correlations are confirmed by the statement in Section 22
that “[I]‌n all cases, Qian is auspicious in the end-​of-​the-​month (posi-
tion) and Kun is auspicious in the beginning-​of-​the-​month position”
(凡乾，月夕吉。坤，月朝吉。).7
Section 22 also sheds light on the rationale behind the moon
positions and their relation to the trigram sets. Basically, the four

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☴ Xun ☵ Kan ☷ Kun

South

☳ Zhen ☱ Dui
East West

☶ Gen ☲ Li ☰ Qian
North

Chart 3.2 Spatial Trigram Array (from Section 24)

Һ Xun ҽ Kun

Ҽ Gen Ҷ Qian

Chart 3.3 Trigrams and Normative Moon Positions (from Section 22)

trigrams and their four positions represented the full cycle of the
moon. During the new moon (hui 晦), Kun in the upper right posi-
tion (beginning-​ of-​
the-​
month position) “welcomed” or “invited”
Qian to move from his lower right position (end-​of-​the-​month posi-
tion) to the upper left position, where Xun was located. There they
spent the first five days of the moon together in this position (this
would be equivalent to the Early Auspicious, chuji 初吉 phase men-
tioned on Zhou bronze inscriptions). Then they moved down to the
lower left position, where Gen was located. They stayed there another
ten days, until basically the time around the full moon (leading up to
the auspicious time period mentioned on bronze inscriptions known
as “already full,” jiwang 既望).8 At this point, Qian and Kun returned
to their normative original positions.9

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The word “pure” (chun 純) elsewhere in the Shifa, such as in

Section 26, refers to trigrams made up of all of one kind of line, such
as all 1s or all 6s. However, since the topic of Section 3 is “sacrificial
offerings,” the Tsinghua editors also suggest that “pure” may modify
the coloration of the types of sacrificial animals to be used (some
sacrifices required white animals). Indeed, following the word “pure,”
the words “female animal” (pin 牝) and “male animal” (mu 牡) occur.
However, the terms were also used to refer to the forces of Yin
and Yang.10

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SECTION 4. “CHANGE” 變

The title of this section is not clear. The original graph is read as
bian 卞 over a 又 element and as a variant of bian 弁. The word
represented by the graph 卞 referred to a ritual “cap” made of
leather and worn by young men to court or in the ancestral shrine.
However, this graph was also used as a variant of the word bian 變
“to change” (see the chime bell inscriptions from the tomb of Zeng
Hou Yi 曾侯乙 in Suixian, Hubei, part of ancient Chu territory).11
In the “Xici” commentary, bian 變 refers to the alternation between
Yin and Yang. In the Shifa, it seems to refer simply to life’s ups
and downs.

4.1 Strips 5 and 6
611 111 666 666 凡變，數而出乃遂。◆
☷坤 ☱兌 Kun Dui
☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
2 43

In cases of change, if, when counting, the numbers go outward, then

proceed.

4.2 Strips 7 and 8
166 666 111 611 凡變，數而入乃復。
☰乾 ☶艮 Qian Gen
☱兌 ☷坤 Dui Kun
10 23

In cases of change, if, when counting, the numbers go inward, then

reverse direction.

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Interpretation
These two cases seem to focus on the relationship between the upper
and lower registers, the “inner” (bottom) and the “outer” (upper) (see
Case 2.7 earlier). However, the Shifa does not explain what it means
by the numbers “going inward” (shu er ru 數而入) or “going outward”
(shu er chu 數而出) and the relationship of the number patterns with
the statements is not obvious. As explained earlier in Case 2.7, the
outermost position is position C in the upper left, and the inner-
most position is position B, in the lower right. Therefore, movement
“inward” and “outward” seems to suggest an interaction between the
two registers or to relative positions within them. The numbers in
the lower position in Case 4.1 are 111 (pure Yang) and in Case 4.2 are
the opposite (666, pure Yin).
Comparing the change in the overall patterns of the trigrams
between Cases 4. 1 and 4.2 reveals that not only have Qian and Kun
switched places in the corners, but Dui and Qian have switched from
right to left sides and their order in relation to each other. Basically
the arrangements of Cases 4.1 and 4.2 are flipped around from each
other (with a Gen replacing one Kun). Notably, the order of Qian,
Dui, and Kun matches their order in Section 24 (marking northwest,
west, and southwest). If then we understand Qian as the starting
point and rotate through Dui to Kun, then the movement in Case 4.1
goes from inside to outside, and in Case 4.2 it goes from outside to
inside (see Illustration 3.3).

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SECTION 5. “ARRIVAL” 至

5.1 Strips 9 and 10

661 161 616 611 至，四正之卦見，乃至。

☵坎 ☳震 Kan Zhen
☱兌 ☲離 Dui Li
60 55

As for the issue of arrival, if the four cardinal direction trigrams

appear (in proper formation), then (you will) arrive.

5.2 Strips 11 and 13
166 116 111 666 其餘易向，乃亦至。當日、不易向，昏夜不至。
☰乾 ☶艮 Qian Gen
☷坤 ☴巽 Kun Xun
12 18

If the remaining (trigrams representing the diagonal orientations)

change direction, then you will arrive. If it is on the matching day
and they do not change direction, then do not expect to arrive even
by nightfall.

Interpretation
As in Section 4, the reading of these two cases requires consulting the
directional array of the trigrams in Section 24 (see Illustration 3.1).
Zhen, Li, Kan, and Dui represent the four cardinal directions East, North,
South, and West (zheng 正). In the corners, there are Gen (northeast),
Xun (southeast), Qian (northwest), and Kun (southwest), which make
up the “those remaining (trigrams)” (qi yu 其餘). Previously, the earliest

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evidence for the idea of trigram position related to the “four cardinal
directions” (si zheng) was found in the Book of Wei (Wei shu 魏書) (554 ce).12
The Shifa use of the term “gua of the four cardinal directions” (si zheng zhi
gua 四正之卦) shows that in fact the tradition was much older.
In Case 5.1 if one reads the four trigrams according to the nor-
mal ABCD order, the directions would flow ENSW, in a Z shape (if we
follow the arrayed pattern in Section 24). However, another way to
visualize the order is in the shape of an X, with each direction posi-
tioned diagonally across from its opposite (E & W in positions A & D;
S & N in positions C & B). Turned sideways, this X would be a cross
十, matching the visual order in Section 24. This could be considered
normative and therefore auspicious.
In Case 5.2 the normative square array (that we saw in Section 3,
Illustration 3.3) is reversed and upside down. Positions A and B should
be occupied by Kun and Qian (not Gen and Xun), and positions C and
D should be occupied by Xun and Gen (not Qian and Kun). It is neces-
sary to “change direction” (yixiang 易向) in order for the arrival to be
auspicious.
The text under Cases 5.1 and 5.2 presents three circumstances, two
involving the direction of the trigrams if read against the arrangement
in Section 24 and one involving the “matching day” (dang ri 當日). The
day names (the 10 Heavenly Stems) are listed in Section 25. Apparently
another deciding factor in Case 5.2, in addition to “changing the direc-
tion” of the four noncardinal trigrams to the normative order, was that
at least one of them must correspond to the appropriate day sign, per-
haps that of the day in which the divination was being performed.

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SECTION 6. “MARRYING A WIFE” 娶妻

6.1 Strips 14 and 15

666 166 161 611 凡娶妻，三女同男，吉。

☲離 ☷坤 Li Kun
☱兌 ☶艮 Dui Gen
38 15

In cases of marrying a wife, if three female (trigrams) join (one) male

(trigram), it is auspicious.

6.2 Strips 16 and 17
166 111 616 116 凡娶妻，三男同女，凶。
☵坎 ☶艮 Kan Gen
☴巽 ☰乾 Xun Qian
48 26

In cases of marrying a wife, if three male (trigrams) join (one) female

(one), it is inauspicious.

Interpretation
The gender of the trigrams decides these two cases. In Case 6.1,
Kun, Li, and Dui are female and Gen is male; in Case 6.2, Gen,
Qian, and Kan are male and Xun is female. In these cases the prin-
ciple of majority rules should apply, making both cases auspicious.

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However, unlike in Cases 1.3–​1.6, where the auspiciousness of one

gender over another gender trigram does not decide the result (in
those cases, the result is always affirmative, i.e. “yes, the patient
will die”), here the genders do decide the result. In the case of
choosing a wife, if three male trigrams appear as the majority, it is
inauspicious to choose that woman for a wife.

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SECTION 7. “NEGOTIATION” 讎

The original word chou 讎 had the sense of to “answer” or to “discuss

an issue” between two people. It could also mean “to pay back” or, as
a noun, refer to the object of one’s discussion or even an “enemy.” In
Qin law it could also refer “to collating” the paperwork on a case. The
Tsinghua editors suggest it was perhaps a loan for shou 售 (graphi-
cally and phonetically somewhat similar), meaning “to sell,” although
commercial activity is not one of the areas of concern listed in the
Section 20 diagram.13 Because marriage is a concern in the Shifa, the
concept of “matchmaking” is the preferred connotation of negotia-
tion for this section.

7.1 Strips 18–​20
166 111 611 661 凡讎，三男同女，女在𠧩上，妻夫相見，讎。
☱兌 ☶艮 Dui Gen
☳震 ☰乾 Zhen Qian
17 26

In cases of negotiation, if three male (trigrams) join a female (tri-

gram), and the female (trigram) is in the upper (register), and if
a wife-​and-​husband (set of trigrams) appears as a match, then
negotiate.

7.2 Strips 21 and 22 (23 is Blank)

166 111 981 166 少淆，讎。數出，乃亦讎.
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
☶艮 ☰乾 Gen Qian
56 26

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If the (trigrams appear) a little mixed up, then (go forward with the)
negotiation. If the numbers go outward, then likewise negotiate.

Interpretation
In Case 7.1, three rules apply: (1) the majority rule of one gender
of trigram, (2) the rule of “wife-​and-​husband” in a matched pair
appearing in the same register (that is, two trigrams with inverse
line arrangements adjacent to each other), and (3) the remaining tri-
gram, in this case “female,” is located in the “upper register” (termed
hui 𠧩) of the trigram set. Gen, Qian, and Zhen (positions A, B, D)
are male, and Dui, in the upper left position (C), is female. Gen and
Dui in the upper register are in “wife-​and-​husband” position (posi-
tions A and C).
In Case 7.2, two of the three rules mentioned in Case 7.1
apply: (1) majority rules, and (2) the female trigram is in the upper
register. The two Gen and one Qian are all male trigrams and the Li
is female. Li is in the upper left position where Dui was; but the Li
and Gen, which are adjacent in each direction, do not qualify as a
wife-​and-​husband pair (i.e., not exact opposites of each other). Two
other rules are mentioned in Case 7.2: (1) a situation in which the
numbers of a trigram are “slightly mixed up” (shao xiao 少淆), and
(2) when the calculation of the numbers is outward (shu chu 數出).
The term “slightly mixed up” most likely refers to the fact that tri-
grams Qian and Gen are only one line away from being complete
opposites (i.e., it would only take one line change in Gen to become
Kun). If Gen became a Kun, then a perfect “wife-​and-​husband” pair
would be achieved.
In terms of the “numbers going outward,” if the same principle
as in Case 4.2 is applied, then beginning with Qian in the “self” posi-
tion (B) and following the reading order of top to bottom right to
left (ABCD), we move to Li (in C position) and then Gen (in D posi-
tion), which according to the arrangement of the eight trigrams in
Section 24 is moving clockwise, therefore “outward.”

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SECTION 8. “MEETING” 見

8.1 Strips 1 and 2

666 116 116 616 ◆ 凡見，三女同男，男見。◆

☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun
☵坎 ☴巽 Kan Xun
59 46

In cases of meeting, if three female (trigrams) join a male (trigram),

then a man will be met.

8.2 Strips 3 and 4
661 111 166 161◆ 凡見，三男同女，女見。◆
☶艮 ☳震 Gen Zhen
☲離 ☰乾 Li Qian
22 34

In cases of meeting, if three male (trigrams) join a female (trigram),

then a woman will be met.

Interpretation
These two cases employ two rules: (1) majority rules, and (2) the
gender of the remaining trigram determines the gender of the per-
son who will be met. In Case 8.1, Kun and Xun are female trigrams
and Kan is the lone male trigram; hence, a male will be met. And in
Case 8.2, Zhen, Qian, and Gen are male, and Li is the lone female
trigram; hence, a female will be met. The same logic for determining
gender appears in Section 12.

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8.3 Strips 5 and 6
166 111 161 666◆ 凡見大人，昭穆，見。◆
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
35 26

In cases of meeting a great person, if the shining-​and-somber

(zhaomu) appear, then (a great person) will be met.

Interpretation
This case introduces a specific term for the pure Yang and pure Yin
opposing trigrams: Qian and Kun. They are called “the shining-​and-​
somber” (zhaomu 昭穆), representing light and dark. If they appear
like “wife-​and-​husband” pairs in “matching” positions as seen earlier,
the result is positive.

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SECTION 9. “SPIRITUAL BL AME” 咎

Ghosts and spirits harmed humans, especially their own descen-

dants, if they felt unfairly treated, hungry, or simply unhappy for
some reason.

9.1 Strips 7 and 9
116 111 161 666◆ 凡咎，見術日、妻夫昭穆、上毀，亡咎。
☲離 ☴巽 Li Xun
☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
35 9

In cases of spiritual blame, if there appears the calculated day, the

shining-​and-​somber (trigrams) in a wife-​and-​husband (position),
and there is diminishment in the upper (trigrams), there will be
no blame.

Interpretation
This case mentions four conditions: (1) the “calculated day” (shu ri
術日), (2) the position of wife and husband, (3) the appearance of the
“shining-​and-​somber,” Qian and Kun, and (4) diminishment in the
upper register of the trigrams. The term “calculated day” (shu ri
術日) is similar to “matching day” (dang ri 當日), indicating the tri-
gram correlated to a specific “stem” day (as diagramed in Section 25),
and possibly the day of the divination event (see Case 5.2, above).
Qian and Kun appear in the wife-​and-​husband position in the lower
register. Qian correlates with Jia 甲 and Ren 壬 days and Kun cor-
relates with Yi 乙 and Gui 癸 days.
The Shifa does not explain the term “diminishment on the upper
register,” which appears here in Case 9.1 and in Case 10.1. In both
cases, the upper register is occupied by two female trigrams, each of

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T r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d T r a n s l at i o n

which by nature is differentiated by the position of the broken line. If

the broken line was replaced with an unbroken line, then each female
trigram would be Qian, a purely Yang trigram; they are “diminished”
from their full potential. In the transmitted texts, the condition of hui
can represent a condition in which one’s reputation, physical body,
or even a cosmic phase (such as Wood) is weakened either through
slander, hunger, or the natural end of an “element” cycle. It suggests
water drying up, the moon waning, or the sun being eclipsed. Hence,
it refers to the sense that a fully Yang presence is diminished by Yin.

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SECTION 10. “HEALING” 瘳

10.1 Strips 10 and 11

611 166 116 111◆ 凡瘳，見術日、上毀，瘳。◆

☴巽 ☱兌 Xun Dui
☰乾 ☶艮 Qian Gen
9 31

In cases of recovering from illness, if there appears the calculated

day and diminishment in the upper (trigrams), there will be recovery
from illness.

Interpretation
Here we have the same two conditions as in Case 9.1 earlier, the cal-
culated day and the diminishment of the upper register. Dui corre-
lates with the Ding 丁 day in the Heavenly Stem system.

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SECTION 11. “RAINY AND CLEAR WEATHER” 雨旱

Note that in the list of topics in Section 50, these two weather types
are under separate headings.

11.1 Strips 12–​15
611 166 666 616◆ 凡雨，當日在下、數而入，雨。當日在
上、◆ 數而出，乃旱。
☷坤 ☱兌 Kun Dui
☵坎 ☶艮 Kan Gen
7 31

In cases of rain, if the matching-​d ay (trigrams) are on the bot-

tom, and if the calculated (trigrams) are moving inward, then it
will rain. If the matching-​d ay (trigrams) are on the top, and if
the calculated (trigrams) above are moving outward, then it will
be dry.

11.2 Strips 17–​18
611 166 116 616◆ 金木相見在上，陰。水火相見在下，風。◆
☴巽 ☱兌 Xun Dui
☵坎 ☶艮 Kan Gen
59 31

If metal and wood appear as a match up above, then it will be

cloudy (yin). If water and fire appear as a match below, then it will
be windy.

