MCA-20-14

Data Communication and Computer

Networks

IEEE LAN STANDARDS & WIRELESS NETWORKS

Dr. SHUCHITA UPADHYAYA BHASIN

Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
 CONTENTS
IEEE LAN standards: Introduction to Wireless
 Ethernet LAN: Networks:
• Physical specifications • IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
• Encoding • Wi-Max
• Frame Format
• Bluetooth
• MAC protocol
• Fast Ethernet
• Wireless PAN technologies
• Gigabit Ethernet
& their applications
• Binary Exponential Backoff  Cellular Networks:
algorithm • Generations
Token Ring • GSM & CDMA Technologies
FDDI

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 IEEE LAN standards
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) publishes several widely
accepted LAN recommended standards
The IEEE LAN committees are organized as follows.
• IEEE 802.1: High Level interface (and medium access control, bridges)
• IEEE 802.2: Logical link control (LLC)
• IEEE 802.3: Ethernet
• IEEE 802.4: Token bus
• IEEE 802.5: Token ring
• IEEE 802.6: Metropolitan area networks - DQDB
• IEEE 802.7: Broad band LANS
• IEEE 802.8: Fiber optic LANS
• IEEE 802.9: Integrated data and voice networks
• IEEE 802.10: Security
• IEEE 802.11: Wireless networks

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 ETHERNET LAN • Ethernet Speeds: Common speeds include 10/100/1000/10,000 Mbps.
• Ethernet Evolution: Ethernet has evolved from classic Ethernet to Fast
Physical specifications Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and beyond.
• Ethernet Switches: Switches have largely replaced hubs, improving LAN
• Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking performance.
technologies for local area networks(LANs). • Ethernet Cabling: Different Ethernet standards use various cable types
• It has been in use from around 1980 to the present, largely (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6) for different speeds and distances.
replacing competing LAN standards such as Token Ring, FDDI, and
ARCNET.
• 802.3 defines two categories: baseband and broadband.
• The word ‘base’ specifies a digital signal (in this case, Manchester
encoding).
• The word ‘broad’ specifies an analog signal (in this case, PSK
encoding).
• IEEE divides the baseband categories into five different standards:
• 10BASE5, 10BASE2, 10BASE-T, 1BASE5 and 100BASE-T.
• The first number (10, 1, or 100) indicates the data rate in Mbps.
• The last number or letter (5, 2, 1, or T) indicates maximum cable
length or the type of cable.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 ETHERNET - Addressing
Electrical Specification: ENCODING
• Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation,
or printer) has its own network interface card (NIC). Ethernet frames are transmitted
• The NIC usually fits inside the station and provides the station using Manchester Encoding
with a six-byte physical address.
Manchester Encoding
• The number on the NIC is unique.
Ethernet Address in
Hexadecimal Notation

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 ETHERNET - FRAME FORMAT

Start-of-Frame- Destination Source Payload (Data and Frame Check Sequence Interframe
Preamble Length
Delimiter address address padding) CRC32 gap

7 octets of 10101010 1 octet of 10101011 6 octets 6 octets 2 octets 46–1500 octets 4 octets 12 octets

 Preamble: A seven-byte sequence of alternating 0s and 1s for alerting and timing synchronization.
 Start Frame Delimiter (SD): A one-byte pattern indicating the frame's beginning.
 Destination Address (DA): Six bytes containing the physical address of the next destination, with a bit to
distinguish local from global addresses.
 Source Address (SA): Six bytes containing the physical address of the last device to forward the packet.
 Length/Type of PDU: Two bytes indicating the length of the Packet Data Unit (PDU) or type of protocol.
 Data (PDU): Contains the actual data, with pad bits added if the frame is small, with a minimum frame size
requirement of 64 bytes.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): The last field with a 32-bit CRC hash for error detection, covering address,
length, data, and pad fields.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 MAC protocol : Access Method: CSMA/CD
• The IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet collision handling employs a
• CSMA/CD: Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense truncated binary exponential backoff algorithm for retransmission
Multiple Access with Collision Detection) protocol for attempts after collisions, which works as follows:
channel access.
• Carrier Sense: Devices listen to the network to check if it's  If a frame is about to undergo its first retransmission attempt, the
idle before transmitting. retransmission time is chosen from 0 to 1(0, 1) minislot times.
• Multiple Access: Multiple devices share the same  For the second retransmission attempt, the range expands to 0 to 3
communication medium. minislot (0, 1, 2, or 3) times.
• Collision Detection: Devices detect collisions if they occur  Each subsequent retransmission attempt doubles the range (extends
during transmission. the range by a factor of 2) until it reaches a maximum of 0 to 1023
• Binary Exponential Backoff: After a collision, devices (210) minislot times (2^10 or 2^k, where k = min(n,10)).
use an exponential backoff algorithm to retransmit,  The increased retransmission range after each collision is intended to
increasing the chances of successful transmission. increase the likelihood that retransmissions will succeed.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 10BASE2: Thin Ethernet
General Ethernet Features 10BASE-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
 There are a number of
adaptations to the IEEE 802.3
Ethernet standard, including
adaptations with data rates of
10 Mbits/sec; 100 Mbits/sec
(Fast Ethernet); 1,000
Mbits/sec (Gigabit Ethernet);
and, most recently, 10
Gigabit/sec Ethernet.
 The original forms of Ethernet
used coaxial cable, but today 10BASE5: Thick Ethernet
most Ethernet networks are
connected with Category 5
twisted-pair cable.
 Gigabit Ethernet and 10
Gigabit Ethernet run on fiber
optic cables and are being
deployed in metropolitan area
networks as "metro
Ethernets."

