Code of Hammurabi. See Hammurabi. (ode of Justinian, See Justinian Code. talkers were small groups of American Indians vio served in the United States armed forces in World War! (1914-1918) and World War Il (1939-1945). Code ‘ars developed and used codes in Indian languages tnsend secret messages. Their efforts helped the United Sats andi allies win both wars. ‘The best-known code talkers were Navajo radio oper ators during World War II, In 1942, the U.S. Marine ors recruited 29 Navajo men to develop a code. More thand00 Navajo code talkers served in the war in the Pa- cic, On japanese-held islands, such as Iwo Jima {now ino Toland Okinawa, the code talkers sent vital mes- sages between front lines and command posts. The lepanese never broke the Navajo code. Philip Johnston, an engineer raised on a Navajo reser- sation where his father was a missionary, suggested that theMarines use the Navajo language as the basis for a code. He chose Navajo because it was an unwritten lan- guage unknown to most non-Navajos. Its complex struc- ‘ue dificult pronunciation, and singsong qualities nade it nearly impossible to decipher. Code talkers used familiar words to represent US. miliary terms. When referring to a fighter plane, they used the Navajo word for hummingbird. A destroyer be- camea shark, and bombs were eggs. Code talkers also developed an alphabet based on English words to spell rames. One or more Navajo words could stand for each letter, For example, the Navajo word for antindicated theleter a, bearsignaled b, catwas c, and so on. Several other American Indian groups also acted as codetalkers. In World War |, about 19 Choctaw men, send in the US. Army, sending and receiving mes- sages based on the Choctaw language. During World Warll, 17 Comanche men used their language for code inthe US. Army Signal Corps. Catherine jones Codeine, KOH deen, also called methylmorphine, is a drug used to relieve pain and coughing, It is manufac- tured from morphine, a drug obtained from the opium poppy plant. This plant also contains some pure co- deine, but not in quantities large enough to provide the amounts required for use in medicine. Codeine relieves pain of moderate severity. Itis much les powerful han morphine, which is generally used to ‘ase extreme pain, Codeine provides cough relief at lower doses than those required for pain relief. It is usu- alyiaken by mouth and often with other painkilling netications, such as aspirin and acetaminophen. People who use high doses of codeine for an extend- ed period may become addicted to it. But individuals who become addicted to painkillers rarely start their drug habit with codeine. Codeine addicts who stop. Using the drug have much less severe withdrawal symp- ‘omsthan do morphine addicts. Frank Welsch See also Morphine; Opium. Codes and ciphers are forms of secret communica- ‘ion. In general, a code replaces words, phrases, or sen- ‘ences wth groups of letters or numbers. A cipher re ‘arranges letters or uses substitutes to disguise a message, The technology of secret communication is called “ppiology. thas two opposing parts: communications security and communications intelligence. People use Codes and ciphers 749 communications security, also called COMSEC, to make messages secret. The study and practice of COMSEC methods is called eryptography. Communications inte gence, also called COMINT, consists of learning about messages without the permission of the communicators. COMINT includes eavesdropping, bugging rooms, wiretapping telephone conversations, and cracking the codes or ciphers of enemy forces. Solving such secret communications is called cryptanalysis. In cryptology, the original message is called the plai text Its secret form is the ciphertext or eryptogram. The mathematical process that changes one into the other is the cryptographic algorithm. A key controls the opera- tions of an algorithm. The receiver of a ciphertext must have been given the algorithm and key to convert the ci- phertext back into plaintext. Encrypting is the process of converting plaintext into ciphertext. Decrypting is the process of changing ciphertext back into plaintext. There are two types of cryptosystems, or types of al: gorithms: (1) secret-key or symmetrical systems and (2), public-key or asymmetrical systems. In a secret-key sys- tem, the same key is used for both encryption and de- cryption. Anyone knowing the key can both enerypt and decrypt messages. In a public-key system, there are two keys. One key, the public key, encrypts a message. An- other key, the private key, decrypts it This article explains only encrypting procedures. From them, decrypting procedures can be determined Communications security The letters, numbers, words, punctuation marks, and other symbols that make up a plaintext can be turned into secret form in only two ways. One method, called transposition, rearranges them. The other, substitution, replaces them with other characters or symbols. Simple ciphers treat the plaintext as letters and numbers and. use transposition or substitution alone or in simple combinations to construct