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Interpretation
In both of the cases, the descriptions and the trigrams combine two
situations. In Case 11.1 it deals with rainy or nonrainy days, and
in Case 11.2 it looks at cloudy or windy days. The requirements for
each also consider two factors: the matching day and the calculated
movement or positions of the trigrams in relation to each other. In
Case 11.1, the trigram associated with the day (of concern or of the
day of the divination event) might be located in the bottom or top
register. In either case, applying the rule of “moving inward or out-
ward” as seen in Section 4 earlier, it would seem that the key trigram
is evaluated in terms of its relation to the other trigrams in the set
and whether they depict the same order as in Section 24. However,
in the example in Case 11.1, movement beginning from any trigram
going clockwise fits with the arrangement in Section 24. Therefore, to
determine what the text means by going inward or outward, atten-
tion must also be paid to the position of the trigrams in the upper
or lower registers (“outside” or “inside”). Assuming that “move-
ment” implies a clockwise motion, then starting with a Kun day (on a
Yi 乙 or Gui 癸 day) then the movement clockwise would be to Dui,
still in the upper register and therefore “outside.” But if movement
began on a Dui day (Ding), then the movement would be downward
to the “inside.” For a Gen day (Bing 丙 day) movement would still be
“inside,” but for a Kan day (Wu 戊) it would be to the “outside.”
In Case 11.2, it is the position of the four agents or cosmic
processes (also known as phases and “elements”) associated with
the Four Directions. The Four Directions and their correlations in
Section 24 moving clockwise are listed as South-​Kan (Fire), West-​Dui
(Metal), North-​Li (Water), and East-​Zhen (Wood) (see Illustration
3.1). Xun and Dui are in the upper register. Dui is metal, and Xun
must be Wood. Xun is the next trigram moving clockwise up from
Zhen (Wood), so each of the four agents must include two trigrams,
one in the cardinal direction and the next position moving clockwise
up from the cardinal direction. Gen and Kan are on the lower register.
Kan is fire and Gen, one up from Li, must be Water.

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SECTION 12. “MALE OR FEMALE” 男女

This divination might have been used to determine the gender of

a fetus.

12.1 Strips 19–​21
666 166 116 161◆ 凡男，上去二，下去一，中男乃男；女乃
女。◆
☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
37 15

In the case for a male, the (trigram) above must expel two (lines), and
the (trigram) below expels one (line), so that (there is a) center (tri-
gram), which if it is male (trigram) then (the baby) will be male, and
if it is a female (trigram) then (the baby) will be a female.

Interpretation
Through a process of subtraction of two lines from an upper trigram
and one line from the trigram just below it a new trigram is cre-
ated in between. The text ignores the top two lines and the bottom
line of each numerical series so that the remaining lines constitute a
new trigram. The gender of the new trigram determines the gender
of the fetus. If we use the numbers of these two series of six num-
bers as an example, the left stack will be 66[616]6, and the right
stack 66[616]6. Both of the new trigrams are 616, which constitutes
the male trigram Kan. This case and Case 1.1 give readings based
on the reconfiguration of lines. In these cases, the integrity of the
original trigrams is not as crucial as the interaction between their
component lines.

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SECTION 13. “TRAVEL” 行

13.1 Strips 22 and 23

611 111 666 166◆ 凡行，數出，遂；數入，復。◆

☷坤 ☱兌 Kun Dui
☶艮 ☰乾 Gen Qian
15 43

In cases of travel, if the calculated (trigrams) go outward, then go

accordingly; if the calculated (trigrams) go inward, then return back.

Interpretation
Interpretation of this set requires an understanding of how “move-
ment” was understood. In a typical ABCD set, “inside” was understood
as the lower register and “outside” as the upper. But as mentioned
before (Cases 4.1-2, 7.2), there is more to it; we see “movement” as a
rotation that is counted based on the trigram arrangement in section
24 (see Chart 3.1). In this case, Kun from the upper right (position
C) moves to Dui then to Qian in a clockwise manner, and Qian moves
to Dui and then to Kun in a clockwise manner. The former clockwise
rotation is going inward, as the movement starts from the upper,
“outside” register and goes to the lower, “inside” one. In contrast, the
counter-clockwise rotation is going outward, as the movement starts
from the lower register and goes to the upper one.

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SECTION 14. “PROGNOSTICATING ON HUSBANDS

AND WOMEN” 貞丈夫女子

The section on women is on the second register below that for hus-
bands (see Illustration 3.4). Each pair of trigrams was followed by
approximately two graphs, with the remaining end of the sentence
taking up a single line.

14.1 Strips 24–​31
911 911 911 966 911 911 911 866◆ 911 911 861 866◆ 911 911 966
866◆
凡貞丈夫，月夕乾之萃，乃純吉。亡春夏秋冬。◆
☰乾 ☰乾 Qian Qian ☰乾 ☰乾 Qian Qian
☶艮 ☰乾 Gen Qian ☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
33 1 12 1
☰乾 ☳震 Qian Zhen ☶艮 ☰乾 Gen Qian
☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian ☷坤 ☰乾 Kun Qian
12 34 23 1

In cases of prognosticating about husbands, if Qian (trigrams)

gather in the end-​of-​the-​month (position), then (the results) are
pure and auspicious, no matter whether it is Spring, Summer, Fall,
or Winter.

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14.2 Strips 24–​31
666 666 666 116◆ 666 666 666 161◆ 666 666 666 611◆ 911 911
666 966◆ 凡貞女子，月朝坤之萃，乃吉。亡春夏秋冬。◆
☷坤 ☷坤 Kun Kun ☷坤 ☷坤 Kun Kun
☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun ☲離 ☷坤 Li Kun
46 2 36 2
☷坤 ☷坤 Kun Kun ☷坤 ☷坤 Kun Kun
☱兌 ☷坤 Dui Kun ☶艮 ☷坤 Gen Kun
19 2 15 2

In cases of prognosticating about women, if Kun (trigrams) gather

in the beginning-​of-​the-​month (position), then (the results) will
be auspicious, no matter whether it is Spring, Summer, Fall, or
Winter.

Interpretation
The section introduces two groups of cases focusing on the begin-
ning/​end-​of-​the-​month positions. These positions are explained in
Section 3. In this section, instead of the gathering of trigrams of
the same genders, the text concentrates on the gathering of the tri-
grams Qian (Case 14.1) and Kun (Case 14.2), pure Yang and pure
Yin (although in this case, only the gathering of Qian is noted as
“pure”). Section 22 mentions a general principle: “it is auspicious if
Qian appears in the end-​of-​the-​month position, or if Kun appears in
the beginning-​of-​the-​month position.” In Case 14.1 Qian occupies
the bottom right corner (B), the end-​of-​the-​month position, and
in Case 14.2, Kun occupies the top-​right corner (A), the beginning-​
of-​the-​month position. Furthermore, as in Section 3, the “gather-
ing” (zu 箤) of trigrams with similar nature, in this case “pureness”
(chun), is important.

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SECTION 15. “MINOR ATTAINMENTS” 小得

15.1 Strips 24 and 25

616 161 161 611◆ 凡小得，乃得之。

☲離 ☵坎 Li Kan
☱兌 ☲離 Dui Li
38 63

In cases of minor attainments, then (what you want) will be

obtained.

15.2 Strips 26 and 27
616 161 161 116◆ 凡小得，乃得之。
☲離 ☵坎 Li Kan
☴巽 ☲離 Xun Li
50 63

In cases of minor attainments, then (what you want) will be

obtained.

15.3 Strips 28 and 29
661 661 661 654◆ 三同一，乃得之。
☳震 ☳震 Zhen Zhen
☵坎 ☳震 Kan Zhen
40 51

When three (trigrams) join one (trigram), then (what you want) will
be obtained.

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15.4 Strips 30 and 31
666 111 116 661◆ 邦去政已，於公利分。
☴巽 ☷坤 Xun Kun
☳震 ☰乾 Zhen Qian
42 11

If the state has already expelled its government, it will be beneficial

to the lord to divide (his house).

Interpretation
The texts in this section do not really explain the rationale for the
determined result, except for Case 15.3, which is clearly a case of
majority rule. Cases 15.1 and 15.2 seem also to be decided by major-
ity rule because both have a majority of female trigrams with only
one male trigram, Kan.
In the first three cases the “majority” rule applies, but in the
fourth case, Case 15.4, there is no obvious rule. The sentence is also
missing the usual fan 几 … nai 乃 structure, which first proposes the
question or topic and then explains the divination determination.
The right and left sides each have pairs of inverted trigrams, or “wife-​
and-​husband” pairs: Kun and Qian on the right and Xun and Zhen
on the left. Typically, wife-​and-​husband pairs have to be on the same
register “facing each other” to be auspicious. Perhaps particularly
inauspicious is the fact that the female trigrams are positioned in the
upper “outer” register, the positions of the “ruler” and his “retainers”
in Section 20, and not in their proper “auxiliary” roles. Although the
actual nature of the original inquiry is unspecified, the result seems
to involve a failed government, one in which the land must be split
among sublineages.
Without more context, the term gong 公 is ambiguous. Typically
this should refer to the lineage patriarch and local ruler of a polity

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below the status of king (ideally the Zhou king). But by this period,
it could also mean “office” or “public.” In Mengzi (Teng Wen Gong,
shang 滕文公，上) gong is used in both these senses, although when
it is used to mean “public,” it generally modifies nouns such as “fields”
(tian 田) or “affairs” (shi 事)—​and it could also be argued that what
was “public” then was really owned by the local ruler (the gong).14 The
two terms “polity” bang 邦 and “government” zheng 政 are common
in Warring States and early imperial texts, the Zhouli in particular.
They appear together with gong as a local ruler.15
Part of the ambiguity also comes from the uncommon expression
“qu zheng” 去政, which literally means “to expel government.” The
expression is not found in received texts, and more importantly, it
does not seem to go along with any known political ethics or phi-
losophy from the late Warring States period. Therefore, it is unclear
what the sentence specifically indicates or what kind of situation it
introduces.

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SECTION 16. “WAR” 戰

16.1 Strips 24 and 25

456 189 456 189◆ 凡是，內勝外。◆

☵坎 ☵坎 Kan Kan
☲離 ☲離 Li Li
63 63

In a case such as this, (those on) the inside overcome (those on) the
outside.

16.2 Strips 26 and 27
981 654 981 654◆ 凡是，外勝內。
☲離 ☲離 Li Li
☵坎 ☵坎 Kan Kan
64 64

In a case such as this, (those on) the outside overcome (those on) the
inside.

Interpretation
In this pair of cases, the most striking aspect of the two pairs in each
set is that they are identical except in an inverse relationship to each
other; those on the top (the “outside” position) in the first case are
on the bottom (“inside” position) of the second case. However, the
key relationship between these two cases is not the gender or posi-
tion of the trigrams but the fact of the unusual sequence of their
numbers: 4561(7)89 in Case 16.1 and 981(7)654 in Case 16.2. The
numbers correlate with the order of the Earthly Branches (or chen 辰)

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in Section 28. Starting from Zi 子 and ending at Hai 亥, covering all

12 Branch signs, the number order is precisely 981654 as we see in
Case 16.2.16 Therefore, if the diviner begins with 9 in the upper or
lower position, then in Case 16.1 the series begins with 9 in “lower/​
inner” position and in 16.2 in the “upper/​outer” position.17
Since this is an extremely unlikely result to occur as the prod-
uct of random divination, then the issue of how these numbers were
derived and why they are presented in this way has critical implica-
tions regarding the construction and purpose of the manuscript.
First, it is apparent that at least some of the trigram sets in the Shifa
must be normative examples and not the result of random sortilege.
Second, it is apparent that the trigrams were evaluated in terms of
the many other factors presented in the various sections and dia-
grams on the left half of the text (Sections 20–​29). These factors
include time, direction, astral spaces, colors, and so forth. In some
cases, there is a sense that other divination tools or diagrams outside
of the Shifa text were also consulted. This is one distinguishing fea-
ture of the Shifa method of interpretation versus that of the Zhouyi,
which rarely mentions such correlations in its divinatory interpre-
tations or hints at the need to consult other materials. Finally, as
mentioned in the “Introduction,” this section forces the question of
what methods besides random sortilege might actually have been
employed to derive the number series.

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SECTION 17. “COMPLETING” 成

17.1 Strips 28 and 29

615 566，115 581◆ 凡成，同乃成。◆

☰乾 ☱兌 Qian Dui
☲離 ☶艮 Li Gen
13 31

In cases of completing (a project), if there is joining, then it will be

completed.

17.2 Strips 30 and 31
616 161，661 611◆ 不同乃不成。◆
☳震 ☵坎 Zhen Kan
☱兌 ☲離 Dui Li
54 63

If there is no joining, then it will not be completed.

Interpretation
The idea of “joining” or “accompanying” (tong 同) in earlier cases
always referred to trigrams of the same gender being in the majority.
This does not seem to apply here because in neither case is there a
majority of one gender over another. Instead, here the term seems to
refer to lines of the same number, and, even more specifically in these
cases, to the correspondence of the lines that touch each other in the

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center of the two pairs, that is, those lines appearing in the center
of the trigrams connecting the upper and lower trigrams of set. For
example, in Case 17.1, the bottom lines of the upper register and the
two top lines of the lower register are all 5s. Hence, there is “joining.”
In Case 17.2 we see no “joining” in the inverse presentation of 61 and
16 in the middle of the right and left pairs.

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SECTION 18. “INTENDED SERVICE” 志事

Strips 24–​31
凡筮志事而見當日，如當辰，乃曰速。•疾亦 然。•五日為
來， 乃中期。◆

In cases of using stalks to divine intended service (for the ruler),

and there appears the matching day and likewise the matching
astral period (times of the day), then it is said “to be a quick (pro-
cess to promotion).” With illness, it will be likewise. Five days
(within the matching day) is considered as “upcoming” and can
so (still qualify as) being in the (auspicious) period.

Interpretation
Whatever trigrams appear through use of stalk divination must be
matched up with the appropriate Stem and Branch signs described in
Sections 25–​27. The Stem signs refer to the days in the 10-​day cycle
and the branch signs probably refer to the 12 time periods of a day.
The issues most critical for matching up the cosmic time and astral
spaces with the trigrams concern one’s career and physical health
(the same two concerns that were the focus of the divination events
in the Baoshan text).18 If the divination results include a trigram that
matches to either the day or day period, the ri or the chen, of the divi-
nation event (i.e., the day of divination), then the auspicious time for
good results can be within the next five days. This is called the “being
in the period” (zhongqi 中期).
Here chen 辰 could refer to the 12 double hours of a day divided
by the Earthly Branches. This seems to be the case in some almanacs
and is well testified in Western Han texts like the Shiji. Although we
cannot be sure what the Shifa diviners understood, it was common
practice to mention larger time units before smaller ones.19

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SECTION 19. “INTENDED SERVICE, MILITARY

TROOPS” 志事 、軍旅

There are an average of seven words per line. Although there is

not much punctuation, the lack of a trigram (only a line is drawn)
between the trigram pairs confirms that they should be read as
two sets.

19.1 Strips 32–​34
666 166 161 661 —​—​凡筮志事，而見同次於四位之中。乃曰爭
之。且相悪也。
☲離 ☷坤 Li Kun
☳震 ☶艮 Zhen Gen
21 15

Whenever using stalks to divine about one’s intended service (for the
ruler) and there appears a secondary (trigram) of joining (numbers)
among the four positions (of the trigrams), then it says to struggle
for it, but that there will be mutual enmity.

19.2 Strips 35 and 36
111 611 616 116 如筮軍旅，乃曰不和，且不相用命。◆
☵坎 ☰乾 Kan Qian
☴巽 ☱兌 Xun Dui
48 10

Likewise, if in the case of using stalks to divine about military troops,

then it says that there will be no harmony, and that (the behavior of
the troops) will not match the commands given.

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Interpretation
This pair of cases requires tracking the numerical qualities and posi-
tions of the lines in a trigram set. And, as in Section 18 earlier, key
lines are in the middle between the trigrams of the upper and lower
registers. In Case 19.1, the middle lines of each of the four trigrams
are broken, and in Case 19.2, all the middle lines are unbroken. Note
that once the middle two numbers are removed, in Case 19.1 there is
the “auxiliary” (ci) pattern 66-​66 on the right and 16-​61 on the left;
in Case 19.2 the pattern is 11-​11 on the right but 61-​16 on the left.
The trigrams in Cases 19.1 and 19.2 are in inverse relationship to
each other. Case 19.1 is a positive result and Case 19.2 is negative.
In this passage, the Shifa for the first time reveals the term indi-
cating the role of a single trigram in the set of four, that is, its “posi-
tion” (wei 位) among the “four positions” (siwei). In other words, the
author(s) of the Shifa seem to understand the trigram sets as four tri-
grams placed in certain mantically significant positions. The passage
also introduces another term, ci 次, which could either mean “sec-
ondly” or “part of a sequence.” Because both cases have the identical
lines in the middle, it is hard to choose between the two possibilities.
The latter one might be slightly more likely for ci because the mean-
ing “secondly” does not seem relevant here.