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT 10BaseF
Medium Thick coaxial cable Thin coaxial Twisted pair Optical fiber 2
cable 2 UTP Fiber
Maximum segment length 500 m 200 m 100 m 2 km

Topology Bus Bus Star Point-to-point

link
Line encoding Manchester Manchester Manchester Manchester

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

SWITCHED ETHERNET
Fast Ethernet implementations & topology

FAST ETHERNET

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

GIGABIT ETHERNET

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 BINARY EXPONENTIAL BACKOFF ALGORITHM
• Binary exponential backoff refers to an algorithm used
to space out repeated retransmissions of the same
block of data.
• The retransmission of frames in carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection(CSMA/CD) networks is
done using Binary exponential backoff algorithm.
• This algorithm is part of the channel access method
used to send data on these networks.
• After ‘i’ collisions, a random number of slot times
between 0 and 2i - 1 is chosen.
• For the first collision, each sender will wait 0 or 1 (0 to
 After a certain number of increases,
21 – 1) slot times. the exponentiation stops; i.e. the
• After the second collision, the senders will wait retransmission timeout reaches a
anywhere from 0 to 3 (0 to 22 – 1) slot times .
• After the third collision, the senders will wait
ceiling, and thereafter does not
anywhere from 0 to 7 (0 to 23 – 1) slot times , and so increase any further.
forth.
 For example, if the ceiling is set at i =
• As the number of retransmission attempts increases,
the number of possibilities for delay increases 10 (as it is in the IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD
exponentially. standard), then the maximum delay is
1023 slot times.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 The maximum range from which
The Backoff Algorithm is executed when the random numbers are selected is:
a node have (already) [0……210-1] = [0….1023]
detected a collision !!!!

Re-schedule the transmissions of

the collided nodes so that:
the likelihood
(chance) of subsequent collisions is
minimized.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 802.5 : TOKEN RING
 Token Ring is a computer networking technology used to build Local Area
Networks.
 It uses a special three-byte frame called a token that travels around a
logical ring of workstations or servers.
 This token passing is a channel access method providing fair access for all
stations and eliminating the collisions of contention-based access methods.
Ring networks have been used for both local and wide area networks.
• Point-to-point links can run on twisted pair, coaxial cables, or
optical fibers.
Media Access Control
 Stations take turns sending data. Each station may transmit only during its
turn and may send only one frame during each turn.
 The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called token passing. A token
is a simple placeholder frame that is passed from station to station around
the ring.
 A station may send data only when it has possession of the token. A station
wishing to transmit must wait until it detects a token passing by. It then
seizes the token by changing one bit in the token, which transforms it from a
token into a start-of-frame sequence for a data frame. The station then
appends and transmits the remainder of the fields needed to construct a
data frame.
Encoding
 Token ring uses Differential Manchester encoding

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 One problem with a ring network is that if the
cable breaks somewhere, the ring dies.
 This problem can be solved by the use of a
wire center.
 While logically still a ring, physically each
station is connected to the wire center by a
cable containing (at least) two twisted pairs,
one for data to the station and one for data
from the station.
 Inside the wire center are bypass relays that
are energized by current from the stations
 If the ring breaks or a station goes down, loss
of the drive current will release the relay and
bypass the station.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

TOKEN PASSING IN TOKEN RING LAN

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 TOKEN RING FRAME

Control field Name Meaning

Duplicate address test Test if two stations have the same address
00000000
Beacon Used to locate breaks in the ring
00000010
Claim token Attempt to become monitor
00000011
Purge Reinitialize the ring
00000100
Active monitor present Issued periodically by the monitor
00000101
Standby monitor Announces the presence of potential
00000110 present monitors

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
 Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) is a local area network
protocol standardized by ANSI and the ITU-U (ITU-T X.3).
 It supports data rates of 100Mbps and provides a high-speed
alternative to Ethernet and token ring.
 With its high bandwidth, a common use of FDDI is as a backbone
to connect copper LANs.
 FDDI uses multimode fibers because the additional expense of
single mode fibers is not needed for networks running at only
100 Mbps.
 It also uses LEDs rather than lasers, not only due to their lower
cost, but also because FDDI may sometimes be used to connect
directly to user workstations. There is a danger that curious users
may occasionally unplug the fiber connector and look directly
into it to watch the bits go by at 100 Mbps. Lasers can be
hazardous to the eyes of such users.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 The physical layer does not use Manchester encoding because
100-Mbps Manchester encoding requires 200 megabaud, which
was deemed too expensive.
 Instead, FDDI uses a special encoding mechanism called
four/five bits (4B/5B). In this system, each four-bit segment of
data is replaced by five-bit code being encoded in NRZ-I.
 The advantage of this scheme is that it saves bandwidth, but the
disadvantage is the loss of the self-clocking property of
Manchester encoding.
 To compensate for this loss, a long preamble is used to
synchronize the receiver to the sender’s clock. The NRZ-I inverts
here on the 1.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Introduction to Wireless Networks
Types of Wireless Networks
 Wireless Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks
(MAN)
 Wireless Personal Area Networks (PAN)
 Wireless Wide Area Networks (WAN)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS LANs IEEE 802.11
Standard Max Speed Typical Range

