UBJECT: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT

BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION
ELEMENTS OF A NEURON
● A neuron, the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system responsible for receiving
sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and
for transforming and relaying the electrical signals; a single cell composed of three parts.
There are billions of neurons in the human body. Neuron fibers are bunched together
to form nerves, which carry signals throughout the body.
● Parts of a neuron:
Cell body (soma) contains the nucleus of the cell, assimilates and makes use of
the nutrients that supply energy for neuronal activity
Dendrites (from a Greek word meaning “tree”) are widely branching structures
that receive input from other neurons, they are usually short and thin and may
number more than a thousand in a single cell
Axon is a single, long, thin, straight fiber with branches near its tip, an axon
transmits information to other cells, and the dendrites or cell body receives
that information
Many axons are covered with a fatty substance called myelin, an insulating
sheath that speeds up the transmission of impulses along an axon
TRANSMISSION OF A SIGNAL
● Many factors are involved in a signal transmission. Essentially, each signal travels
the length of a cell and then crosses a gap to activate the next cell, where the
process of transmission is repeated. Cells differ in their capacity to transmit and
in the type of signal transmitted, but the basic process of all transmissions is the
same.

Synapse – a signal reaches a cell when a neurotransmitter that is secreted by the

axon of one cell crosses a gap between that axon and the dendrite of the next cell.
This gap is called a synapse, which are one-way connections.

Neurotransmitters – at the end of each axon branch, there is a terminal button or

knob that holds the synaptic vesicles. As a signal reaches the end of an axon, these
vesicles discharge a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which is received by the next
cell. Research identified about 40 to 60 different substances as neurotransmitters.
TRANSMISSION OF A SIGNAL
Neurotransmitters – involved in all activities of the body, playing critical roles in
behaviors as varied as memory, emotion, movement, learning, anxiety and arousal.
Endorphins- natural opiates to regulate pain and pleasure;
Dopamine- related to attention, movement and learning
Serotonin- related to sleep, arousal and mood

Resting Potential – in a resting state, the cell membrane of a neuron maintains a

certain level of permeability such that the inside of the cell is slightly negative in
charge compared to the outside

Action Potential – when graded potential surpasses the neuron threshold, the
signal passes through the length of the cell as an action potential. When it begins, it
always travel the entire length of the cell.
TRANSMISSION OF A SIGNAL
Refractory Phase – period of time required for the repolarization of the cell. Less
than 1/1000 of a second in some cases, no signal can pass through the cell during
the first part of the phase which is called the absolute refractory period. The
remainder of the refractory period, which is called the relative refractory period is
the time during which the cell can be activated again, but only if the excitation is
stronger than normal.

Signal Strength – the action potential is always the same intensity for every firing of
a neuron. 3 variables appear to contribute to the identification of signal strength: the
frequency with which every single neuron is being fired; the total number of neurons
being fired by the signal and the particular route of the neuron being fired.
 TRANSMISSION OF A SIGNAL

How neurons communicate.

A neuron communicates with
another neuron by releasing a
chemical called a
neurotransmitter at a
specialized junction called a
synapse. A neurotransmitter can
either excite or inhibit the next
neuron, with varying durations
of effect
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
● The billions of neurons that make up the nervous system of the human body can be
categorized into 2 divisions: The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). Each has subdivisions that function in specialized ways.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

● The CNS is composed of the brain and the spinal cord- constant passage of signals to and
from the brain and body. Both parts receive sensory messages from the afferent (sensory)
of the PNS and both can send signals to the muscles and glands by connecting the with
the efferent (motor and autonomic) part of the PNS.
● 2 major functions of of spinal cord: (1) carry impulse back and forth from body to brain or
brain to body and (2) controlling many reflexes
● Brain functions: perception, memory and voluntary movements as well as the basic
function of breathing and swallowing
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE BRAIN
● Hindbrain
- Involved with basic survival
- a well protected central core that controls basic, rudimentary behaviors
- Also called the central core, include the medulla, pons and cerebellum; it has as its center the
reticular formation or reticular activating system which controls attention and arousal for activity
and when a person wants to sleep
- Behaviors controlled by it include heartbeat and circulation, breathing, chewing and salivating in the
medulla; sleep and movement information in the pons; and movement and balance in the
cerebellum

● Midbrain
– above the hindbrain, area in which all sensory and motor information going to and from the
forebrain and the spinal cord must pass.
- All sensory information that travels between the spinal cord and the forebrain must go through the
midbrain
- Has important centers that control body movement in response to auditory and visual information
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Forebrain
- contains the cerebral cortex and the limbic system and controls higher mental processes
- Highly evolved layer of the brain
- The outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres is called the cerebral cortex, an area that controls complex
mental skills
- The limbic system compose the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and septum
- The thalamus serves to process and relay sensory information to specific parts of the forebrain
- The hypothalamus functions in basic survival behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual activity
aggression and fear and also helps regulate the body’s internal environment. It also regulates the
activity of the pituitary gland, which controls hormonal secretion from other glands
- The hippocampus and amygdala are involved in the formation of new memories, retention of memory
and emotions
- The septum is involved with emotions as it serves as an area determining experiences of pleasure
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

● PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

- 2 subdivisions: somatic system concerned with sensory and motor functions and the
autonomic nervous system which controls the functions of the glands and smooth-muscle
organs.
- The ANS is further divided into the sympathetic system which tends to act as a unit and is
involved primarily in aroused or excited activity; and the parasympathetic system which
tend to operate independently and are involved in the quiet, recuperative functions.
- The ANS functions are automatic and self-regulating, continuing whether or not conscious
thought is involved.
GLANDULAR SYSTEMS

TWO SETS OF GLANDS FOR BODY FUNCTIONS:

● EXOCRINE GLANDS
- Secrete fluids to outer surfaces of the body
● ENDOCRINE GLANDS
- Secrete hormones, distinctive chemicals which are similar to neurotransmitters and carry
“messages” through the bloodstream to “target” organs or glands

PITUITARY GLANDS
- Designated as the body’s “master gland”, connected to the hypothalamus, it secretes
more different hormones than does any other endocrine glands
- Its connection with the brain provides an important reciprocal interaction between the
nervous system and the endocrine system
GLANDULAR SYSTEMS
OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS
● THYROID GLAND
- Secrete thyroxin, which regulates metabolism and influences psychological processes such
as motivation and mood
● ADRENAL GLAND
- Secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline, hormones that operate antagonistically to regulate
mood, emotion, blood pressure and sugar level and the distribution of blood between
muscles and internal organs. Generally described as helping the organism prepare for
emergencies and cope with stress