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SECTION 20. “THE FOUR POSITION

CHART ” 四位表

In this section, the text discusses how the four positions of the tri-
grams in a set correlate to certain social roles based on the inquiry.
The four-​boxed sets each contain four aspects of each topic, all primary
concerns in the elite male’s life. The correspondence with the sets of
four trigrams in “four positions” is suggestive of how the diviner might
interpret the auspiciousness of each aspect. The positions in the charts
seem to share certain characteristics that are useful in interpreting the
trigram sets:

1. The two bottom positions (B and D) represent the “inside” or

groups closest to the inquirer.
• The bottom right position (B) represents the most intimate
aspect of the inquirer: “oneself,” “private chamber,” and
“middle army.”
• The bottom left position (D) represents those also close to
the position of inquirer: “wife,” “residence court,” and the
“auxiliary army.”
2. The two top positions (A and C) represent the “outside” or
groups most distant from the perspective of the inquirer.
• The top right position (A) represents the higher level posi-
tion, that above the inquirer, “the lineage,” “the lord,” “the
gate,” and the “upper army.”
• The top left position (C) represents the most distant and
inferior position of the four, as in “servants,” “retainers,” and
“outside.”
Social hierarchy is also an important factor in the Zhouyi. For example,
“self” or the client was the “gentleman” or “superior one” (junzi 君子),
a euphemism for the inquirer; the position above was represented
by the term “great men” (daren 大人), that is, the lords and rulers
who are in a higher position; and the term “petty men” (xiaoren 小人)

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symbolized people inferior to the gentlemen. The Zhouyi provides

divinatory readings for each of these three positions (e.g., “auspi-
cious for the great man” 大人吉, or “no blame for the petty man”
小人無咎).
The Shifa diviners were conscious of the social class of their
clients, but, with regard to the interpretation of the case studies,
generally the distinction between “inner” and “outer” seems to have
been most important. This distinction was just one of many that

下軍之位 上軍之位
The position of the lower army The position of the upper army

次軍之位 中軍之位
The position of the auxiliary army21 The position of the middle army

臣妾之位 子姓之位
The position of the servants The position of the lineage children

妻之位也 躳身之位
The position of the wife The position of oneself

臣之位也 君之位也
The position of the retainer The position of the lord

大夫之位 身之位也
The position of the grandee The position of oneself

外之位也 門之位也
The position of outside (the gate) The position of the gate

宮廷之位 室之位也
The position of the inside court The position of the chamber

Chart 3.4 The Four Positions

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had to be considered to interpret the significance of trigram and line

patterns.
If the Shifa “Four Positions” are applied to individual cases, such
as those in the Chu divinatory texts, such as from Baoshan, they can
help to determine the source of “curses” that afflict the client’s career
and health.20 This suggests that the “Four Positions” chart may also
have been used in conjunction with Section 26, which lists the poten-
tial sources of curses associated with each trigram and with special
numbers that appear in those trigrams.

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SECTION 21. “AUSPICIOUSNESS AND

INAUSPICIOUSNESS ACCORDING TO THE
FOUR SEASONS” 四季吉凶

It is noteworthy that pure Yang and Yin trigrams, Qian and Kun, are
not included in this chart, only the six lesser male and female tri-
grams. Also the scribe clearly made a copying error. The section of
text between the square brackets [ ]‌was left out of the original text,
but inclusion was obviously intended.

Strips 37–​39
春：震巽•大吉；•坎，小吉；•艮離，大凶；◆兌，小凶。◆
夏：坎，大吉；•震巽，小吉；•艮離，小凶；兌，大凶。
秋：兌，大吉；◆艮離，小吉；坎，大凶；◆[震巽，小凶。]
冬：艮離，大吉；◆兌，小吉；◆震巽，大凶；◆[坎，小凶。]
凡筮志事及軍旅，乃惟凶之所集於四位是視，乃以名其凶。◆

Spring: Zhen and Xun, greatly auspicious; Kan, slightly aus-

picious; Gen and Li, greatly inauspicious; Dui, slightly
inauspicious.
Summer: Kan, greatly auspicious; Zhen and Xun, slightly
auspicious; Gen and Li, slightly inauspicious; Dui, greatly
inauspicious.
Fall: Dui, greatly auspicious; Gen and Li, slightly auspicious; Kan,
greatly inauspicious; Zhen and Xun, slightly auspicious.
Winter: Gen and Li, greatly auspicious, Dui, slightly auspicious;
Zhen and Xun, greatly inauspicious; Kan, slightly inauspicious.

Whenever using stalks to divine (issues concerning a person’s)

intended service (for the ruler) or military troops, then the location
of inauspiciousness (signs) can be seen clustered in the four posi-
tions and thus can be used to name the inauspicious (result).

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Interpretation
This section in fact contains two factors for consideration: (1) cor-
relation between the auspiciousness of a trigram and the four sea-
sons, and (2) division of these correlations into graduated categories
of “greater” or “lesser” amounts of auspiciousness or inauspicious-
ness. The first factor was key to interpreting Cases 1.3 to 1.6. But in
those cases, only the Spring section is relevant. Here we have a more
complex relationship between the four seasons and the relative value
of the trigram. The case studies presented in the Shifa do not seem
to employ the full range of this chart. Therefore, we assume that it
applied to other situations outside of those presented in the Shifa.
This supports the idea that the text was collated and copied from a
variety of sources.
The attribution of auspiciousness to certain trigrams follows
the temporal-​spatial distribution of the eight trigrams in Section
24, which correlates roughly with the Zhouyi tradition and other
Yin-​Yang Wuxing explanations of that time period (such as found
in the Lü Shi Chunqiu). Except for the reversed values of Li and Kan
(Water/​North and Fire/​South in the Shifa), the greatest level of aus-
piciousness for each trigram correlates in a typical manner with the
Four Directions and Four Seasons: Zhen/​East/​Spring, Kan/​South/​
Summer, Dui/​West/​Autumn, and Li/​North/​Winter.
This normative arrangement of the trigrams with the Four
Seasons became a crucial rule for regulating the cosmos in first-​
century bce China. The high official Wei Xiang 魏相 (?–​59 bce) pro-
posed that the Han dynasty should set up the office of Xihe 羲和 to
link the right trigrams for the right seasons. Otherwise, he warned,
the cosmos will be in disorder: “When Spring arises and one uses Dui
to govern, there will be famine; when Autumn arises and one uses
Zhen to govern, there will be [untimely] blossoming; when Winter
arises and one uses Li to govern, there will leakage [of Qi]; and
when Summer arises and one uses Kan to govern, there will be hail.”
春興兌治則飢，秋興震治則華，冬興離治則泄，夏興坎治則雹.22

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Wei Xiang argued that each trigram represented a certain balance of

Yin and Yang qi that accorded only with certain seasons. If the gov-
ernment followed the wrong trigram and regulated activities out of
accord with the seasonal changes, then the disturbed qi would cause
natural disasters. The untimely or inauspicious trigrams in the Shifa
(except for the reversal of Li and Kan) match those considered inaus-
picious by Wei Xiang (and in other received traditions). Wei Xiang
and his more famous contemporaries, such as Meng Xi 孟喜 (fl. 40
bce) and Jing Fang 京房 (78–​37 bce), initiated the theory of the
“trigram qi” (guaqi 卦氣) theory. This framework for interpreting the
relative strength and movement of trigrams was a dominant tradi-
tion through the Han dynasty. The Shifa presents an early version of
this same framework of interpretation.
Besides the chart of seasonal correlations, strip 39 in this sec-
tion includes an example of how one might interpret the information
in cases having to do with “intended services and military troops.”
This provides a clue that Section 21 is connected to Sections 18
and 19. The Tsinghua editors argue that if one divines about mili-
tary troops in Spring, and the client receives Zhen at the upper left
corner (Zhen is greatly auspicious in Spring based on this section),
it will be greatly auspicious for the upper troop based on the “Four
Positions” in Section 20 (in Section 20, the upper right position is
that of the upper troops, position A). The problem is that Sections
18 and 19 do not mention the rule of correlating “intended service
and military troops” to the seasons. Many such gaps appear between
the case studies and the more generalized rules presented in the later
sections.
In strip 39 the term for “clustering” is ji 集 instead of cui 萃 (they
were ancient homophones). The use of two graphs for the same word
may reflect the hands of different scribes or serve as further proof
that the text was compiled from other texts using different graphic
variants. “Clustering” refers to either the gathering of multiples of
the same trigram in one or more sets or to a single type of numbers
in the center of pairs or of the two pairs in a set.

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Greatly Slightly Greatly Slightly

Auspicious Auspicious Inauspicious Inauspicious

Spring ☳☴ ☵ ☶☲ ☱
Zhen, Xun Kan Gen, Li Dui

Summer ☵ ☳☴ ☱ ☶☲
Kan Zhen Xun Dui Gen Li

Autumn ☱ ☶☲ ☵ ☳☴
Dui Gen Li Kan Zhen Xun

Winter ☶☲ ☱ ☳☴ ☵
Gen Li Dui Zhen Xun Kan

Chart 3.5 Seasons and Trigrams

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SECTION 22. “THE CYCLE OF QIAN

AND KUN” 乾坤運轉

This section begins as a continuation of the text shown earlier, on the

second half of strip 39 and includes most of strip 40. It describes the
rebirth of the moon.

凡乾，•月夕吉。◆ 坤，月朝吉。•坤，晦之日逆乾以長巽；
入月五日舍巽。◆ 乾•坤長艮；◆ 旬，•乾坤乃各返其所。◆

In all cases Qian is auspicious at the end of the month and Kun
is auspicious at the beginning of the month. On the day of the
new moon, Kun welcomes Qian to linger (with her) at Xun. As
the moon enters its fifth day, they quit Xun. Qian and Kun then
linger at Gen. After ten days, Qian and Kun then each return to
their (original) places.

Interpretation
This section is an elaboration on the principle of the beginning/​end-​
of-​the-​month positions. These positions were applied in Sections 3
and 14; when a Qian occupied the end-​of-​the-​month position with
another Qian around, the result was affirmative; and it was the same
case for a Kun in the beginning-​of-​the-​month position. This princi-
ple is stated at the beginning of this section. The rest of the section
details the relationship of four trigrams in a square, like the “four
positions” of a trigram set, or the four corners in Section 24 (see
Illustration 3.1):

Xun Kun
Gen Qian

The movement is essentially of pure Yin and pure Yang moving to the
upper left position for the rebirth of the moon and the days of “early

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auspicious” and then moving down to the lower left position until the
moon has reached the days of fullness (see the discussion in Section 3).
Once the moon has reached the auspicious “already full” stage, then
both pure Yin and pure Yang return to their original positions.
Although the text does not explicitly state that this journey sym-
bolizes the birth of the moon, drawing a link from Qian and Kun
in their roles as “shining and somber” and as “wife and husband”
to the birth of a new moon is not difficult. Xun and Gen may also
have held symbolic positions. According to the “Shuogua” and other
traditions, the Xun trigram was second only to Kun in Yin qi and
therefore called “older sister” (changnü 長女), and Gen was the male
with the least amount of qi and called “youngest brother” (shaonan
少㚻). In Sections 24 and 26, Xun is also associated with birthing,
and the auspicious and fertile position of Southeast and Spring. Gen,
on the other hand, possibly symbolizing the baby and male heir, was
the opposite of Xun. Gen was the least auspicious in the Spring, but
the most auspicious in the Winter, hence requiring the energy of his
mother Kun, who was most auspicious at the beginning of a month,
the period of darkness. As the moon waxed and reached its full posi-
tion, the guiding Yin and Yang influences of the parents were no lon-
ger required, so they returned to their original positions in the West.

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SECTION 23. “RESULTS” 果

凡果，大事歲在前，果；◆中事月在前，果；◆小事日乃前，
果；◆其餘昭穆，果。◆ 如卦如爻，上下同狀，果。◆外事，
數而出，乃果。•內事，數入，亦果。◆

In the case of (divining about a client’s desired) results, for great

affairs if the year (sign) is in the vanguard (position), there will
be results. For midlevel affairs, when the month (sign) is in the
vanguard (position), there will be results. For minor affairs, if the
day (sign) is in the vanguard (position), there will be results. For
remaining (issues), if the shining-​and-​somber (Qian and Kun tri-
grams appear), there will be results. When both the trigrams and
the lines are the same shapes above and below, there will be results.
For external affairs, if when calculating, (the trigrams) go outward,
then there will be results. For internal affairs inside, if when calcu-
lating (the trigrams) go inward, there will likewise be results.

Interpretation
This section elaborates on several rules that could be applied to the
cases for determining positive results: (1) the influence of various
units of time, (2) the position of “forward, the vanguard” (qian 前),
(3) the appearance of “the shining-and-somber,” Zhao-​Mu or Qian-​
Kun (see Cases 9.1, and 8.3 earlier), (4) the occurrence of “identical
forms” (tong zhuang 同狀), and (5) the relationship of trigrams or
their lines moving “inward” or “outward.”
In Sections 5 and 9, trigrams were matched with their day signs,
the Heavenly Stems (see dang ri and shu ri in the Glossary). This sec-
tion further delineates the influence of other units of time on the
trigrams, including the year, month, and day on which one carried
out the divination. If one associates particular trigrams with the
year, month, or day (as assigned by the Stem and Branch charts in
Sections 25, 27, and 28) and places them in the pattern depicted in
Section 24, then the sequential appearance of trigrams in the Four

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Positions determines the result. In cases shown earlier, the outward

or inward direction of trigrams and numbers seems to refer to either
their movement in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction accord-
ing to the array in Section 24 or in terms of their movement between
the upper “outside” (A, C) and lower “inside” registers (B, D) (com-
pare Sections 4, 7, 11, and 13).
In Section 5 and 9, trigrams were matched with their day signs,
the Heavenly Stems (see dang ri and shu ri). This section further delin-
eates the influence of other units of time on the trigrams, including
the year, month, and day on which one carries out the divination.
If one associates particular trigrams with the year, month, or day
(as assigned by the stem and branch charts in Sections 25, 27, and
28) and places them in the pattern depicted in Section 24, then the
sequential appearance of trigrams in the four positions determine
the result. In the cases shown earlier, the outward or inward direction
of trigrams and numbers seems to refer to either their movement in
a clockwise or counterclockwise direction according to the array in
Section 24 or in terms of their movement between the upper “out-
side” and lower “inside” registers (compare Sections 4, 7, 11, and 13).
The question for this section is which position is the “vanguard”
(qian 前). One possible answer is that the vanguard position marked
the trigrams that corresponded to the specific Heavenly Stems and
Earthly Branches of the day, month, and year when the divination took
place. More specifically, it might concern the trigrams corresponding
to the Earthly Branches of the year and month, and to the Heavenly
Stems of the day. For example, based on the reference materials
available in Sections 25 and 27, if a divination took place on a Zi 子
year in a Yin 寅 month and on Bing 丙 day, then the corresponding
trigrams should be in the order Gen, Kan, and, Zhen, respectively.
Presumably, if the diviner was divining about a “minor affair,” and he
might receive the following trigram set, which would be affirmative,
because the reading order of a trigram set is A, B, C, and D, and Zhen,
corresponding with the day, appears first in this order (also before
Gen, which corresponds with the year). In this case, Zhen will be in
the vanguard position, or literally, “front” (qian):

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C: Gen A: Qian
D: Kun B: Zhen

If he received the following pattern, on the other hand, the result for
a minor affair will not be affirmative, because Gen is in “front.” But it
would be positive for a major affair:

C: Gen A: Qian
D: Kun B: Dui

In the case where Gen, the year sign auspicious for great affairs appears
and also “the shining-​and-​somber” trigrams appear in the lower reg-
ister, presumably the rule of “the vanguard” would take precedence.