Wireless LAN Standards 802.11a 54 Mbps 150 feet

Wireless LAN standards that 802.11b 11 Mbps 300 feet

are currently being explored in 802.11g 54 Mbps 300 feet

the field of communications

technology are: Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs):
1. IEEE 802.11.  WLANs provide internet access within a limited area like a
building floor, homes, offices, and now increasingly in stores
a. 802.11a and restaurants.
b. 802.11b  Typically, a modem connects to cable or fiber from a service
c. 802.11g provider, and a wireless router broadcasts the signal using
protocols like the 802.11 standard.
2. HiperLAN/2.
 In offices, access points are often mounted on ceilings,
3. HomeRF. broadcasting signals to the surrounding area, and larger offices
require multiple access points connected to the office's
backbone network via wired connections to switches.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred to as
stations.
 Wireless stations fall into one of two categories: access points, and clients.
Access points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless network. They
transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled devices to communicate with.
Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants, IP
phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and workstations that are equipped with a wireless
network interface.
The main component of an 802.11 wireless network is the radio card, which is referred to
by the 802.11 standard as a station (STA).
 The radio card can reside inside an access point or be used as a client station. Thus we refer
to access points and clients as stations.
The 802.11 standard defines three separate 802.11 topologies, known as service sets, which
describe how these radio cards may be used to communicate with each other.
 Basic service set (BSS),
 Extended service set (ESS), and
 Independent basic service set (IBSS).
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Basic Service Set
Infrastructure BSS:
• A BSS with an Access Point is referred to as an
There are two types of BSS: Infrastructure Network
 Independent BSS (also referred to as IBSS or • An infrastructure can communicate with other
ad-hoc network) stations not in the same basic service set by
communicating through access points.
 Infrastructure BSS.

Independent BSS:
Desktop Printer

Existing LAN...

An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad-hoc Access Point

network or architecture that contains no Server

access points, which means it can not connect Desktop

Infrastructure Mode
to any other basic service set. Network

Tablet

Laptop

Desktop

AD HOC Network

Tablet

Laptop

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 WIRELESS LANs : Wi-Fi

Desktop Ad-hoc Mode

AD HOC Network

Tablet

Laptop

Ad hoc Wi-Fi Hotspot

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
WIRELESS LANs : Wi-Fi
Infrastructure Mode Campus Wi-Fi Network

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Extended Service Set
Extended service set
•To expand a wireless network, multiple APs are used and connected to the wired network.
•These APs collaborate to create a seamless wireless network that covers a larger area, such as an entire floor or building.
•Users only see a single SSID (network name), so they are unaware of the multiple APs in use.
•Each AP has a different BSSID (Basic Service Set Identifier), allowing wireless clients to connect to different APs
transparently.
•This configuration is referred to as an Extended Service Set (ESS) when using multiple APs.
•An extended service set (ESS) is a set of connected BSSes. Access points in an ESS are connected by a distribution system
which is usually a wired LAN. ESS uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology is a wireless communication standard
that enables short-range data transmission between devices.

• Wireless Connectivity: Bluetooth is a wireless technology that

enables any electrical device to wirelessly communicate in the
2.5 GHz ISM (license free) frequency band typically within a
range of about 30 feet (10 meters).
• Range: It has been specifically designed as a low cost, low
power, radio technology, which is particularly suited to the
short-range Personal Area Network (PAN) application
 Low Energy: Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is a power-efficient
version of Bluetooth, making it ideal for devices like fitness
trackers and IoT devices, as it consumes minimal energy.
 Pairing: Devices establish a connection by pairing, usually
requiring user confirmation. After pairing, devices can connect
automatically when in range.
 Data Transfer: Bluetooth facilitates data transfer, such as files,
audio, and even internet connectivity (tethering) between
devices like smartphones, headphones, and laptops.
 Mesh Networking: Bluetooth Mesh enables devices to form
self-healing networks, making it suitable for applications like
smart lighting and home automation.
 Security: Bluetooth employs encryption and authentication
mechanisms to secure data transmission between devices.
 Compatibility: Most modern devices, including smartphones,
laptops, and IoT gadgets, support Bluetooth, making it a
ubiquitous technology for wireless connectivity.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 Bluetooth Architecture
• The Bluetooth technology provides both a point-to-point
connection and a point-to-multipoint connection.
• In point-to-multipoint connections, the channel is shared
among several Bluetooth units.
• In point-to-point connections, only two units share the
connection.
 Bluetooth Piconet: Bluetooth protocols assume that a
small number of units will participate in communications
at any given time. These small groups are called
piconets, and they consist of one master unit and up to
seven active slave units. The master is the unit that
initiates transmissions, and the slaves are the
responding units.
 Scatternet: scatternet is a network of interconnected
piconets for communication between devices in
different piconets. A device in one piconet may also exist
as part of another piconet and may function as either a
slave or master in each piconet.
 Number of Devices: A piconet allows up to seven active
slave devices connected to a single master, totaling eight
devices in a piconet.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 WIRELESS NETWORKS AND WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

• Wireless Personnel Area • Wireless Local Area Networks

Networks (WPAN) (WLAN)
-Zigbee (802.15.4) - Wi-Fi (802.11)
- HIPERLAN
- Bluetooth (802.15.1)
- HomeRF
- UWB
- IrDA • Wireless Metropolitan Area
- Wireless USB Networks (WMAN)
- RFID - WiMax
- Wibree
• Wireless Wide Area
- ONE-NET Networks(WWAN)
- NFC - Digital Cellular Radio

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 ZigBee Applications
1. Home Automation: Zigbee is widely used in smart home devices 9. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs): Zigbee is commonly
like smart lights, thermostats, locks, and sensors, enabling users to used in WSNs for collecting data in applications like wildlife
control and automate various household functions. tracking, environmental research, and structural health
2. Industrial Automation: Zigbee is employed in industrial settings for monitoring.
10.Security Systems: Zigbee-based security devices such as
tasks such as equipment monitoring, process control, and data
door/window sensors and cameras provide reliable monitoring
collection due to its reliability and low power consumption. and alerts for homes and businesses.
3. Healthcare Monitoring: Zigbee-based sensors are used for remote 11.Building Automation: Zigbee plays a vital role in building
patient monitoring, tracking vital signs, and sending healthcare data automation systems, controlling HVAC, access control, and
to medical professionals. surveillance.
12.Smart Metering: Zigbee-enabled smart meters allow utility
4. Asset Tracking: Zigbee's low-power capabilities make it suitable for companies and consumers to monitor and manage electricity,
tracking assets and inventory in warehouses and logistics operations. gas, and water consumption efficiently.
5. Smart Agriculture: Zigbee helps monitor soil conditions, weather 13.Agricultural Monitoring: Zigbee sensors assist in monitoring
data, and automate irrigation systems in agriculture, improving crop soil moisture, temperature, and crop conditions in precision
agriculture, optimizing resource usage.
yields and resource efficiency. 14.Consumer Electronics: Zigbee is used in remote controls,
6. Energy Management: Zigbee is used in energy management systems home entertainment systems, and wireless speakers for seamless
to monitor and control electricity usage, optimizing energy efficiency device connectivity.
in buildings. 15.Lighting in Commercial Buildings: Zigbee-based lighting
7. Lighting Control: Zigbee is employed in smart lighting systems for systems are used in commercial spaces like offices and
warehouses for energy-efficient illumination and automation.
adjusting light intensity, color, and scheduling, saving energy and 16.Horticulture: Zigbee technology is applied to manage
enhancing user comfort. environmental conditions in greenhouses, ensuring optimal
8. Environmental Monitoring: Zigbee sensors are used to monitor plant growth.
environmental parameters like temperature, humidity, and air quality
in various applications, including smart cities.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 ZigBee
Low cost, low power, short range, low data rate Zigbee Device Types:
 Coordinator:
 Wireless Communication Protocol:
• Initiates and manages the network.
Zigbee is a wireless communication
• Cannot sleep and must be powered on
protocol designed for low-power, short-
range applications. continuously.
• Buffers data for sleeping end devices.
 Mesh Networking: It utilizes mesh
networking, where devices can relay data  Router:

through other devices, extending the • Acts as a messenger for distant devices.

network's range and robustness. • Cannot sleep and must be continuously

 Low Power: Zigbee devices are energy- powered.

efficient and suitable for battery-operated • Can buffer data for sleeping end
applications. devices.
 Home Automation: Commonly used in  End Device:
smart home devices, such as smart lights, • Reduced version of a router.
thermostats, and door sensors. • Cannot act as a messenger.
Industrial IoT: Also applied in industrial
• Can enter sleep mode intermittently to

settings for monitoring and controlling
save energy.
equipment and sensors.
• Always needs a router or coordinator as
 Low Data Rate: Suited for applications
with low data rate requirements. its parent device.
 Network Composition:
 Interoperability: Zigbee Alliance ensures
device interoperability and • Zigbee networks can have one

standardization. coordinator, multiple end devices, and

zero or more routers.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Overview:
UWB – ULTRA WIDE BAND  UWB is a wireless communication technology known for its exceptionally wide
bandwidth.
 Utilizes very short, low-power pulses or waveforms for data transmission.
Extreme Bandwidth:
 Offers extremely wide frequency bands, typically spanning from 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz.
 This broad spectrum enables high data rates and precise location tracking.
Low Power and Short Pulses:
 UWB devices transmit data using ultra-short pulses, typically less than one nanosecond.
 These short pulses require very little energy, contributing to energy-efficient operation.
High Data Rates:
 UWB technology can achieve very high data rates, often exceeding several gigabits per
second.
 Suitable for applications requiring fast data transfer, like multimedia streaming.
Precision Location Tracking:
 UWB's ability to accurately measure the time it takes for signals to travel between devices
allows for precise location tracking.
 Used in applications like indoor positioning and asset tracking.
Low Interference:
 UWB's wideband nature and low transmit power contribute to minimal interference with
other wireless technologies.
 Coexists peacefully with other wireless systems.
Penetrating through obstacles
 Ultra-Wideband (UWB) technology is employed to penetrate obstacles, allowing it to excel in
applications like ground-penetrating radar.
 It enables the detection of objects or structures hidden behind barriers, making it particularly
useful for through-wall imaging.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 UWB – ULTRA WIDE BAND : Applications
• Indoor Positioning and Tracking: UWB enables precise location tracking and indoor
positioning, making it valuable for applications like asset tracking, personnel monitoring, and
location-based services.
• Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs): UWB can be used for short-range, high-data-rate
WPANs, allowing devices to connect and communicate rapidly over short distances.
• IoT Connectivity: UWB provides reliable and high-bandwidth connectivity for Internet of
Things (IoT) devices, enhancing their data transfer capabilities and enabling efficient
communication among IoT sensors and devices.
• Radar Systems: UWB radar systems benefit from the technology's wide bandwidth, offering
applications in automotive radar (e.g., collision avoidance), ground-penetrating radar, and ultra-
precise object detection.
• Consumer Electronics: UWB is used in consumer gadgets like smartphones and smartwatches
for secure and quick file sharing, location sharing, and connectivity to other devices.
• Healthcare: UWB technology can enable accurate tracking of medical equipment and patients
within healthcare facilities, enhancing patient care and asset management.
• Automotive: In addition to collision avoidance, UWB is used for keyless entry systems, vehicle
tracking, and improving the accuracy of GPS systems.
• Security and Access Control: UWB-based access control systems enhance security by
providing highly secure and precise methods for controlling access to buildings and secure
areas.
• Robotics: UWB enables precise localization and mapping for robots and autonomous systems,
improving their navigation and obstacle avoidance capabilities.
• Wireless Charging: UWB technology can enhance wireless charging systems by facilitating
more efficient power transfer and reducing interference.
• Search and Rescue: Find victims trapped in collapsed structures Future of UWB
• Construction: Detect electrical wires, pipes, concealed structures in walls, concrete, and soil
• SWAT Team: Detect people and motion behind closed doors, and determine who is armed and
who is a hostage
• Military: Detect buried mines and hidden threats