C: Gen A: Dui
D: Kun B: Qian

Positive results can also be determined if A and B and/​or C and D

include matching trigrams, such as:

C: Gen A: Dui
D: Kun B: Dui

Or if the trigrams matched the clockwise or counterclockwise rota-

tion of the trigrams as arrayed in Section 24, such as:
C: Gen A: Dui
D: Kan B: Qian

C: Xun A: Dui
D: Li B: Kan

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SECTION 24. “PICTURES OF THE TRIGRAM

ARRAY AND HUMAN BODY ” 卦位圖、人身圖

The figure, the trigram array, and the texts describing the correla-
tions are displayed in a subtle “Four Regions” (sifang 四方) or Ya 亞
shape (see Illustration 3.1).23 This same shape was found in tomb
designs, such as at Geling dating to around the same era as this man-
uscript (see the appended index later in this chapter for numerical
gua listed by hexagram name found in a Geling tomb). The textual
parts of Section 24 are read sideways and across strips, and those
marking the North and South actually violate the standard method
of reading from top to bottom. These sections have to be read across
the strips from right to left.
The head of the human figure points south, the same direction
that the king faced or that a map was oriented. Hence, it is clear
that even to read this divination manual it had to be facing an aus-
picious direction. The Tsinghua editors read the four texts associ-
ated with the cardinal directions clockwise beginning with the East.
The corners have four question-​and-​answer style texts explaining
why particular trigrams are associated with the cardinal directions.
According to the diagram, Zhen was in the East, but its text is in
the upper right-​hand corner (position A); Kan is in the South, but
its text is in the upper left-​hand corner (position C); Dui is in the
West, but its text is in the lower right-​hand corner (position A);
and Li is in the North, but its text is the lower left-​hand corner
(position D). As these positions do not match the directions of the
trigram arrays, it would seem that the texts, especially for Zhen
and Kan, were mistakenly copied into the wrong corners and might
have been reversed in an original version. If we just read all the
texts clockwise beginning with the upper left corner and South, it
would be as follows:

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Strips 49–​60
奚故謂之坎？司樹，是謂之坎。南方也，火也，•赤色也。•

Why is it called Kan? The Supervisor of Planting is the reason it

is called Kan.24 The South, Fire, Red.

奚故謂之震？司雷，是謂之震。西方也，金也，白色。

Why is it called Zhen? The Supervisor of Thunder is the reason it

is called Zhen. The West, Metal, White.

奚故謂之兌？司收，是謂之兌。北方也，水也，•黑色也。•

Why is it called Dui? The Supervisor of Harvesting is the reason

it is called Dui. The North, Water, Black.

奚故謂之離？司藏，是謂之離。東方也，木也，青也。

Why is it called Li? The Supervisor of Storing is the reason it is

called Li. The East, Wood, Green.

Interpretation
The correlations are classic Wuxing assignments according to a Yin-​
Yang scheme. Kan and Zhen are male/​Yang. Dui and Li are female/​Yin.
The activities of harvesting and storing involve inward movements
typical of the omen of numbers moving in a Yin direction. These are
activities linked to the seasons of Autumn and Winter. Planting and
thunder are both outside activities linked to the seasons of Spring
and Summer. The use of si 司 “to manage” or “to supervise” is com-
mon in the names of Warring States deities with titles such as “si +
activity,” as Si Ming 司命, a deity that kept track of people’s allotted
life spans and a potential source of spiritual blame in fourth-​century
bce Chu divination texts. Another common deity was Si Lei 司雷, a

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deity in charge of thunder and violent storms. These titles derived

from older Western Zhou titles, such as sima 司馬 “Supervisor of the
Horses.”

Strips 111–​116
Reading from the top of the figure to the bottom, first outside, then
inside.

乾 Qian (head)
坎 Kan (ears)
艮 Gen (lower arms and hands)
震 Zhen (legs below the knee and feet)
兌 Dui (mouth, eyes, or face)
坤 Kun (chest or heart)
離 Li (abdomen)
巽 Xun (inner thighs and pelvic region)

Interpretation
Inside the Ya-​shaped box is the human figure. Around the figure are
arrayed the eight trigrams according to the classic Yin-​Yang Wuxing
scheme. The figure too is marked with all eight trigrams. Similar
figures are found in almanacs, but these have the periphery of the
body marked with the 10 Stem day signs. In the Shifa, generally
the outside edge of the body is marked with male trigrams, and the
inside edge and spaces with female trigrams. The Tsinghua editors
noted that the correlations between parts of the body and trigrams
are largely similar to those found in the “Shuogua” (see Chart in the
appendix): “Qian as head, Kun as abdomen, Zhen as lower legs, Xun
as pelvis and upper legs, Kan as ears, Li as eyes, Gen as hands, Dui as
mouth” 乾為首，坤為腹， 震為足，巽為股，坎為耳，離為目，
艮為手，兌為口.25

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SECTION 25. “HEAVENLY STEMS AND

TRIGRAMS” 天干與卦

This section is a chart of the Stem days associated with each trigram.
Only the texts describing the days for six lesser ranked male and
female trigrams are marked with punctuation.

Strips 43–​50 (Strip 51 Is Blank)

111 乾甲壬 Qian: Jia and Ren
666 坤乙癸 Kun: Yi and Gui
166 艮丙• Gen: Bing
611兌丁• Dui: Ding
616 坎戊• Kan: Wu
161 離己• Li: Ji
661 震庚• Zhen: Geng
116 巽辛• Xun: Xin

Qian ☰ Kun ☷ Gen ☶ Dui ☱ Kan ☵ Li ☲ Zhen ☳ Xun ☴

甲壬 乙癸 丙 丁 戊 己 庚 辛
Jia, Ren Yi, Gui Bing Ding Wu Ji Gen Xin
1, 9 2, 10 3 4 5 6 7 8

Interpretation
Basically the “Day” (ri) signs are what are known as the Heavenly
Stems. They mark the 10 days of each week in the sexagenary cycle.
In the list, female trigrams correspond to even numbers and male
trigrams to odd numbers. Each trigram is listed beginning with Pure
Yang and followed by the trigram with its numerical opposites (all
lined up in “wife-​and-​husband” positions). The list follows the prin-
ciple of moving from the Yang trigram to its Yin mate and down
the line beginning (after Qian and Kun) with trigram with the one

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unbroken Yang line at the top. This is Gen and its Yin mate is Dui.
The Yang line then moves to the middle indicating Kan, whose mate
is Li, and finally moving to Zhen, with the Yang line at the bottom,
and whose mate is Xun. The order is reversed for the chart correlat-
ing Earthly Branch signs in Section 27. It is possible that beginning
with the Yang line on top versus the bottom reflect the relative high
and low positions of Heaven (Stems) and Earth (Branches). In the
Zhouyi tradition, the bottom line of a trigram or hexagram symbol-
izes the beginning position, and as the lines are stacked one on top of
the other, the position reflected also moves upward.26 The author(s)
of the Shifa might very well have had a similar view of the trigrams.

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SECTION 26. “CURSES” 祟

The last strip in this text provides a general principle for interpret-
ing the relative male and female influences of the trigrams and the
appearance of extraordinary numbers. This may explain why it is con-
nected to the description of the possible sources of curses associated
with each trigram. Note that the order is the same as indicated by
their relationship to the Stem days.

Strips 43–​51
乾祟：純五，滅宗。• 九，乃山。•淆，乃父之不葬死。暮
純，乃室中，乃父。◆

Qian curse: if it is pure (all of one number) or of fives, it is the

destroyed ancestral shrine; if there is a nine, then it is a moun-
tain; if (the numerical sequence) is mixed, then it is a father
who died without being buried; if it is in the evening and (the
sequence) is pure (all of one kind of number), then it is the mid-
dle of the room, or it is the father.

坤祟：門、行。純，乃母。•八，乃奴以死，• 乃西祭。•
四，乃縊者。

Kun curse: the Gate, the Passageway; if it pure (all of one num-
ber), then it is the mother; if there is an eight, then it is someone
who was made a slave and died, or it is the Western Sacrifice; if
there is a four, then it is one who was hanged.

艮祟：殔。九，乃豦。•五乃楒魃。•

Gen curse: it is a burial; if there is a nine, then it is a boar; if there

is a five, then it is a drought demon.

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兌祟：女子大面端嚇死。◆ 長女為妾而死。•

Dui curse: it is a girl who died of fright from a (demon with) big face
and head; it is an elder sister who became a concubine and died.

坎祟：風、長殤。五，伏劍者。九，牡豦。四，縊者。一四
一五，乃辜。

Kan curse: Wind, an elder (sibling) who died prematurely; if

there is a five, it is one who fell to the sword; if there is a nine, it
is a male boar; if there is a four, it is one who was hung; if there
is one four and one five, then it is one who was dismembered.

離祟：熱、•溺者。•四，縊者。•一四一五，長女殤。◆二五
夾四，辜者。◆

Li curse: ones (who died of) heat or drowning; if there is a four, it

is one who was hung; if there is one four and one five, then it is
an elder sister who died prematurely; if there are two fives, one
on each side of a four, it is one who was dismembered.

震祟：日出，東方。◆食日，監（炎？）天。昃
日，[顥?]天。•暮日，雨師。◆五，乃狂者。◆九，乃戶。◆

Zhen curse: Dawn, East, if it is mealtime, it is the Blazing Sky(?),

if the sun is slanting (westward), then it is the [White?] Sky; if it
is dusk, it is the Rain Master; if there is a five, then it is an insane
person; if there is a nine, then it is the Door.

巽祟：字殤。◆五、八乃巫。•九，柆（脅）、•孿。•四，非
狂乃縊者。◆

Xun curse: it is one who died prematurely in childbirth; if there is

five or eight, then it is a shaman; if there is a nine, then it is one

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who split open when delivering twins; if there is a four, if it is not

an insane person, it is one who was hung.

夫天之道，男勝女，•眾勝寡。•

In the Way of Heaven, the male (trigram) overcomes the female

(trigram), and the many (trigrams of one type) overcome the
lone one.

Interpretation
It is possible to read some of these phrases as predictions as is done
for similar situations in the almanacs. However, in Chu divination
texts, the object of the divination is always to locate the source of the
curse in order to enact the appropriate ritual to remove any spiritual
blame. The ritual methods employed included gifts or bribes of food,
alcohol, jade, or clothing. If these didn’t work, then various types of
exorcism where employed. This was particularly the case with regard
to anonymous ghosts or environmental spirits.27 In the Shifa, the
appearance of extraordinary numbers, singly or in combination, in
the male or female trigrams indicated different sources of the curses.
The numbers could be read in combination with the images listed for
each number in Section 29.
Curses often come from the ghosts of people who died unnatu-
rally or before their time. In some cases it is a demon or a boar. No
animals are found as the sources of curses in the Chu divinations
(such as those recorded in Baoshan). Instead, animals (horses, pigs,
dogs) were reserved for different types of sacrifices. Locations in a
residence and sky could also be sources of curses. The “center of the
room” (zhongshi 中室) probably indicated the spirit, Zhongliu 中霤,
associated with the Center in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Certain deities of
the Sky, such as the “Blazing Sky” (Yantian 炎天) and the “White
Sky” (Haotian 顥天), are also listed in the Lüshi Chunqiu as control-
ling stars in the South and West, respectively.28 The reading of la 柆

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as “to split open” (resulting in twins) is based on a phonetic loan of

the ancient words in Chu myth on birth mothers splitting open when
giving birth to multiple babies.29
The last line is a general instruction on how to interpret the rela-
tive influence of trigrams. First, it explains that this type of divina-
tion follows “the Way of Heaven,” Tian Dao, essentially cosmic or
natural law. Tian also was associated with the male, the father, the
husband (Qian) in contrast to the Earth and mother (Kun). Hence,
we see the trigrams listed by their male trigrams first and female
partners second. In this system, male influence generally trumps
female influence, except in cases of majority rule. However, the male
dominance rule does not appear in any of the cases.
The “Curses” section was likely consulted when a set of four tri-
grams were derived and possibly mapped onto the relevant areas of
concern in the “Four Positions Chart” in Section 20.

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SECTION 27. “EARTHLY STEMS AND

TRIGRAMS” 地支與卦

Strips 52–​57 (Strips 58–​59 in This Register Are Blank)

子午震• Zi and Wu: Zhen
丑未巽• Chou and Wei: Xun
寅申坎• Yin and Shen: Kan
卯酉離• Mao and You: Li
辰戌艮• Zhen and Xu: Gen
巳亥兌• Si and Hai: Dui

子午 丑未 寅申 卯酉 辰戌 巳亥
Zi, Wu Chou, Wei Yin, Shen Mao, You Chen, Xu Si, Hai
1, 7 2, 8 3, 9 4, 10 5, 11 6, 12

Zhen ☳ Xun ☴ Kan ☵ Li ☲ Gen ☶ Dui ☱

Interpretation
One of the functions for Earthly Branches is to signify the time peri-
ods of a day. From the Han dynasty onward, this system became stan-
dardized and is referred as the double-​hour system. Before the Han
dynasty, there is no clear evidence that connects the Branches to the
time periods of a day, but the 12 double-​hour system did exist in the
third century bce. Basically, the term “astral periods” chen 辰 refers
to the 12 Earthly Branch signs used to mark 12 double-​hour periods
of the day. Drawing from the third-​century bce Fangmatan 放馬灘
almanac, we can reconstruct a partial list of the time periods. It lists
the following correlations between the times of the day, extraordi-
nary numbers, musical pitches, and the Five Agents. Missing time
periods, listed elsewhere, are added in brackets:30

1. [初鳴 Beginning bird song]

2. [中鳴 Middle bird song]

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3. [後鳴 After bird song]

4. 平旦 Pre-​dawn, 9, Zhi 徵 Water 水
5. 日出 Dawn, 8, Gong 宫, Water 水
6. 日中 Noon, 5, Gong 宮, Earth 土 [alternatively 日食, Lunch]
7. 蚤食 Breakfast, 7, Yi 栩, Fire 火
8. 莫食 Dinner, 6, Jue 角, Fire 火
9. 西中 Mid-​afternoon, 9, Zhi 徵, Earth 土
10. 昏市 Dusk, 8, Shang 商, Metal 金”
11. 莫中 Nighttime, 7, Yi 羽, Metal 金”
12. 夕中 Midnight, 6, Jue 角, Water 水 [alternatively 夜半]

In the reverse of the Stem correspondences, we see the relative male

and female rank go from high to low with the oppositional pairs
listed as Zhen and Xun, Kan and Li, and Gen and Dui, instead of the
reverse. Once again, odd numbers match with male trigrams and
even numbers with female trigrams. Note that Qian and Kun are not
included in this list.

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SECTION 28. “EARTHLY STEMS AND LINE

NUMBERS” 地支與爻

Strips 52–​57 (Strips 58 and 59 Are Blank)

子午九 Zi and Wu: 9
丑未八 Chou and Wei: 8
寅申一 Yin and Shen: 1 (7)
卯酉六 Mao and You: 6
辰戌五 Zhen and Xu: 5
巳亥四 Si and Hai: 4

子午 丑未 寅申 卯酉 辰戌 巳亥
Zi, Wu Chou, Wei Yin, Shen Mao, You Chen, Xu Si, Hai

9 8 1 (7) 6 5 4

Interpretation
It is not clear how the numbers are correlated with the Earthly
Branches, except that as in Section 28, they follow an odd-​even
sequence. But what we do know is that in Cases 16.1 and 16.2, the
sequence of these numbers is meaningful. If we consider 1 as a sub-
stitution for 7 as found in the Fangmatan Almanac and in Shang and
Western Zhou number sets (see the Introduction), we would have a
sequence of consecutively decreasing numbers corresponding with
the sequence of Earthly Branches.

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SECTION 29. “LINE NUMBER IMAGES” 爻象

Strips 52–​59 (Strip 60 is blank) and Strip 61

凡 爻 象 ， •八 為 風 、 •為 水 、 •為 言 、 •為 飛 鳥 、 ◆為 腫 脹 、
•為魚、•為罐筩。•在上為醪，下為汏。•

With regard to line number images for 8, they are wind, water,
words, flying birds, swellings, fish, measuring cylinders; (when
8 appears) in the upper (trigram), it is alcohol (with sediment),
and in the lower (one) it is wash water.

五 象 為 天 、 為 日 、 •為 貴 人 、 •為 兵 、 •為 血 、 •為 車 、
為方、◆為憂、•為懼，•為飢。◆

The images for 5 are sky and sun, noble men, soldiers, blood,
chariots, squares, anxiety fear, and hunger.

九 象 為 大 獸 、 •為 木 、 •為 備 戒 、 •為 首 、 為 足 、 •為 蛇 、
•為蛇、•為曲、•為玦、•為弓、•琥、•璜。◆

The images for 9 are large animals, trees, sacrificial preparations,

heads and feet, snakes, snakes, bends, semi-​circlets of jade,
(archery) bows, hu-​jades, heng-​jades.

四 之 象 為 地 、 •為 圓 、 •為 鼓 、 •為 珥 、 •為 環 、 •為 踵 、
•為雪、•為露、•為霰。•

The images for 4 are ground, circle, drum, earring, circlet of jade,
heels, snow, dew, hail.

凡 爻 ， •如 大 •如 小 ， •作 於 上 ， 外 有 吝 ； •作 於 下 ， 內 有
吝；•上下皆作，邦有兵命、•廌獬、•風雨、•日月有烖 (災)。◆

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In all cases of line numbers no matter whether big or small, when

they arise in the upper outer (trigram), they indicate something bale-
ful; if they arise in the lower inner (trigram), they indicate something
baleful; if they arise in both upper and lower (trigrams), then the
country will experience military commands, a zhixie monster, wind
and rain, or eclipses31 of the sun and moon.