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 IrDA – Infrared Data Association- Requires line of sight Applications
• Wireless File Transfer: IrDA allows devices like laptops, PDAs, and smartphones to
1. Infrared Communication: IrDA relies on infrared technology to establish wireless
transfer files and data wirelessly by simply pointing them at each other.
connections between devices. It uses infrared light to transmit data, making it a line-of- • Remote Control: IrDA is commonly used in remote controls for TVs, home theater
sight communication method. systems, and other consumer electronics, enabling users to control devices from a
distance.
2. Short-Range: IrDA is designed for short-range communication, typically within a few • Printing: IrDA facilitates wireless printing between devices like laptops and printers,
meters. It is ideal for applications where devices need to communicate in close eliminating the need for physical cable connections.
proximity. • Healthcare Devices: IrDA enables medical devices like blood pressure monitors and
thermometers to transmit data to computers or mobile apps for tracking and analysis.
3. Point-to-Point: IrDA connections are typically point-to-point, meaning data is • Mobile Payments: In some applications, IrDA has been used for mobile payments,
transmitted directly between two devices. This makes it suitable for tasks like printing allowing smartphones to communicate with point-of-sale terminals.
from a laptop to a printer. • Data Exchange in Public Transport: Some public transportation systems use IrDA
for ticketing and data exchange between fare cards and readers.
4. Low Power: IrDA is known for its low power consumption, making it suitable for • Data Capture: IrDA scanners are employed for data capture in inventory management,
battery-operated devices like remote controls and medical instruments. retail, and logistics.
• Digital Cameras: IrDA can be used to transfer photos and videos from digital cameras
5. Security: Infrared communication is generally considered secure because it requires a
to computers or other devices.
direct line of sight between devices. This reduces the risk of data interception • Bluetooth Pairing: In some cases, IrDA is used for initial Bluetooth pairing between
compared to radio-based technologies. devices to establish a wireless connection.
• Laptop Connectivity: IrDA was historically used for wireless connectivity between
6. High Data Rates: IrDA supports relatively high data transfer rates, which vary laptops and peripherals like mice and keyboards.
depending on the IrDA standard used. This makes it suitable for tasks like wireless • Automotive Applications: IrDA has been used for in-car communication systems,
printing and data synchronization. such as transmitting data between smartphones and vehicle infotainment systems.
7. Declining Popularity: While IrDA was once a common wireless technology, its
popularity has declined with the emergence of faster and more versatile wireless
standards like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
8. Line-of-Sight Requirement: One limitation of IrDA is its reliance on a clear line of
sight between transmitting and receiving devices. Obstacles can disrupt
communication.
9. Single-Device Communication: IrDA connections are typically established between
two devices at a time, which can be a limitation in applications requiring
communication with multiple devices simultaneously.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Wireless USB: High-bandwidth, short range wireless radio communication
Wireless USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a technology that enables wireless communication
between devices and USB peripherals.
Wireless Connectivity: Wireless USB eliminates the need for physical USB cables, allowing
devices to connect wirelessly.
Ultra-Wideband (UWB): It often uses Ultra-Wideband technology for high-speed data
transmission.
Short to Medium Range: Wireless USB typically operates within a short to medium range,
suitable for connecting devices in the same room.
High Data Transfer Rates: It supports high data transfer rates, making it suitable for tasks
like wireless file transfers and peripheral connections.
Peripheral Compatibility: Wireless USB is designed to work with a wide range of USB
peripherals, including printers, external hard drives, and keyboards.
Plug-and-Play: Like traditional USB, it supports plug-and-play functionality, allowing
devices to be easily connected and used.
Multiple Devices: It can support connections to multiple USB devices, allowing several
peripherals to be used simultaneously.
Interference: Wireless USB operates in the crowded 2.4 GHz band, which can lead to
interference from other wireless devices like Wi-Fi networks and Bluetooth.
Line-of-Sight: Some wireless USB implementations require a clear line of sight between the
transmitter and receiver.
Adoption: Its adoption has been limited compared to other wireless technologies like
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 RFID - Radio Frequency Identifier
1.Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is a wireless communication method used for
tracking and identifying objects. Here are its key points:
2.Identification Tags: RFID systems consist of tags or labels attached to objects, containing a
unique identification number or data.
3.Wireless Communication: RFID uses radio waves for communication between tags and readers.
4.Frequency Bands: RFID operates in various frequency bands, including low-frequency (LF), high-
frequency (HF), and ultra-high-frequency (UHF).
5.Passive and Active Tags: RFID tags can be passive (powered by the reader's signal) or active
(with their own power source).
6.Reading Range: The reading range varies depending on the RFID type, from a few centimeters
to several meters.
7.Speed and Efficiency: RFID allows for fast and automated data capture, making it efficient for
tracking and monitoring large numbers of items.
8.Data Storage: RFID tags can store different amounts of data, from a simple ID number to more
complex information.
9.Security: Security features can be implemented in RFID systems, such as encryption and access
control.
10.Privacy Concerns: RFID technology has raised privacy concerns due to the potential for
tracking individuals or objects without their knowledge or consent.
11.Integration: RFID systems can be integrated with other technologies like sensors and GPS for
enhanced functionality. By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
RFID is used in various
applications, including:
Inventory management
Access control
Asset tracking
Supply chain management
Contactless payments
Logistics
Library Systems