Interpretation
The four most powerful Yang and Yin numbers are associated with
the supernatural agency of different shaped objects in the elite envi-
ronment. Note that Yin numbers 8 and 4 are given first and last with
the two Yang numbers inside. Generally, even numbers represent
aspects of Yin: wetness, round shapes, earth; and odd numbers rep-
resent aspects of Yang: hunting, squares, heaven. The influence of the
number is particularly strong if it appears in a Yin or Yang position
of the trigram set. The last line warns against what will happen if
cosmic harmony is lost. The world will go topsy-​turvy and the horned
spirit goat will appear to judge those guilty of crimes. Reference to
this beast is found in various Han texts written in a number of ways,
such as zhuzhai 解廌, zhaixie 觟𧣾, jiezhi 獬豸, zhijie 豸獬, and so
on. The earliest mention of the use of a spirit goat to resolve trials is
found in Mozi 墨子 (a Warring States period thinker).32 Its primary
feature was a curved horn that it used to butt guilty people who lied
about their innocence. In this case the last syllable of the monster’s
name probably rhymed with the last word in the sentence (originally
written without the 火 element), a loan word used for “diminish” or
“disaster.”

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SECTION 30. “THE SEVENTEEN

COMMANDS” 十七命

The word ming originally derived from Heaven’s “charge, command,

mandate” to the first Zhou kings. Then it was used by kings to charge
underlings with duties or to give awards. Eventually, over the cen-
turies it evolved to encompass the time of one’s allotted life span
(as controlled by Heaven and the ancestors). By the Warring States
period, it also carried a mantic sense of a divinatory charge (coming
from Heaven) and could be used as a loan or pun for homophones
meaning “name” and “inscription.” Therefore, the word ming indicat-
ing a section of mantic statement in the hexagram tradition can also
indicate both a title and the diviner’s instruction on particular topics.

Strips 62 and 63
凡 十 七 命 ：•曰果，•曰至，•曰享，•曰死生， •曰得， •曰
見，•曰瘳，•曰咎，•曰男女，•曰雨，•曰娶妻，•曰戰，•曰
成，•曰行，•曰讎，•曰旱，•曰祟。•凡是，各當其卦，乃扐
占之，占之必扐，卦乃不忒。◆

In the case of the 17 topics: they are called “Results,” “Arriving,”

“Sacrificial Offerings,” “Life and Death,” “Obtaining,” “Visiting,”
“Healing,” “Spiritual Blame,” “Male and Female,” “Rain,” “Selecting a
Wife,” “War,” “Completing,” “Travel,” “Negotiation,” “Dry Weather,”
and “Curses.” In each case, they will all have their appropriate tri-
grams, so then one can prognosticate about them (the topic of
concern) using sortilege; when prognosticating, one must use the
sortilege (method) to get the trigram so there is no mistake.

Interpretation
These 17 topical areas of concern in the elite male’s life are roughly
reflected in the Shifa manuscript (Sections 1–​17, 19). The last line warns
that the le stalk method is the most accurate, suggesting by caveat that
other methods were also popular. See the discussion in the Introduction.

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GLOSSARY

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Ba 八 An extraordinary 春見八, 乃亦得。 2.8, 29
number representing
a Yin or broken line.

Chen “Astral period.” Refers 凡筮志事而見當 18

辰 to the 12 Earthly Branch 日，如當辰，乃曰
signs. 速。•疾 亦然。•五
日為來， 乃中
期。◆

Chun “Pure; unvariegated.” 凡享，月朝純牝， 3.1, 3.2

純 Can refer to a trigram 乃饗。月夕純牡，
consisting of all of one 乃亦饗。
type of number; the
appearance of all of the
same kind of trigram.

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Ci 次 “Secondary, auxiliary.” 凡筮志事，而見同 19.1, 20

Can refer to a new trigram 次於四位之中。乃
formed by reading the 曰爭之。且相悪
central lines of those in the 也。
“four positions.” Can also
refer to a branch of the army.

Cui 萃 “Gathering.” A cluster 凡貞丈夫，月夕乾 14.1, 14.2

of more than two of the 之萃，乃純吉。亡
same type of trigram. 春夏秋冬。◆

Dang ri “Matching day.” Match the 至，四正之卦見， 5.2, 11.1,

當日 name of the trigram to one 乃至。其餘易向， 18
of the Heavenly stem “days” 乃亦至。當日、不
in Section 25. 易向，昏夜不至。

Fushu “Inverted numbers.” Where 見覆數，乃亦得。 2.6

覆數 the visual arrangement
of the numbers of two
trigrams or hexagrams
is in reverse relationship
to each other, such as
611–​116.

Hui 毀 “Diminishment.” 凡咎，見術日、妻 9.1, 10.1

Indicating a trigram that is 夫昭穆、上毀，亡
one line away from being 咎。
purely Yang.

Hui 𠧩 “Upper” register 凡讎，三男同女， 7.1

position 女在𠧩上，妻夫相
見，讎。

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Ji 集 “Clustering.” See Cui 凡筮志事及軍旅， 21

乃惟凶之所集於四
位是視，乃以名其
凶。

Jiu 九 An extraordinary 秋見九乃亦得。 2.10, 29

number representing a
Yang or unbroken line

Kang To oppose. A trigram 筮疾者，一卦亢 1.8

亢 prevents two potentially 之，乃曰將死。
matching trigrams from
being juxtaposed vertically
or horizontally

Nan 男 “Male” trigrams: Qian, 三男同女乃得。 2.4, 2.5,

Zhen, Kan, Gen 6.1, 6.2,
7.1, 8.1,
8.2, 12.1

Nei 內 “Inside, inner” position. 凡是，內勝外。 16.1, 16.2,

Equals the lower register (456 189 456 189) 29
of trigrams

Nü 女 “Female” trigrams: Kun, 三男同女乃得。 2.4, 2.5, 6.1,

Xun, Li, Dui 6.2, 7.1, 8.1,
8.2, 12.1

Qifu “Wife-and-husband.” Two 妻夫同人，乃得。 2.1, 7.1

妻夫 trigrams, such as Kun and
Qian or Gen and Dui, with
opposite line arrangements
presented in juxtaposition
to each other; usually in a
xiang jian relationship.

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Ri 日 “Day.” Refers to the 當日、不易向，昏 5.2, 9.1,

10 Heavenly Stem signs. 夜不至。 10.1, 11.1,
18, 23

Shao “Slightly mixed up.” The 少淆，讎。數出， 7.2

xiao numbers of a trigram 乃亦讎。
少淆 include extraordinary
numbers.

Shu (er) Related to the 凡變，數而出乃 4.1, 7.1,

chu 數 interaction between the 遂。 11.1, 13.1,
(而) 出 upper and lower registers. 23

Shu (er) Related to the interaction 凡變，數而入乃 4.2, 11.1,

ru 數 between the upper and 復。 13.1, 23
(而) 入 lower registers.

Shu ri “Calculated day.” Similar in 凡咎，見術日、妻 9.1, 10.1

術日 meaning to Dang ri. 夫昭穆、上毀，亡
咎。

Si Cardinal directions 至，四正之卦見， 5.1

Zheng represented by their 乃至。
四正 correspondent trigrams.

Si 四 An extraordinary number 冬見四，乃亦得。 2.11, 29

representing a Yin or broken
line.

Siwei “Four Positions.” Reference 凡筮志事，而見同 19, 21

四位 to the arrangement of four 次於四位之中。乃
trigrams. Reference to the 曰爭之。且相悪
divinatory categories in 也。
Section 20.

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Tong “Identical forms.” When 如卦如爻，上下同 23

zhuang two trigrams in the upper 狀，果。
同狀 and lower registers are
identical.

Tong 同 “To join, accompany, be 三同一，乃得之。 1.2, 1.4,

with.” When one type of 1.5, 1.6,
trigram (usually male or 2.1, 2.2,
female) appears in the 2.3, 2.4,
same set as another. 2.5, 6.1,
6.2, 7.1,
8.1, 8.2,
15.3

Wai 外 “Outside, outer” position. 凡是，外勝內。 16.1, 16.2,

Equals the upper 20, 29
register of trigrams.

Wu 五 An extraordinary 夏見五，乃亦得。 2.9, 29

number representing a
Yang or unbroken line.

Xiang “Matching, looking at each 筮死妻者，相見在 1.7, 1.9,

jian other.” It indicates two 上，乃曰死。 7.1, 11.2
相見 trigrams of opposite
line type juxtaposed
horizontally.

Xu 虛 “Space, vacancy.” Used 五虛（居）同一虛 1.1, 1.2

like “position” (wei 位) （居），死。
but phonetically close to
ju 居 (“reside, place to
reside”) and chu 處 (“place,
location”).

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Yi Change of the 其餘易向，乃亦 5.2

Xiang arrangement of the 至。
易向 trigrams in a set, so that
they can be read clockwise
in accordance with the
diagram in
Section 24.

Yin/​ Related to movement 作於陽, 入於陰，亦 2.7

Yang from one type of lines into 得；其失十三。
陰/​陽 another (such as unbroken
into broken lines).

Yue xi “End-of-the-month.” The 月夕純牡，乃亦 3.2, 14.1,

月夕 bottom left position of 饗。 22
the trigram set.

Yue “Beginning-of-the-month.” 凡享，月朝純牝， 3.1, 14.2,

zhao One of the four positions 乃饗。 22
月朝 of the moon. The top right
position of the
trigram set.

Zhaomu “Shining-and-somber.” 凡見大人，昭穆， 8.3, 9.1, 23

昭穆 Reference to Qian and 見。
Kun trigrams (pure Yang
and pure Yin).

Zhongqi “Central period.” The time 凡筮志事而見當 18

中期 of the effective divination 日，如當辰，乃曰
period, involving five days 速。疾 亦然。五日
on either side of a calculated 為來， 乃中期。
day.

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Glossary

Term Meaning Example Appearance

Zuo 左 “Left” and “right.” Refer to 三左同右，乃得。 2.2, 2.3

and you position of the trigram in
右 the array of eight
trigrams around the human
figure. “Left” includes those
to the left of South and
including North, and “right”
includes South and those to
the right of North.

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CHART OF ALL SHIFA AND SOME

SHUOGUA CORRELATIONS

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C HART OF A L L S H I F A AND SO M E S H U O G U A C ORRE L ATIONS

Shifa Qian ☰ Kun ☷ Gen ☶

Correlations
Heavenly stems 甲壬 乙癸 丙
Jia, Ren Yi, Gui Bing
Earthly branches 辰戌
Chen, Wu
Directions Northwest Southwest Northeast
Body parts Head Heart/​chest Hands/​lower
arms
Seasonal
supervising
spirit
Agent/process
Color
Auspiciousness Greatly
in Spring inauspicious
Auspiciousness Slightly
in Summer inauspicious
Auspiciousness Slightly
in Autumn auspicious
Auspiciousness Greatly
in Winter auspicious
Gender Male Female Male
“Shuogua”
correlations
Family relation Father Mother Youngest
brother
Natural Heaven Earth Mountain
elements
Animals Horse Ox Dog

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C HART OF A L L S H I F A AND SO M E S H U O G U A C ORRE L ATIONS

Dui ☱ Kan ☵ Li ☲ Zhen ☳ Xun ☴

丁 戊 己 庚 辛
Ding Wu Ji Gen Xin
巳亥 寅申 卯酉 子午 丑未
Si, Hai Yin, Shen Mao, You Zi, Wu Chou, Wei
West South North East Southeast
Eyes (?)/​ Ears Abdomen Feet/​legs Thighs/​
mouth to knees pelvis
Harvest Planting Storing Thunder

Metal Fire Water Wood

White Red Black Green
Slightly Slightly Greatly Greatly Greatly
inauspicious auspicious inauspicious auspicious auspicious
Greatly Greatly Slightly Slightly Slightly
inauspicious auspicious inauspicious auspicious auspicious
Greatly Greatly Slightly Slightly Slightly
auspicious inauspicious auspicious inauspicious inauspicious
Slightly Slightly Greatly Greatly Greatly
auspicious inauspicious auspicious inauspicious inauspicious
Female Male Female Male Female

Youngest Middle Middle Oldest Oldest

sister brother sister brother sister
Marsh Water Fire Thunder Wood

Goat Pig Pheasant Dragon Chicken

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TABLE OF HEXAGRAM
CORRELATIONS IN THE
ZHOUYI AND GUICANG

Zhouyi Shifa Other Fourth-​Century

Hexagrams bce Chu Bamboo
Divination Texts

1 Qian 乾 1.1, 3.2, 14.1 TXG

2 Kun 坤 3.1, 4.1, 14.2 TXG; GL Yi 4.95

3 Zhun 屯 1.9, 2.4

4 Meng 蒙

5 Xu 需 BS 245

6 Song 訟 TXG

7 Shi 師 11.1 GL Jia 2.37, Jia 3.184-​2,

185, 222

8 Bi 比 GL Jia 2.19, 20, Ling 115,

22

9 Xiao Xu 小畜 9.1, 10.1

10 Lü 履 4.2, 19.2

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Zhouyi Shifa Other Fourth-​Century

Hexagrams bce Chu Bamboo
Divination Texts

11 Tai 泰 15.4 TXG; GL Jia 3.112

12 Pi 否 2.1, 2.8, 5.2, 14.1

13 Tongren 同人 17.1 GL Jia 2.19, 20, Ling 115, 22

14 Da You 大有

15 Qian 謙 6.1, 12. 1, 13.1, GL Yi 2, Yi 4.15

14.2, 19.1

16 Yu 豫 1.7 BS 201

17 Sui 隨 7.1 BS 232

18 Gu 蠱 5.2 BS 229; TXG

19 Lin 臨 2.3, 2.7, 14.2 BS 210; GL Jia 2.37

20 Guan 觀 2.2 GL Yi 4.68; GL Jia 3.112

21 Shihe 噬嗑 1.2, 1.4, 19.1 TXG

22 Bi 賁 8.2

23 Bo 剝 1.8, 4.2, 14.1 TXG; GL Jia 3.302

24 Fu 復 GL Yi 4.68

25 Wuwang 無妄 BS 239

26 Da Chu 大畜 1.2, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2,

8.3

27 Yi 頤 BS 239; GL Yi 2

28 Da Guo 大過 2.6, 2.10 GL Jia 3.112

29 Kan 坎

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Zhouyi Shifa Other Fourth-​Century

Hexagrams bce Chu Bamboo
Divination Texts

30 Li 離 BS 232; GL Yi 4.79

31 Xian 咸 10.1, 11.1, 11.2, TXG; GL Jia 3.302

17.1

32 Heng 恆 2.4, 2.9 BS 245

33 Dun 遯 1.8, 3.2, 14.1 GL Yi 4.15

34 Da Zhuang 8.2
大壯

35 Jin 晉 8.3, 9.1 BS 229; GL Jia 3.184-​2,

185, 222

36 Ming Yi 明夷 2.5, 14.2

37 Jia Ren 家人 1.1, 1.7, 12.1

38 Kui 暌 1.9, 6.1, 15.1

39 Jian 蹇

40 Jie 解 1.3, 1.5, 2.6, 15.3 TXG

41 Sun 損 2.11 BS 210

42 Yi 益 15.4

43 Guai 夬 2.5, 2.7, 4.1, 13.1

44 Gou 姤 TXG; GL Yi 4.95

45 Cui 萃

46 Sheng 升 2.1, 3.1, 8.1, 14.2

47 Kun 困

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Zhouyi Shifa Other Fourth-​Century

Hexagrams bce Chu Bamboo
Divination Texts

48 Jing 井 6.2, 19.2

49 Ge 革 2.3, 2.9

50 Ding 鼎 1.6, 2.11, 15.2

51 Zhen 震 15.3

52 Gen 艮

53 Jian 漸

54 Gui Mei 歸妹 17.2

55 Feng 豐 5.1

56 Lü 旅 2.2, 7.2 GL Jia 3.112

57 Xun 巽 GL Yi 4.79

58 Dui 兌 1.4, 1.6 BS 201

59 Huan 渙 8.1, 11.2

60 Jie 節 1.3, 1.5, 5.1

61 Zhong Fu 中孚 2.8

62 Xiao Guo 小過

63 Ji Ji 既濟 2.10, 15.1, 15.2,

16.1, 17.2
64 Wei Ji 未濟 16.2

BS = Baoshan; GL = Geling; TXG = Tianxinguan.

Source: As found in Yan Changgui 2010.