E-Toll Collection

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

RFID Tags

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 NFC – Near Field Communication : Short range (20 cm or closer) wireless connectivity technology
 Near Field Communication (NFC) is a wireless communication technology that enables short-range
communication between devices, particularly aimed at mobile phones.
 Short-Range Communication: NFC allows devices to communicate with each other when they are in
proximity, typically within a range of a few centimeters or inches.
 Contactless Data Transfer: NFC enables the exchange of data between devices by simply bringing them
close together. No physical contact or pairing process is required.
 Two Modes: NFC operates in two modes—active and passive. In active mode, both devices generate an Share your
NFC field to communicate. In passive mode, one device generates the field, and the other device personal details by
responds. using an NFC tag
Unlock your car
 Familiar Technology: NFC technology is based on radio-frequency identification (RFID) and is widely used
in contactless payment systems, access control, and public transportation cards.
 Common Use Cases: NFC is employed in various applications, including mobile payments (e.g., Apple Pay
and Google Pay), contactless ticketing (e.g., public transportation and events), and data transfer between
smartphones.
 Security: NFC transactions often incorporate encryption and security protocols to protect sensitive data,
making it a secure method for payments and access control.
 Smartphones and Wearables: Many modern smartphones and wearable devices are equipped with NFC
technology, allowing users to make payments, share files, and interact with NFC-enabled objects.
 Tags and Stickers: NFC tags and stickers can be attached to objects, posters, or signage. When a
compatible device is brought near, it can read the tag to access information or trigger actions.
 Peer-to-Peer Connectivity: NFC enables devices to establish peer-to-peer connections for tasks like file
sharing, contact exchange, and multiplayer gaming.
 Integration with IoT: NFC is integrated into the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, allowing users to
interact with and configure smart devices by tapping their smartphones.
 Ease of Use: NFC technology is user-friendly and requires minimal user interaction. Users can initiate
actions by simply tapping or bringing their devices close together.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 Wibree
Ultra-low power consumption.
Small size, lightweight design.

Wibree technology, developed by Nokia, is designed for low-

power wireless communication, making it ideal for connecting 4. Complementary to Bluetooth: Wibree was designed to
small devices such as wearables, sensors, and accessories, complement Bluetooth technology, offering an energy-efficient
providing efficient short-range connectivity and conserving alternative for applications that require lower data rates and
battery life. power consumption.
5. No Interference: It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, similar to
1. Low-Power Wireless: Wibree is a wireless communication Bluetooth, but with mechanisms to prevent interference
technology developed by Nokia that focuses on low-power between the two technologies when used together.
consumption, extending the battery life of connected devices. 6. Application Areas: Wibree finds applications in various fields,
2. Short-Range Connectivity: It provides short-range wireless including healthcare (wearable health monitors), sports and
connectivity, typically within a few meters, making it suitable for fitness (smart sports equipment), and home automation (smart
connecting devices in proximity. sensors and controls).
3. Small Device Integration: Wibree is designed for small devices 7. Energy Efficiency: Its primary advantage is its energy efficiency,
like wearables, sensors, and accessories, allowing them to making it a suitable choice for devices that need to operate for
communicate efficiently without draining their batteries quickly. extended periods on small batteries.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 ONE-NET
• low-cost, low-power (battery-operated) wireless standard
• home automation, security & monitoring, device control, and sensor networks.

1.Unified Wireless Standard: One-Net is a wireless technology standard developed

to unify various wireless protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee into a single,
cohesive system.
2.Interoperability: It aims to enable seamless interoperability between different
wireless devices and networks, allowing them to communicate with each other
effortlessly.
3.IoT Integration: The technology is well-suited for the Internet of Things (IoT) by
providing a unified platform for diverse IoT devices to connect and share data.
4.Energy Efficiency: It focuses on energy-efficient communication, extending the
battery life of devices and reducing the need for frequent recharging or battery
replacements.
5.Application Range: One-Net's versatility allows it to be applied in various domains,
including smart homes, healthcare, industrial automation, and smart cities.
6.Standardization: The development of a unified wireless standard like One-Net is
crucial for streamlining wireless communication and promoting the growth of
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin interconnected devices and systems.
 WiMAX - Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access: Metropolitan Area Network Technology
Technology for wirelessly delivering high-speed Internet service to large geographical areas
“Fourth generation” 4G
• Surpasses the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN), offering a metropolitan
area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles).
• Enables the delivery of wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".