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SUMMARY CONTENT OF ZHOUYI

AND WANGJIATAI (GUICANG)
HEXAGRAM TEXTS

1 Qian.1 The Wangjiatai version is a fragment. The hexagram is called

“Heaven’s Eye” (Tian mu 天目). The text notes that it is not benefi-
cial to use grasses or wood when “providing assistance” (zan 賛) in
the morning.2 Line 3 in the Zhouyi does note the general inauspicious
nature of two “Qians” appearing at the end of a day. Although it goes
on to suggest that “spiritual blame” (jiu) could be avoided “if the junzi
(gentleman) at the end of the day has Qian-​Qian, and in the evening
worries about it, and (the moon is in the position of) Whetstone (?),3
he will be without blame.” 君子終日乾乾，夕惕若，厲，无咎).
2 Kun. The Kun hexagram in the Wangjiatai version talks about
“inhumanity” (buren 不仁) with the example of the prehistorical king
Xia Hou Qi, who after divining about ascending up the Sky was cast
down by Di (God) into an abyss for not being good.4 The Zhouyi ver-
sion talks about the benefit of using a female animal (a mare) and of
the southwestern direction. Frost is indicated and (male) forms such
as “square, upright, big” are beneficial. Tied-​up sacks, yellow skirts,
and battling dragons in a field spewing blood all seem to accord with
the “earthly” nature of Kun.
3 Zhun. The Wangjiatai version refers to a divination by a dragon about
ascending into the sky.5 In the Zhouyi, Zhun seems to concern affairs

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S U M M A RY C O N T E N T O F Z H O U Y I A N D WA N G J I ATA I

requiring travel, such as setting up a ruler or marriage. It also notes

circumstances that might cause a woman to be infertile for a long time.
4–​6 not in the Shifa.
7 Shi. The Wangjiatai version relates a tale about Mu Tianzi, who divined
about “sending out the army” (chu shi 出師). Some of the text is missing,
but it later notes the image of a dragon descending from the Sky and
something else (Mu Tianzi or the dragon) flying far and then leaping
back up into the Sky.6 In the Zhouyi, Shi indicates auspiciousness in divin-
ing about appointing leaders. The whole process will carry no blame. Shi
is understood in the Zhouyi as “multitude,” and it states that the one who
can use the multitude to rectify the world will become a true king. The
words “army” and “multitude” were the same fundamental word.
8 not in the Shifa.
9 Xiao Xu. The Wangjiatai version has a tale about an heir, a xiaozi
小子 (name graph missing), who divined, receiving the charge that
it was “superior” (yuan 元) and that the state (bang 邦) would experi-
ence nothing “baleful” (lin 吝).7 In the Zhouyi, Xiao Xu is auspicious;
it suggests that the soft and Yin is in the right position, and therefore
the above and below correspond with each other.
10 Lü. The Wangjiatai version of Lu relates a tale of Archer Yi shoot-
ing at various objects, perhaps from the top of a stone.8 The Zhouyi
version includes lore about stepping on the tail of a tiger (generally
not advisable) and other warnings about movement.
11 Fu. The Wangjiatai fragment begins a tale about a king divining
and getting “return” (fu) and a white bird.9 In the Zhouyi, Fu is auspi-
cious and indicates a state free of illness.
12 Pi. Not in the Wangjiatai version. The Zhouyi lines concern the
overcoming of conflict.
13 Tong Ren. The Wangjiatai version concerns a tale about Huangdi
and Yandi battling (probably Chiyou) and then (after missing words)
Xian (probably Wu Xian, a famous shaman) divining and claiming
“there would be results” (guo 果) but with some “balefulness” (lin 吝)
(text broken off).10 In the Zhouyi, Tong Ren indicates the gathering

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of people in the wild, and it is auspicious. It symbolizes that the soft

takes the position in the middle (of the lower trigram), and Qian is on
top, which is a proper position for gentlemen.
14 not in the Shifa.
15 Qian. The Wangjiatai fragment calls this hexagram “Mound” (Ling
陵). The line relates a tale about a figure named Red Bird who per-
formed divination, and then the water in the valley became unob-
structed and it saw a spirit causing trees to come forth there.11 In the
Zhouyi, Qian symbolizes a happy and auspicious ending for a gentle-
man, and as the name suggests, the hexagram emphasizes the impor-
tance of modesty in carrying out business.
16 Yu. The Wangjiatai version includes a song line about a yellow
bird.12 In the Zhouyi some lines are auspicious and some are not. The
second line from the top refers to dying: “Prognosticating about illness
(reveals that it) will be chronic but not cause death” 貞疾，恆不死.
17 Sui. The Wangjiatai text is broken off. In the Zhouyi, Sui is an overall
auspicious hexagram. It denotes “following,” in the sense of how people
follow their rulers or how the solid (gang 剛) (Yang) influences the soft
(rou 柔) (Yin). It also suggests the timeliness in following others.
18 Gu. The Wangjiatai line concerns a tale about the North and a
man divining about welcoming a woman.13 The Zhouyi lines concern
whether the mother or father (presumably ancestral spirits) should
be considered the sources of spiritual blame or of praise. Three differ-
ent Jia days of the calendar are also of concern.
19 Lin. The Wangjiatai text is broken off. In the Zhouyi line texts,
prognosis for advancement is generally auspicious except that the
eighth month should be avoided.
20 Guan. Only a bit of the Guan line text is decipherable on the
Wangjiatai version. It concerns a tale about Xia Hou Qi divining.14
The Zhouyi line text involves different forms of “looking” (guan),
everything from illicit peeping to noble self-​inspection.
21 Shi He. Shi He (too fragmented in the Wangjiatai version to make
sense of) in the Zhouyi concerns the auspiciousness or not regarding

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the use of certain punishments. Generally, if we read from the bot-

tom line up, we see a graduated scale beginning with severe inauspi-
ciousness moving through “dangerous,” “no spiritual blame,” and “a
minor concern” toward auspiciousness.
22 Bi. The Wangjiatai text is broken off. In the Zhouyi, Bi is auspi-
cious. The lines indicate the mingling between Yin and Yang, the soft
and solid. The mingling leads to the heavenly patterns and ultimately
human civilization.
23 Bo. Missing from Wangjiatai. Bo is generally inauspicious.
24 and 25 not in the Shifa.
26 Da Chu. The Wangjiatai version is missing. In the Zhouyi, it is gen-
erally auspicious.
27 not in the Shifa.
28 Da Guo. In Wangjiatai, the Da Guo strip is broken and only divina-
tion regarding the waxing of the sun and moon is apparent.15 In the
Zhouyi version, some lines have images of either weak or curving roof
beams indicating misfortune or auspiciousness. Other lines concern
marrying a younger wife or husband. As long as the older woman is
able to “produce flowers,” no spiritual blame will occur (but no special
rewards either). An older man marrying a young woman, however, is
completely auspicious.
29 and 30 not in the Shifa.
31 Xian. The Wangjiatai text is broken off. In the Zhouyi, Xian is
auspicious and is also beneficial for divining. It also suggests that
it is auspicious to marry a woman. The hexagram symbolizes the
Yang qi on top and Yin below. Because they are in the right position
with regard to each other, the hexagram denotes a harmonious and
peaceful state.
32 Heng. The Wangjiatai version of Heng tells of a woman long ago
(possibly Nü Gua) who divined about binding something up with
ropes.16 Many of the lines in the Zhouyi version indicate inauspicious-
ness and misfortune. In the beginning of the hexagram (the bottom
line), spiritual blame is overcome, but the lines in the upper trigram

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are particularly negative. The third line down indicates a useless

hunting expedition; the second line down indicates good fortune for
the wife but bad fortune for the husband; the top line is inauspicious.
33 Dun. The Wangjiatai version seems to be about someone with
wings who cannot fly high. There will be advantage at the beginning.17
In the Zhouyi, Dun is generally auspicious as long as the client obeys
certain warnings.
34 Da Zhuang. The Wangjiatai has only a fragment. In the Zhouyi, Da
Zhuang suggests auspiciousness in divining. The hexagram denotes
strong, solid (gang 剛), and its active movement.
35 Jin. The Wangjiatai version includes a fragment relating a tale
about Xiao Hou Qi divining and the abyss of Di Jin(?) becoming
something.18 In the Zhouyi, Jin specifically alludes to an event: the
Marquis Kang, King Wu of Zhou’s brother received a male horse from
King Cheng, and he used it to breed more horses. The horse was bred
three times a day. The hexagram also suggests the upward movement
of the “soft” or Yin influences.
36 Ming Yi. In the Wangjiatai version, Mingyi relates a tale of Xia Hou
Qi divining about riding a dragon up to the sky.19 In the Zhouyi version
of Ming Yi, the lines include flying and hunting images as well as influ-
ences upon various body parts, with the top line referring to someone
ascending during the new moon to the sky and then returning to earth.
37 Jiaren. The Wangjiatai version is too fragmented to make sense out
of, although noteworthy is the fact the hexagram was named San 散
“Dispersal.” In the Zhouyi, the line texts generally confirm that as long
as women stay at home and obey the rules, there will be no harm.
38 Kui. The Wangjiatai version concerns a Shang king divining and
receiving a judgment that there is no spiritual blame.20 In the Zhouyi,
Kui deals with people and carriages one meets and the relative aus-
piciousness of certain actions in relation to them. Most interesting
is the top line text, which involves a person protecting himself with
a bow from the negative influence of a passing funeral cart until he
realizes it carries one of his relatives. In the fifth line down, he suffers

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punishment by mutilation, but the divination claims that things will

look up later. Generally it indicates auspiciousness for minor affairs.
It denotes two female trigrams staying together despite performing
different actions.
39 is not in the Shifa.
40 Jie. Missing from the Wangjiatai manuscript. In the Zhouyi, the
lines seem to concern issues of governing and hunting. Most lines are
auspicious with some slightly negative.
41 Sun. Only the name of the hexagram remains in the Wangjiatai
version. In the Zhouyi, the idea of “diminishment” (sun) and its oppo-
site “addition” (yi 益) in numbers of gifts, people you walk with, or
even in the degrees of illness are considered. Generally, the hexagram
is auspicious, although in one line military campaigns are deter-
mined inauspicious (the second line from the top). The lines involve
overcoming situations, like illness and loss, which might indicate
spiritual blame.
42 Yi. Missing from the Wangjiatai text. In the Zhouyi, Yi indicates
auspiciousness in taking actions. It denotes a state where if those
above reduce their resources and those below increase theirs, it will
have a happy populace.
43 Guai. The Wangjiatai version relates a tale of a red bird perching
on a tree calling out to a magpie that responds that birds have hus-
bands who select wives that preserve their original homes to return
to.21 In the Zhouyi, the Guai hexagram lines are generally inauspicious
and concern walking as well as influences upon various body parts.
44 and 45 not in the Shifa.
46 Sheng. No Wangjiatai version. The Zhouyi lines concern avoiding
spiritual blame while ascending in one’s career or up stairs.
47 not in the Shifa.
48 Jing. The Wangjiatai fragment begins with a tale of Xia Hou Qi.22
In the Zhouyi, the image of the “water well” denotes incomplete
undertakings, such as changing a town without changing the wells
that people would use. It thus also indicates fruitless effort.

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49 Ge. Not in the Wangjiatai. The Zhouyi line text includes large animal
imagery (bovines, tigers, leopards) and puns on the idea of ge meaning
both animal skin and “change.” Generally the concern is whether to pro-
ceed or not, with some lines indicating auspiciousness and others not.
50 Ding. In the Wangjiatai version, the line for Ding relates a tale about
a Lord of Song 宋 divining about a land grant and a shaman interpreting
it, saying that at first there would be concerns but things would work
out.23 In the Zhouyi, only the third line from the top is inauspicious.
51 Zhen. Missing from the Wangjiatai. In the Zhouyi, Zhen repre-
sents thunder, and the fear thunder brings. As a guidance for actions,
the text suggests that fear will make gentlemen reflect on themselves
and make more careful decisions.
52 and 53 not in the Shifa.
54 Gui Mei. The Wangjiatai text concerns a tale about Heng Wo (the
moon goddess) not dying and (after many missing words) something
about the moon and divination.24 In the Zhouyi, Gui Mei is inaus-
picious in making military campaigns and predicts fruitless actions.
The inauspicious connotation comes from the fact that in Gui Mei the
soft takes the position of the solid. More specifically, lines one, three,
and five from the bottom are supposed to be unbroken lines, but two
of these positions are taken by the broken lines.
55 Feng. The Wangjiatai line relates a tale about Shangdi divining
about a place, deriving “great brightness” but a lack of auspiciousness
results in the need for the sacrifice of a female animal and a pheas-
ant.25 In the Zhouyi, the primary images in Feng are astral positions.
56 Lü. The Wangjiatai text is missing. The Zhouyi text is largely unfa-
vorable involving suspicions of a stranger and hunting losses.
57 not in the Shifa.
58 Dui. The Wangjiatai version has a ditty assigned to Dui saying “Dui,
Dui, with yellow robe generates Metal. The Sun and Moon come out
together, and a wild animal … (broken off).”26 The Zhouyi lines play
with the meaning of dui as “pleasure” and “exchange.” Generally it is
auspicious, except for the third and fifth lines from the top. The double

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Dui trigrams equal Hexagram 58 Dui 兌. Dui in the “Shuogua” com-

mentary is linked to a young women and seems suggestive of a poten-
tial corruptive influence on the average client, an elite married male.
59 Huan. The Wangjiatai text is a fragment retaining only the sig-
nifier “high” (gao 高) for someone who “in the past” divined about
something.27 In the Zhouyi, Huan is an overall auspicious hexagram.
The hexagram symbolizes the king entering to his ancestral temple.
60 Jie. The Wangjiatai line concerns the tale of King Wu divining
about attacking Yin (Shang) and getting an auspicious result.28 In
the Zhouyi version, the topic concerns staying inside and obeying the
rules. Only the last (or top) line (a six) is extremely inauspicious.
61 Zhong Fu. The Wangjiatai strip is broken. Only the title Di (god)
is indicated as the diviner, perhaps indicating one of the mythical
kings. In the Zhouyi the top line involves singing that goes up to
the sky and causes misfortune. Other lines seem to involve singing,
dancing, birds calling, feasting, stream crossings, and other actions
that generally do not cause spiritual blame.
62 not in the Shifa.
63 Ji Ji. The Wangjiatai version of Ji Ji relates a tale of the Yin (Shang)
king divining about whether or not his state has incurred spiritual
blame. Then Wu Xian, a legendary shaman-​official, interprets the
divination as inauspicious and recommends tossing a rolled-​up mat
into a gully and sacrificing to a female dog in the north.29 In the
Baoshan and other texts, dogs are dismembered in exorcism rituals
to expel spiritual blame. In the Zhouyi, Ji Ji is mixed in its indica-
tion of good fortune. In some cases what seems good at first turns
bad, and in others, something that is lost may eventually be found.
The legend of Gao Zong taking three years to subdue the Guifang is
related as a warning. Spring sacrifices, which involve killing a bovine,
are best performed in the East.
64 Weiji. Missing from the Wangjiatai text. In the Zhouyi, Wei Ji is an
overall auspicious hexagram. It alludes to a small fox crossing a river
and getting its tail wet, symbolizing a fruitless action.

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NOTES

Introduction

1. Cook and Major 1999; C. A. Cook 2006a; Lai 2014.

2. Li Ling 2014.
3. See discussions by S. Allan 1991, Chard 1999, Aihe Wang 2000, C. A.
Cook 2006a.
4. See S. Allan 1997 and 2003.
5. This occurs in the Guodian texts found in Jiangling, the ancient Chu
metropolitan area. See Allan 1997.
6. Li Xueqin, e.d. 2013, 115. Section 26.
7. Liu Lexian 2012; Cao Feng 2013.
8.. It is possible that the term shangdi actually originally represented more
than one high god or gods.
9. See the discussion in Csikszentmihalyi 2004.
10. The Rongchengshi 容成氏 bamboo text in the Shanghai collection, for
example, mentions yinyang zhi qi 陰陽之氣 and the Tai Yi Sheng Shui
太乙生水 bamboo text in the Guodian collection refers to the birth
of Yin and Yang and then the four seasons. The concept also appears
in the Chu Silk manuscript, and certain days in the Shuihudi almanacs
are marked as Yin or Yang. In many other texts, however, they occur in
place names marking the sunny or shaded sides of rivers, mountains,
and so on, reflecting the older meaning of these terms.
11. Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 77–​123.