Feb 2010: KOCHI: BSNL commercially

launched the country's first mobile
broadband fourth generation Internet
access network--Mobile WiMAX in Kerala.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 WiMAX
1.Backhaul Connectivity: WiMAX is often used as a backhaul
1.WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave technology to connect remote or underserved areas to the internet
Access) is a wireless communication technology known backbone, bridging the digital divide.
for its long-range and high-speed capabilities. Here's a 2.Last-Mile Connectivity: It's employed for last-mile connectivity,
brief description of WiMAX in points:
delivering internet access to homes and businesses where wired
2.Wireless Broadband: WiMAX is a wireless broadband
technology designed to provide high-speed internet
infrastructure is lacking.
access over a wide area, covering distances of several 3.Scalability: WiMAX networks can be easily expanded and upgraded
kilometers. to accommodate more users and higher data rates as needed.
3.Long-Range Coverage: It offers extended coverage 4.Security: WiMAX networks incorporate security features such as
compared to traditional Wi-Fi networks, making it encryption and authentication to protect user data and privacy.
suitable for both urban and rural areas. 5.Applications: WiMAX is used for various applications, including
4.High Data Rates: WiMAX can deliver data rates internet access, VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), video
comparable to wired broadband connections, providing
streaming, and data transmission in both residential and business
fast internet access for users.
5.Point-to-Multipoint: It supports a point-to-multipoint
environments.
architecture, allowing a single WiMAX base station 6.Fixed and Mobile Versions: WiMAX comes in both fixed and mobile
(access point) to serve multiple subscribers or end-user versions. Fixed WiMAX is designed for stationary installations like
devices simultaneously. home and office broadband, while mobile WiMAX (WiMAX 2.0 or
6.Line-of-Sight Not Required: Unlike some wireless 802.16e) allows for mobility, making it suitable for applications like
technologies, WiMAX doesn't require a direct line-of- mobile internet access.
sight between the base station and the subscriber's 7.Challenges: WiMAX faced challenges in competition with 4G and
device, enhancing its flexibility.
5G technologies, and its adoption has varied by region and market
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin demand.
 How WiMAX Works:
WiMAX System Components:
WiMAX comprises two main components –
 a WiMAX tower station
 a WiMAX receiver, which can be a small box, PCMCIA card, or integrated
into devices like laptops.
WiMAX Tower:
 Similar to a cell phone tower, a WiMAX tower can cover a vast area, up to
3,000 square miles (8,000 square km).
 It connects to the Internet via high-bandwidth wired links, like T3 lines, and
Tata Teleservices, under the brand name "Tata can also link to other WiMAX towers using line-of-sight microwave
Indicom Photon," deployed WiMAX-based connections.
broadband wireless services in several cities Two Types of Wireless Service: WiMAX provides two types of wireless service:
across India. The rollout of these services began  Non-Line-of-Sight Service: Similar to WiFi, it uses lower frequencies (2 GHz
around 2009.
to 11 GHz) for connections with small antennas on user devices. This mode
Some of the cities where Tata deployed WiMAX
services include: is less affected by physical obstructions.
1. Mumbai 2. Pune 3. Hyderabad  Line-of-Sight Service: Utilizes fixed dish antennas pointing directly at the
4. Ahmedabad 5. Chandigarh 6. Jaipur WiMAX tower, offering a stronger, more stable connection with higher
7. Delhi 8. Kolkata 9. Chennai frequencies (up to 66 GHz), resulting in less interference and greater
10. Banglore 11. Pune bandwidth.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 CELLULAR NETWORKS - DIGITAL CELLULAR RADIO
A cellular network is a telecommunications system that uses a network of interconnected cell sites to
provide wireless communication services to mobile device users.
 Digital cellular radio networks are modern telecommunications systems that use digital technology to provide wireless
communication services.
 Digital cellular radio networks are designed to offer improved voice quality, enhanced data transmission, and various
features compared to earlier analog networks.
 Digital Technology: Digital cellular networks use digital signals to transmit voice and data. Unlike analog systems, which
use continuous waves, digital networks encode voice and data into discrete binary digits (0s and 1s).
 Improved Voice Quality: Digital cellular network technology provides clearer and more consistent voice quality, reducing
background noise and interference. This results in better call clarity and reliability.
 Enhanced Data Services: Digital cellular networks support data services, allowing users to access the internet, send text
messages, and use mobile apps. This capability opened the door to the mobile data revolution.
 Advanced Features: Digital cellular networks offer various features such as call waiting, call forwarding, voicemail, and
caller ID. These features enhance the user experience and convenience.
 Greater Network Capacity: Digital cellular networks technology allows for more efficient use of the available frequency
spectrum, increasing the number of simultaneous users that the network can support.
 Global Standards: Digital cellular networks often follow global standards like GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) or CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), ensuring interoperability and compatibility with devices
worldwide.
 Security: Digital cellular networks typically have better security features, making it more challenging for unauthorized
access and eavesdropping.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

1. Cell Sites (Base Stations): Cellular networks consist of
numerous cell sites or base stations, each serving a specific Cellular Network
geographical area known as a cell. Infrastructure
2. Cell Coverage: Cells are designed to provide coverage to a
defined geographic region, ensuring that mobile devices
within the cell can communicate with the base station.
3. Antennas: Base stations are equipped with antennas that
transmit and receive radio signals. These antennas are
typically installed on towers or buildings.
4. Cell Handover: As mobile devices move, they may transition
from one cell to another. Cell handover ensures seamless
connectivity by transferring the device's connection from one
cell to the next.
5. Cellular Backhaul: Base stations are connected to the core
network through high-capacity links known as backhaul
connections. These links carry voice and data traffic between
the cell site and the central network.
6. Central Switching Office: Cellular networks have central
switching offices responsible for routing calls and data
between different cells and connecting to external networks
(e.g., the public switched telephone network or the internet).
7. Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC controls call
routing, handovers, and manages mobility functions within the
cellular network.
8. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Integration:
Cellular networks connect to the PSTN to enable voice calls
between mobile and landline phones.
9. Data Services: In addition to voice calls, cellular networks
provide data services, including mobile internet access and
text messaging (SMS). By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
Cellular Networks: Generations

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

1G (First Generation):
Cellular Networks: Generations
 Introduced in the 1980s.

 Analog technology.

 Voice-only communication.

2G (Second Generation):
 Introduced in the 1990s.