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Notes

12. The Suanbiao is the world’s oldest calculator for decimal multiplication.
It is based on a traditional “nine nines” method of quantitative calcu-
lation found in imperial-​era mathematical primers. See Ho Peng Yoke
1985; Cullen 1996; Chemla and Guo 2004.
13. The Guicang is the name given by scholars to a text found in a third-​
century bce tomb in Wangjiatai 王家台 of the Jiangling region.
See Jingzhou diqu bowuguan 1995; Wang Mingqin 2004. See E. L.
Shaughnessy 2013, esp. 167–​169 for a list of variants in five different
versions of hexagram texts, four of the Zhouyi and one of the Guicang;
for the relationship to the Shifa, see Li Xueqin 2013.
14. For the use of ancient songs recalling historical or mythological events
as magical spells (historiola) in the Tsinghua texts, see Allan 2015b.
15. Zhang Zhenglang 1980–​1981; Rao Zongyi 1989; Wang Mingqin
2004; C. A. Cook 2006b; Pu Zaifu, 2011, 187–​196; Sun Jingming
and Zhao Kezeng 2014; Huang Yilu 2014; Shaughnessy 2014,
12–​22. For recent studies of numerical gua since the discovery of
the Shifa and the controversy over the relationship to the later Yin
and Yang gua of the Zhouyi, see Li Xueqin 2013; Liao Mingchun
2013; Jia Lianxiang 2014 (three articles), Chen Jianren 2015; Wang
Huaping and Zhou Yan 2015.
16. See the study by Ke Heli 2016.
17. Yan Changgui 2010, 197–​202.
18. The simplification from numbers 4 to 9 to binomial values suggests the
lack of understanding in Han times of an earlier divination system.
19. Some texts like the Shifa use special numbers 4, 5, 8, and 9, and others
use 7 (but rarely 4; see, for example, the Fangmatan Rishu, Gansusheng
wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 2009). Numbers 2 (二) and 3 (三) were avoided
as they would be confused with series of 1s. The number 7 written like
亠 in Shifa strip numbers may have been avoided for similar reasons.
For how 1 can be read as 7 in the Shifa, see Li Shouli 2014, Ma Nan
2014; and see Section 28. For a discussion of the reflection of Shifa-​
related number series in later texts, see Li Shangxin 2013.
20. “Xici, xia,” Zhouyi zhengyi 8: 87.
21. See studies of the images by Li Zhenfeng 2014 and Hou Naifeng 2015.
22. Notably the four trees painted into the corners of the Chu Silk
Manuscript are also green, red, white, and black. Scholars understand
these variously as representing the four directions, the four seasons, or
the four pillars that connect Heaven and Earth.
23. Liao Mingchun 2013.
24. Over 10 different Rishu manuals have been found in tombs linked to
either Chu or Qin cultural regions and time periods (Liu Lexian 2012).

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Notes

See, for example, Shuihudi Qin Han mu zhujian zhengli xiaozu ed.,
1990; Gansu wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo, ed., 2009.
25. C. A. Cook 2006.
26. Hubeisheng Jingzhoushi bowuguan 1997; Jingzhou diqu bowuguan
1995; C. A. Cook 2006; S. Cook 2012; Raphals 2013; Shaughnessy 2014.
27. Allan, Buried Ideas, 2015, 20-23.
28. Raphals 2013; Shaughnessy 2014, 14.
29. C. A. Cook 2006a; Kalinowski 2009; Raphals 2013, 333–​337.
30. Ke Heli 2016.
31. Ke Heli 2016.
32. Liu Lexian 2012.
33. The number of periods in a day varied by text and region. Most Rishu
have just 4 or 5 periods in a day, but the Fangmatan Rishu records 12
periods. The Rishu from Shuihudi records only 5 periods in a day but
notes 12 star names linked with each of the 12 months (Liu Lexian
2012, 50–​56). Since the chen are listed after the ri in the Shifa (and not
in the reverse order), we assume that the temporal units of chen must
be smaller, not larger, than a day.
34. Male: 子卯寅巳酉戌 Female: 午未申丑亥辰. Male and female days
were also referred to as “hard” 剛 or “soft” 柔, “male-​animal” 牡 or
“female-​animal” 牝 (Liu Lexian 2012, 50).
35. Liu Zhen (2014) notes the link between the Shifa system of trigram
correlations for ganzhi with the later Najia 納甲 system traditionally
attributed to Jing Fang 京房 (77–​37 bce).
36. A similar symbolic system is found in Chu tombs; see C. A. Cook 2016a.
37. In fact, many different types of bone were employed in antiquity,
including bovine, goat, pig, deer, tiger, and human. The use of tortoise
plastrons, which were likely imported from the south, began with
the Shang.
38. Loewe 1994, 160–​190.
39. See “Taizushun” 泰族順 in Huainanzi jishi 20, 1379.
40. By the time of the Zhouli all stalk divination was clearly associated with
three Changes texts (famously known as the Lianshan 連山, Guicang,
and Zhouyi, also called the Three Yi) and used along with other catego-
ries of “three methods” to verify the auspicious or inauspicious nature
of a matter first being tested by scapulimancy. The Grand diviner 大卜
was theoretically in charge of a number of divination methods, includ-
ing the Three Omens 三兆, the Three Yi 三易, and the Three Dreams 三
夢. Scapulimancy 龜 was employed for state affairs to evaluate eight
different topics or “charges” (ming 命) and the other methods (Three
Omens, etc.) were used to test the auspicious or inauspicious nature
吉凶of the 8 “charges.” Some of these charges are also found among

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Notes

the 17 charges listed in the Shifa; see Section 30. The 8 charges include
“military campaigns, images, giving awards, plans, results, arrivals,
rain, and recovering from illness” (一曰征，二曰象，三曰與，四曰
謀，五曰果，六曰至，七曰雨，八曰瘳). “Zhouli zhushu, Chunguan
zongbo” 24: 802–​803. Notably, 7 charges are listed in the “Hongfan” 洪
範 chapter of the Shangshu (Shangshu zhengyi 12).
41. Zhouli zhushu “Chunguan zongbo” 24: 805. For a recent review of the term
wu and the definitions of “shaman,” see Michael 2015. There is no connec-
tion between the ancient pronunciation of shi *[d]‌[e][t]-​s and wu *C.m(r)
[o] (see Baxter and Sagart 2014). Indeed, the ancient word shi was much
closer in pronunciation to the ancient word for “to swear” 誓 *[d][a]t-​s.
42. See C. A. Cook 2006a, 101–​106.
43. Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhengyi Xi 15. 14 (1807); see K. Smith 1989; Wang
Huaping 2011; Zhang Jinping and Yang Xiaolei 2015.
44. Already in the fourth century bce it is described in the Guodian bam-
boo texts as “The Changes (is a text) which combines the Way of Heaven
and the Way of Man”《易》所以會天道人道 (Yucong 語叢 1: 36).
45. Ban Gu 1959, 30: 1704. Discussed by Liao Mingchun 2014.
46. Smith 2008; Nylan 2001, 202–​253.
47 Zhouyi zhengyi, 1: 17; 2: 25.
48. Zhouyi zhengyi, 6: 68. For other translations, see for example
Shaughnessy 2013, 131; Lynn 1994, 494–​500; Gotshalk 1999, 294–​295.
49. The process of interpreting Heavenly signs first into “images” or gua
and then attaching statements to them is studied by Zhou Xipo 2015.
50. Shaughnessy 1993; Nylan 2001, 208–​224, 229–​233; Xing Wen 2003; Li
Zhenfeng 2014.
51. Xiang Chuansan 1997; Zhang Tuyun 2006; Sun Jinsong 2010; Cheng
Hao 2014; Ma Jinliang and Ding Ding 2015.
52. Zhouyi zhengyi 7. 80. The loan of gua 掛 as gua 卦 is supported in the
Shuowen for the definition of le “sortilege” citing the Yi: 扐，《易》
筮，再扐而後卦 (Shuowen jiezi gulin Vol. a, 1327–​1329). For other
translations, see, for example, Legge 1963, 365; Lynn 1994, 60–​61.
53. Zhang Tuyun 2006; Sun jinsong 2010, 19–​25. Also compare Field 2015,
249–​258.
54. Loewe 1994, 214–​235; Liu Lexian 2012; Raphals 2013, 137–​139.
55. Chen Songchang 1993.
56. In a recently discovered text dated to the first century bce in the Beijing
University collection called the Jing jue 荊決, a diviner is instructed on
how to manipulate stalks to form trigrams made up of numbers 1–​4 and
named after stem and branch signs: “Take 30 stalks to divine whether
affairs are auspicious or not, just follow the stalks. In the left hand hold
the manual and in the right grasp the stalks and face East. Divide the

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Notes

30 stalks into three piles, placing the ones in the upper pile horizon-
tally and the ones in the middle pile vertically, and those in the lower
pile horizontally. Subtract 4 from each that is (more than) 4 repeatedly
(until the remainder is 4 or less). Do not subtract from piles with four
or fewer stalks” (Beijing daxue chutu wenxian yanjiusuo 2014, 171).
The Jing jue texts that go with the trigrams reflect influence of Zhouyi
and non-​Zhouyi traditions. However, despite the use of the name “Jing,”
a common alternative name for Chu, there is no obvious connection
in either methodology or content to the Shifa except in the focus on
trigrams and in the naming of sources of “curses” (sui). Like hexagram
texts, the Jingjue includes bits of song and myth as mantic images, but
they are not related to those found on either the Guizang or the Zhouyi.
57. See Qiu Xigui 2014; Han Ziqiang 2004.
58. This version has the additional unique feature of painted squares with
a variety of red and black spaces associated with different hexagrams,
which some suggest are a way of ordering the sequence of the hexagrams
(see Liao Mingchun 2011, 83; Dong Yanshou and Shi Shangang 2014).
59. See Shaughnessy 2014 for studies and translations of the Shuanggudui,
Wangjiatai, and Shanghai Museum texts.
60. Qiu Xigui 2014.
61. Liao Mingchun et al. 2011, 153–​162.
62. See Jingzhou diqu bowuguan 1995; Li Xueqin 2014; Cheng Hao 2014.
63. For example, the Qian hexagram is called Jian 鍵 in the Mawangdui silk
text and “Heaven’s Eye” Tianmu 天目 in the Wangjiatai Guicang (see
Liao Mingchun et al. 2011, 160–​162).
64. Chen Songchang and Liao Mingchun 1993; Ding Sixin 2011, 505–​542.
65. Shaughnessy 2014, 192, 195.
66. Li Ling 2000, 306–​320; Liao Mingchun 2003; Li Zongkun 2006; Zhang
Peng 2007; Wang Huaping 2011; Liao Mingchun et al. (2011, 154–​155)
discuss the dice found in the Wangjiatai tomb. Some are six-​sided with
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; others are four-​sided with only 1s and 6s. The
coffin also contained 60 sticks (60 plus cm long) composed half of bone
and bamboo. An astrolobe, Rishu, and other technical texts were found
in this tomb.
67. Some suggest the 1 should always be read as a 7.
68. Loewe 1994, 176–​178. In other situations, the diviner faced east. Ibid.,
181. See also note 56 above.
69. Curiously, the variant Lao for Kan appears as a definition for the Kan
gua in a story about a conflict between divination methods preserved in
the “Jinyu” section Guoyu 國語, a text traditionally dated to the fourth
century bce but probably edited later (see later discussion).

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Notes

Chapter 1

1. Li Xueqin ed. 2013, 111–​113.

2. Ibid., 81.
3. Ibid., 87.
4. See discussion by Zhang Kebin 2014.
5. Li Xueqin ed., 2013, 79.
6. Ibid., 92, 94.
7. Ibid., 82.
8. Ibid., 90.
9. Xie Bingjun suggests that some Shifa divination is similar to the duigua
對卦 interpretative method (comparing 32 pairs of oppositely struc-
tured hexagrams) in the Changes tradition (2015).
10. “Shuogua,” Zhouyi Zhengyi, Ruan Yuan ed., Shisanjing zhushu, 1980, 94.
11. Through Chinese history, people had used different divinatory methods
based on certain parts of Yijing. We do not count these methods as the
development of a single, cohesive tradition, but heterogeneous tradi-
tions and practices.
12. See the discussion by Liu Zhen 2014.
13. See Section 26, Li Xueqin, ed., 2013, 115.
14. Ibid., 85, 98–​99. Sections 3, 14.
15. Ibid., 98–​99. Section 14.
16. Cases of matching trigrams arranged vertically are not referred to as
“wife-and-husband” (ibid., 84, Section 2, see Case 2.8).
17. Ibid., 81. Section 2. The term qifu precedes the term tongren 同人 (“act
as the same person”), suggesting perhaps that Qian could be paired
with the Kun in two directions, horizontal and vertical. The example in
Case 2.1 shows Kun in both positions.
18. Ibid. 89. Section 7. The term precedes xiangjian 相見 (“seeing each
other” or “meeting each other”), suggesting that oppositional position-
ing of the “wife-​and-​husband” trigrams. In Case 7.1, the Dui and Gen
face each other on the upper register.
19. p. 92. Section 9.
20. Nielsen, 2003, 111–​114.
21. It is noteworthy that the term has the word “wife” precede that of “hus-
band,” instead of the more common sequence of “husband and wife”
(fuqi 夫妻). This female-​male order is seen in a string of words, such as
“female and male (birds)” (cixiong 雌雄), “female and male (animals)”
pinmu 牝牡, and yinyang 陰陽. Most of the terms with social connota-
tions posit words for the male in front, such as “father and mother”

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Notes

(fumu 父母), “son and daughter” (zinü 子女), and commonly, “husband
and wife” (fuqi 夫妻).
22. Han texts also use it to refer to the relative seated positions of the hus-
band and wife during ritual events. “Sandai gaizhi zhiwen,” Chunqiu
Fanlu, 1992, 206–​207.
23. Li Xueqin, ed., 2013, 78. Section 1.
24. Ibid., 105. Section 19.
25. Ibid., 96. Section 12.
26. Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 106.
27. See the study by Ke Heli 2016.
28. For example, Zhouyi zhengyi, 1980, 13, 29, 36.
29. See Section 15, Li Xueqin, ed., 2013, 100. Case 15.3.
30. See Sun Jinsong, 2010, 21.
31. Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 79.
32. Ibid., 120.
33. Ibid., 119–​120.
34. Ibid., 78–​79.
35. Ibid., 84.
36. Ibid., 102.
37. Ibid., 103.
38. For example, in the Yijing divination method that Kong Yingda and Zhu
Xi introduced, the chance of receiving an unbroken line is statistically
higher than that of receiving a broken line. See Xiang Chuansan, 1997,
67–​83, and Zhang Tuyun, 2006, 1–​6.
39. See Li Xueqin, ed., 2013, 111–​113.

Chapter 2

1. Ke Heli 2016.
2. “Jinyu, si” Guoyu SBBY 10.10a-​11a.
3. It is curious that Kan is defined as “labor” (lao), which is the Chu name
for the Kan trigram.
4. Although this ostensibly is referring to Zhen over Kun, it may also be
rationalizing why in an ABCD “four positions” determination, Kun would
be in the most intimate position (B) of the “inner” (lower) trigrams with
Zhen only in the auxiliary position (D). See Chapter 1 and Section 20.
5. Nielsen 2003, 185–​187.
6. Nielsen 2003, 57–​58.
7. Liao Mingchun 2003, 8–​13.

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Notes

Chapter 3

1. The term seems to be specific to stalk divination, possibly because in

a reading of its possible form as a series of 6’s. The Shuowen defines
yao as “cross-​over, depicted in the Yi as six yao crossed at the top” 交
也。象《易》六爻頭交也 (Shuowen jiezi gulin juan 3b, Vol. 3, 1323).
The word does not appear in transmitted texts with any other meaning.
In earlier paleographical texts, such as oracle bones or bronze inscrip-
tions, it appears as a name or as a phonetic loan (such as for jiao 較,
sideboards on an ancient chariot). Liu Zhen (2014) remarks that in
the Western Han period, stalk divination results were understood as
“numerical” (shu 數), whereas scapulimancy produced “images” (xiang
象). He claims that the Shifa seems to reflect both systems.
2. For a discussion of how this term refers to results of ancestral unhap-
piness with the behavior of descendants in the preimperial era, see
Cook 2016a.
3. Pankenier 2013, 47–​51.
4. After Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 82.
5. “Shuogua,” Zhouyi zhengyi, 1980, 94; Li Xueqin 2013, 75.
6. See Nielsen 2003, 57–​58, 65, 83, 315–​317.
7. Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 109.
8. Xu Fengxian 2010–​2011.
9. For an interpretation of this process as a conjugal meeting of mother
and father trigrams in a spring or generative trigram (elder sister, Xun)
to produce a baby boy (Gen), see Ke Heli, “Xun zhi sui” 2015b.
10. Laozi gujin, Vol. 1, 55: 564; Mozi jiangu 1: 21–​22. Note that in the
Fangmatan almanac, the gender of months and days is described with
pinmu; see Gansusheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo, 91.
11. In some fourth-​century bce bamboo texts, it is also read as bian 辨.
12. Nielsen 2003, 219–​220.
13. The Fangmatan Rishu does include divination regarding commercial
activity. See Gansu wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 2009, 87–​88.
14. Mengzi zhushu, 1980, 5a: 2703.
15. See the Zhouli “Xia guan Sima”夏官司馬 and the Shangshu “Zhou guan”
周官 and “Bi ming” 畢命. Zhouli zhushu 33 (1980): 863.
16. Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 119.
17. Ibid., 106 and 110.
18. C. A. Cook 2006.
19. Joseph Needham and Wang Ling 1959, 313, 322, 398–​399. Also see
Section 27.
20. Ke Heli 2016.

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Notes

21. The term cijun 次軍 is unknown in the received sources. The editor of
the Shifa speculates that it might indicate pianjun 偏軍, which means
the troops after the others. But there is no apparent link between these
two terms. When it comes to hierarchy and arrangement, ci referred to
“the second” or “middle,” as in xiongci 胸次 (in the middle the chest).
Therefore, we translated it as “adjunct” or “auxiliary.”
22. Ban Gu 1959, 74: 3139.
23. For the importance of the Ya-​shape in early Chinese cosmology, see
Allan 1991.
24. The link between Kan and Si Shu is likely a pun and indicates a play
with vocabulary suggestive of a writer attempting to join previously
disjoined concepts. Kan originally meant a “pit” or “to dig a pit.” It was
also the name of a Zhou sacrifice to the moon performed in the West
(according to the “Jiyi” 祭義 of the Liji). It was also likely a purposeful
Chu or southern twist on the Zhouyi or northern tradition in which Kan
as a hexagram was linked to water, especially that which wells up from
the earth at the bottom of a pit.
25. “Shuogua,” Zhouyi zhengyi, 1980, 94; Li Xueqin, ed. 2013, 123.
26. Nielsen 2003, 33, 294–​299.
27. C. A. Cook 2006; Ke Heli 2016.
28. “Ji Xia ji” 6, 56; “You shi” 有始, Lüshi chunqiu 13, 124–​125. Each of nine
directions is associated with a differently named Sky, each of which con-
trols different clusters of stars: Center is Juntian 鈞天; East, Cangtian
蒼天; Northeast, Biantian 變天; North, Xuantian 玄天; Northwest,
Yutian 幽天; West, Haotian 顥天; Southwest, Zhutian 朱天; South,
Yantian 炎天; Southeast, Yangtian 陽天.
29. See Cook and Luo 2017.
30. Gansusheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo, strips 179–​188, 96.
31. The Tsinghua team read the original as shi 食 for 蝕 “to eclipse,” which
was certainly the larger meaning. The original graph, however, was zai
烖 (minus the “fire” 火 semantic), which was not phonetically close
to shi. The word zai (also written 災) meant “calamity,” which is how
eclipses were interpreted.
32. These various names appear in Han texts, although the earliest refer-
ence to such a goat is in “Ming gui, xia” 明鬼, Mozi jiangu 31, 144. The
Shuowen defines it as a goat used to decide trials, Shuowen jiezi gulin,
juan 10a, Vol. 8: 517–​521. Han texts with mention of this animal
include Shiji, Hanshu, Hou Hanshu, Lunheng, and Du Duan.

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1

Notes

Appendix: Summary Content of Zhouyi and Wangjiatai (Guicang)

Hexagram Texts

1. The names for the hexagrams vary. See Wang Mingqin 2004, 33–​34;
Shaughnessy 2013, 172–​173.
2. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30. Shaughnessy 2013, 174–​175.
3. Erya, “Shi Tian” 《爾雅·釋天》 “When the moon is in the Xu position,
it is called ‘Whetstone’ ” 月在戌曰厲. Erya zhushu 6: 2608.
4. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 174. The Kun hexagram
appears before the Qian in the Guicang.
5. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 174.
6. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 174.
7. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 176.
8. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 176.
9. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 178.
10. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 176.
11. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 180.
12. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 180.
13. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 182.
14. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 178.
15. Wang Mingqin 2004, 30; Shaughnessy 2013, 177.
16. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 179–​180.
17. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 182.
18. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 181.
19. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 181–​182.
20. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 178.
21. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 180.
22. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 177.
23. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 177.
24. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 180–​181.
25. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 177.
26. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 180.
27. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 182.
28. Wang Mingqin 2004, 31; Shaughnessy 2013, 179.
29. Wang Mingqin 2004, 32; Shaughnessy 2013, 182.

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INDEX

abbreviated collation, 17, 27 84, 87–​88, 93–​94, 107–​108,

abdomen, 133, 156 110, 116, 120, 122, 124–​127,
accomplishment, 43, 57 130–​131, 156–​157, 164–​170,
action, 3, 10, 13, 15, 16, 47, 48, 50, 167, 173–​174
168, 169, 170 author(s) of Shifa, 31–​32, 44, 118, 135
affair, 111, 163, 174
great, 128–​130 Baoshan, 9–​10, 12–​14, 18, 27, 116, 121,
midlevel, 128–​130 138, 170
military, 37 bian 變. See change
minor, 50, 128–​130, 129, 130, 168 black, 132, 156
royal, 19 blame, 31, 57, 100, 132, 138,
state, 173 163, 166n28, 166n32,
affirmative result, 12, 74, 76, 78, 95, 167n38, 168n41, 168n46,
126. See also answer 170n61, 170n63
agency, 3–​5, 11 body, 11, 17, 45, 67, 101, 133, 156–​157,
number, 41, 144 167–​168
spiritual, 15, 27 brother, 50, 127. See also family
almanac, 4, 11, 13–​17, 28, 67, 116,
133, 138 calculated day (shu ri 數日), 100, 102,
Fangmatan, 140, 142, 178n10 150, 153
jianchu system, 23 calendar, 3, 5, 15
Shuihudi, 171n10 change (bian 變), 90–​91
answer chart, 11, 16–​17, 17, 30, 33, 39, 54, 55,
affirmative result, 31, 40, 42, 72, 74 56, 84, 113
to divination question, 27, 76 of four positions, 61, 63, 121
same, 23 of Heavenly Stems, 134
arrival (zhi 致), 92–​93 of seasonal correspondences, 122–​123
auspiciousness, 10, 13, 14, 18, 20–​21, cheng 成. See completion
25, 27, 31, 34, 48–​51, 72–​75, chou 瘳. See healing

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Index

chou 讎. See negotiation counterclockwise, 106, 129, 130

Chu left and right, 30, 78
manuscripts, 3–​4, 6–​14, 27, 54, 121, of reading, 9
132, 138–​139 reverse, 90
script, 26 spiritual, 27
the state of, 1–​2, 6, 18, 47, 90, 171n5 of trigram positions, 39
chun 純. See pure divination, ix–​xi, 5–​10, 172n8, 173n40,
client of divination, 43, 45, 47, 63, 175n69, 176n9, 177n38
120, 121 methods (see method of divination)
completion (cheng 成), 114–​115 result, 34, 39, 47
correlation, 11, 16, 17, 17–​18, 30, shifa method, 29–​48
31–​32, 67, 84, 87, 113, 140 shifa-​style, 47–​52
Heavenly Stems, 100 stalk, 18–​25
number and Earthly Branches, 42, diviner, 12–​18, 44–​45, 47–​50, 69
112, 142 drought, 103
number and seasons, 84
trigrams and directions, 30, Earthly Branches, 15, 31–​33, 156–​157
84–​85, 104 and numbers, 142
trigrams and Five Phases, 4, 39, and trigrams, 140
132–​133
trigrams and moon positions, 87 face, 133–​134, 137, 156–​157
trigrams and numbers, 134 family, 34, 39, 50, 156–​157
trigrams and seasons,15–16, 123–125 Fangmatan, 140–​142, 172n4, 173n33,
trigrams and social positions, 112 178n10, 178n13
trigrams and time, 11, 31, 93, father, 80, 136, 139, 176n21, 178n9.
100, 129 See also family
cosmology, 1, 24–​25, 26, 45, 46 Five Phases, 3–​5, 11, 17–​18, 132–​133
cosmos, 3, 34, 46 fuqi 夫妻. See husband and wife
agency, 15 fushu 覆數. See inversion
law, 4, 17, 43, 87, 101, 104, 116
power, 4, 7, 34 gender. See male and female
curse (sui 祟), 15–​16, 136–​139 gentleman, 3, 120, 165
ghost, 5, 100, 138
dang ri 當日. See matching day government, 15, 18, 37
Day Books, 11 corresponding to positions, 82,
de 得. See obtaining 110–​111
death, 31, 36, 42, 71–​74, 76 gua 卦, 7–​13, 30–​34
dice, 14, 175n66 cardinal, 11, 30, 92–​93, 104
diminishment (hui 毀), 100, 102, constructed through divination, 22
148, 168n41 corresponding to Earthly Stems, 142
directions, 3–​4, 10–​11, 39 corresponding to four seasons,
cardinal, 11, 30, 92–​93, 104, 151 122–​125
center, 4, 11, 138 corresponding to gender, 32
clockwise, 11, 97, 104, 106, 129, (see also male and female)
130–​132 corresponding to Heavenly Stems,
corresponding to trigrams, 11, 30–​31 134–​135

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Index

corresponding to human body, Kun, 11, 30–​36, 75–​88, 126–​127,

131–​133 156–​157
corresponding to “Shuogua,” 156–​157
hexagram, 8–​10, 20–​25, 48, 159–​170 lord, 49–​50, 110–​111, 117–​118
lines, 6–​12, 19–​21, 32–​43, 53, 82,
105, 114–​115, 118, 143–​144 majority
non-​cardinal, 93 as divinatory rule, 14, 30–​31,
as numbers, 25–​26 (see also numbers) 50–​51, 71, 74
opposite, 32–​36, 134 as natural law, 4
position ( see positions) male and female, 105, 156–​157,
qi, 34 176n21. See also husband and
Guizang, 8, 12–​14, 13, 24–​27, 159–​170 wife, 173n34
guo 果. See result corresponding to trigrams, 14–​17,
Guodian, 13, 171n10 31–​33, 79–​80, 94–​98
Guoyu, 47–​51, 175n69 manuscripts
of Chu, 2–​4
Han dynasty, 4, 9, 19, 34, 51, 123–​124 features of, 26–​28
head, 131, 133–​134, 143, 156–​157 library of, 2
healing (chou 瘳), 102 as manual, 1, 27, 85
Heaven, 3–​4, 33, 138. See also sky (tian) punctuation, 9–​10, 54
Heavenly Stems, 15, 31–​33, 156–​157 of Shifa, ix–​x, 53–​70
corresponding to trigrams, 134–​135 transcription, 28, 53–​54
hexagram. See gua translation, 53–​54
Huangdi, 4 marriage, 17, 94–​96, 164, 166
hui 毀. See diminishment matching (xiang jian 相見), 36, 75–​76,
husband and wife, 76, 166n28 96, 103
as trigram positions, 35–​36, 51, 77, matching day (dang ri 當日), 100,
80, 100 103–​104, 116, 148
Mawangdui, 24–​25, 175n63
I-​ching. See Zhouyi meeting (jian 見), 98–​99
illness, 15–​16, 71, 75, 102, Mencius (Mengzi), 111
164–​165, 168 method of divination, ix–​x, 14, 18–​19,
inauspiciousness, 18, 20–​21, 41–​42, 24–​25. See also divination
72–​74, 122, 156–​157. in Guoyu, 47–​48
See also auspiciousness in Shifa, 8, 41
inquiry, 20, 44, 74 stalk, 18
insanity, 137–​138 in Zhouyi, 12–​13, 22–​24
intended service (zhi shi 志事), 116–​118 minority rule, 32
interpretation moon. See also time
moral, 20–​21, 24–​26 lunar cycle, 40, 126–​127
rules of, 29–​46, 85 position of trigram, 43, 87–​88,
inversion (fushu 覆數), 80–​81, 148 126–​127
mother, 50, 80, 136, 139. See also family
jade, 13, 138, 143 musical pitch, 17, 140–​141
jian 見. See meeting
jianchu system, 23 negotiation (chou 讎), 96–​97

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numbers, 7–​18, 25–​26 row, 39–​40, 75

binary, 9–​10, 25, 81, 172n18 six vacancies (liu xu 六虛),
even, 9, 25, 32, 40 36–​37, 71–​72
extraordinary, 136–​137 upper register (hui), 97
in Guoyu, 48 of wife and husband, 77, 96–​97, 100,
images, 143–​144 150 (see also husband and wife)
inner and outer, 90–​91, 97, 106 zhaomu 昭穆
inverted, 81 (see shining-​and-​somber)
mathematical quality, 53 pure (chun 純), 32–​33, 35, 40, 86,
odd, 7, 9, 40, 71, 142 89, 108
reversed, 112–​113, 141–​142
in Zhouyi, 22–​23 qi 氣, 5, 20, 34, 123–​124, 166, 171n10
Qian, 11, 31–​36, 82, 86–​88, 107
obtaining (de 得), 42, 50, 77–​81,
83–​84, 109 rain, 103–​104
offering (xiang 享), 86–​87 randomness, 22–​23, 113
overcoming (sheng 勝), 4, 43, 112 result (guo 果), 128–​130
ritual, 22, 47, 136–​139
politics, 47, 111, 117–​118 room, 39, 136–​138
positions, 1, 29 ruler. See lord
ABC, 87
ABCD, 53–​54, 82, 93, 177 sacrifice, 8–​10, 40, 136–​138.
accompany (tong 同), 77, 144, 151 See also offering
adjacency, 35, 36, 40, 65, 76 scapulimancy, 18–​19, 173n40
basic layout of, 29 Shang dynasty, 8, 15–​16, 170
corner, 54, 108 sheng 勝. See overcoming
correspondences to social shining-​and-​somber (zhaomu 昭穆), 36,
positions, 15 99–​100, 127–​128
diagonal, 48, 51, 76, 78, 92 Shuanggudui, 24–​26
direction, 92, 152 Shuihudi, 171n10, 173n33
of extraordinary numbers, 3, 16, “Shuogua,” 11, 34, 85, 127, 155–​157
40–​43, 48–​50, 74, 83–​84, shu ri 數日. See calculated day
136–​138, 143, 147 sister, 127, 137. See also family
Five Phases, 103 sky (tian 天), 3, 137–​138, 143. See
fixed, 38–​40 also Heaven
of four (siwei 四位), 15, 27, 82 sortilege, 18, 22, 113, 145, 174n52
gathering, 35, 43, 86–​87 spirit, 4–​5, 15–​18, 100, 166
inner (nei 内), 41, 149 Suanbiao, 6–​7
of inverted numbers, 80 sui 祟. See curse
juxtaposed, 35, 76, 149, 150–​152
of majority, 31, 51, 71, 86–​87, 95, 151 thunder, 11, 17, 49, 132–​133, 156–​157
opposite, 76–​77, 149 time, 3, 11, 15–​16, 22, 31–​34
outer (wai 外), 41, 151 astral periods, 15, 116, 140, 147
paired, 76, 86, 116, 163 beginning-​of-​the-​month (yue zhao
of parallel lines, 72 月朝), 35, 40, 43, 86–​88, 108,
relative, 34–​39 126–​127

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day, 15–​16, 23, 31, 92–​93, 100, Way, 3–​4, 138–​139

102, 104, 116, 126, 128–​129, weather, 39, 103
133–​134, 148, 150, 153, 163 wood, 4–​5, 39, 103–​104
end-​of-​the-​month (yue xi 月夕), 86–​88, Five Phases, 4–​6, 11, 39, 49–​50,
107–​108, 126 141, 143
hour, 140
leap-​year, 22 Xia Hou Qi, 163, 165–​168
lunar cycle, 35 xiang 享. See offering
month, 22–​23, 35, 40, 86–​87, xiang jian 相見. See matching
126–​127, 128–​129 “Xici” commentary, 22, 24, 41
seasons, 3–​4, 83–​85, 122–​125 xing 行. See travel
year, 22, 128–​130 xu 虛. See vacancy
travel (xing 行), 3, 20–​21, 106
trigram. See gua Yin and Yang, 17–​19, 34
Tsinghua team, 5–​6, 27–​28, 67 correspondence to lines, 22–​23, 54,
79–​82, 99
vacancy (xu 虛), 36–​37, 71–​72 corresponding to numbers, 7–​9, 144
qi, 123–​124
Wangjiatai. See Guizang
war, 44–​45, 112–​113, 117–​118 zhi 致. See arrival
Warring States period, 2, 4, 15 zhi shi 志事. See intended service
water, 103–​104 Zhou, 2–​5, 8
Five Phases, 4–​6, 11, 39, 49–​50, Zhouyi, ix–​x, 1, 8–​12, 20, 22–​26,
141, 143 33–​34, 49–​54

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