 Digital technology (e.g., GSM,

CDMA).
4G (Fourth Generation):
 Enabled text messaging (SMS).
 Introduced in the late 2000s.
2.5G
 Limited data capabilities (e.g.,
 EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for
 High-speed data transfer (e.g., LTE).
GSM Evolution), which is just GSM
GPRS, EDGE).  Enhanced multimedia streaming.
with more bits per baud .
3G (Third Generation):  Improved voice quality (VoLTE).  GPRS (General Packet Radio
 Introduced in the early 2000s.  Applications include mobile web access, IP Service) : an overlay packet network
 Faster data transmission.
telephony, gaming services, high-definition on top of D-AMPS or GSM. Allows
mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, mobile stations to send and receive
 Supported mobile internet
and cloud computing. IP packets (packets of Internet data)
access. 5G (Fifth Generation): in a cell running a voice system.
 Enabled video calling and Currently being deployed (starting in the
mobile apps. 2020s).
 This generation uses W-CDMA Ultra-fast data speeds (multi-Gbps).
which runs at 5 MHz instead of the Low latency for real-time applications.

1.25 MHz of CDMA. Enables the Internet of Things (IoT) and

mission-critical services.
By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin
 GSM- Global System For Mobile Communication
 Frequency Bands: GSM utilizes two bands for two-way
communication, each with 124 channels.
 Channel Structure: Each channel includes a downlink
frequency (base station to mobile) and an uplink frequency
(mobile to base station), both 200 kHz wide.
 Slot Division: Channels are divided into 8 slots per channel,
facilitating simultaneous voice transmission from various
users.
 Control Channels: Some channels are dedicated to control
functions like call setup.
 Multiplexing: GSM employs both Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
techniques.
 Digital Design: GSM is a fully digital system, ensuring
enhanced voice quality and digital services.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

TDM frame of GSM
GSM Control Channels:
 Broadcast Control Channel: A continuous

output from the base station containing its

identity and channel status, used by mobile
stations to detect cell changes.
 Dedicated Control Channel: Used for location

updating, registration, and call setup; base

stations maintain a database of mobile stations
within their jurisdiction.
 Common Control Channel: Split into three

subchannels:
 Paging Channel: Base station announces

incoming calls, continuously monitored

by mobile stations.
 Random Access Channel: Allows mobile

stations to request a slot on the

dedicated control channel for call setup.
 Access Grant Channel: Announces the

assigned slot for call setup.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 CDMA
• Each station is allowed to transmit using the
entire frequency spectrum.
• Multiple simultaneous transmissions are
separated using coding theory.
• In CDMA, each bit time is subdivided into m
short intervals called chips.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

CDMA Encoding Scheme:
• Each bit time is divided into m chips (e.g., 4 chips/bit in
this example).
• Stations are assigned unique m-bit chip sequences.
• Transmitting a 1 bit involves sending the assigned chip
sequence, while for a 0 bit, the one's complement of the
chip sequence is sent.
• Example: Four stations (1, 2, 3, 4) with chip sequences
(A, B, C, D).

A: 1111 ; B: 1010 ; C: 1100 ; D: 1001

Bipolar notation with binary 0 being -1 and binary 1 being +1 are

used in CDMA

S . B = (-1 + 1 -3 -1) / 4 = -1 (indicates that station B has transmitted a 0)

S . D = (-1 +1 +3 +1) / 4 = +1 (indicates that station D has transmitted a 1)

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 SUMMARY
 Ethernet is a 10Mbps LAN that uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision  Independent BSS is an ad-hoc network that contains no Access Points. Since they do not
Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol to control access network. use Access Points they can not connect to any other basic service set.
 An Infrastructure BSS can communicate with other stations not in the same basic service
set by communicating to each other through Access Points.
 An Extended Service Set (ESS) is a set of connected BSS. Access Points in an extended
service set are connected by a distribution system. A distribution system is usually a wired
 Fast Ethernet is an extension of the 10Mbps Ethernet standard and supports speeds upto LAN but can be a wireless LAN also.
100Mbps. For physical connections, Star wiring topology is used. Gigabit Ethernet  Bluetooth is a low-power, short-range wireless technology originally developed for
(IEEE802.3z) has a data rate of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps. replacing cables when connecting devices like mobile phones, headsets, and computers.
 In a Switched Ethernet, the hub is replaced with a switch, and there are no collisions. With this technology, devices will be able to discover any other Bluetooth-enabled device,
This is so because a switch is a device that can recognize the destination address and and establish connections for data exchange.
can route the frame to the port to which the destination is connected.  PicoNet is one of the two types of topology for Bluetooth. It is a small ad hoc network of
 A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network, which is the linking of two devices (normally 8 stations). One is called Master and the others are called Slaves.All
or more computers without using wires. It uses radio communication to accomplish the slave stations synchronize their clocks with the master. Many piconets have common
same functionality that a wired LAN has. coverage areas form scatternet.
 All components that can connect to a wireless medium in a network are referred to as  WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a family
stations. Stations fall into one of two categories: Wireless Clients and Access Points. of wireless communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of standards. The
 Access Points are base stations for the wireless network. They transmit and receive forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last
radio frequencies for wireless-enabled devices to communicate with. mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL.
 Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants  A cellular network or mobile network is a wireless network distributed over land areas
(PDAs), IP phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and workstations that are called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or
equipped with a wireless network interface card. base station.
 The Basic Service Set (BSS) is a set of all stations that can communicate with each
other. There are two types of BSS: Independent BSS and Infrastructure BSS.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin

 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Pearson Education.

2. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, Tata McGraw Hill.

3. William Stallings, “Wireless Communications”, PHI.

4. Michael A. Gallo, William M. Hancock, “ Computer Communications and Networking

Technologies”, Cengage Learning.

5. Relevant Websites: Online Resources and Web References.

By Dr. Shuchita Upadhyaya Bhasin