ciphertext. The sender often transmits the resulting ciphertext in blocks (groups) of an equal number of letters or numbers, regardless of the true word divisions, to help further conceal the plaintext. More complex ciphers first convert the plain- text into a sequence of numbers and then use combina: tions of transposition and substitution, along with arith- metic operations, to construct the ciphertext. The sender then often transmits the ciphertext as a continuous stream of numbers. Transposition. All transposition ciphers need a rule for mixing up the symbols in the plaintext. A simple transposition reverses consecutive pairs of letters. In such a cipher, the message DO NOT DEPART would be- come ODOND TPERA T. Columnartransposition is a more secure method. In this method, shown below, the coder writes the plaintext horizontally by lines under the key numbers and then takes out the coded message ver- tically by columns in the order of the key numbers. os ale nee ele aoaly H a Thus, the message AWATT MY ORDERS becomes WYRAO STDAN EIR750. Codes and ciphers ‘Substitution. The simplest form of substtution is _monoalphabetic substitution, where a single eipher ab Dhabet is used. Itreplaces each letter of the plaintext ‘with a particular symbol For example, ifthe substitute for ais Xall the a's inthe plaintext become X's nthe ck phertext The complete list of substitutes forthe 26 let- {ers may be set out ina cpheralphaber abcde fghijklmnopgretuvwxy2 X7+PDMSUAI6ZRCSGSNEBWSONSK The plaintext attack would become ciphertext XBBX+6. The ciphertext 38 decrypts into go. In polvaiphaberte substitution, the coder replaces 2 plaintext letter with substitutes from several elpher al phabets rather than froma single one. A common sul tution method! uses table like that at the bottom of this column, ‘A.common and more flexible method of plyalphe bet substitution employs a keywordio specity the ct pher alphabets to be used. If the keyword s 20%, fr ex Ample, the correspondents will use the cipher alphabets beginning with the leters B, 0, and x In that order. To teneipher, the coder writes the Keyword repeatedly above the plaintext The substtue for each plaintext let- ter appears under that planes eter in the cipher a haber that begins wath its key eter keyword BOxBOXBOXBOXBO Plante’ © reportposition Cipheret SP TIVIUUNEL ZIT “The great advantage ofthe use ofa keyword Is that ‘correspondents can change iteaslyn ease of overuse for actual or feared discovery. is disadvantage [ss req Ular repetition. One way of avoiding this repetition Ist use along phrase. Such a phrase is called a running hey. Polyalphabetie substitutions adapt easily to cipher ma: chines and, in certain systems, are dificult to solve They fare thus among the most widely used eiphers Tn pobygraphic substitution, the eader puts 40 oF more letters into eipher asa unit The Payaralgorithm, Used during World War (914-1918) and World Wa + (054s wth «for eran ‘ianged nearby Setar sgoue et tenciphers plaintext letters In pairs according ost sree cece oaerrenee ‘ipborsersarepaeiccennte tar teas get aes ers an cipher the tex, the coder simply solves the equa’ ‘hub key systemsiwove raters that are easy to solve in one direction but hurdisan, stares fosawe ome crea act ‘hence esc ancd pone sey nee RSA algorithm, named forits inventors, the commu” eee ter mo yar eee ‘et mone Aatoran a foal ena seer eeipets ampere he ser ne pire mumerstumber cy ik syeL inane nantes sioner tcmtar , Sa a or ree tes ue rns mae roar one aon a as hace as fm che pers aca oe ee Fs are ae ee eee Seelam ee ine aneriee a Seamer ey mo es reas xyaue tug chon ng ie ceecengericl tor matin wares Pa tee rine eel arcs cer nia nw aoa ae een eeraneae a eens soso ed rte th cng aa eer eco a a SEC copes rly oy tea seus on codes lx bok we ren Rese eep perenne ter pelea eennlnuatee reer d erence iets elepene oparhedcierrtarainenrirend Sn ee a ee Ce etree Communications intelligence Frequency analysis. Cryptanalysis isthe proces! studying the eiphertext to extract information aba. plaintext when one does not have the key. Sass plays an important role in this process. Lees oot {vith varying frequency in English and oter Tanga ‘The proportion of their frequency is remaslaby se For ample, in English, the leter eis sed north any ather (14 percent followed by 19 percent éryptanalyst counts the letters ofa long monoaas Scbistution and finds that Xs the most comm ie she quesses that X stands for e The analyst cepts the V's with e'sand stars 10 guess at words Fores”eomight be even or ever. But in short messages, ee ctrequent letter may not be é. semi arealso provided by contacts—that is, which let vind tthe right and to the left of a particular letter. we ample, three high-frequency letters that rarely iweteach other area, 0, and i. high-frequency letter {olinsvowels in 80 percent of its appearances is m ‘hat precedes vowels 100 times more often than it ficasttem if. The five most common letter pairs eparde, tt he, in, er and an. The five most com- Bwrds are the, of and, to, and a quency analysis is much harder to use when the saga senciphered by polyalphabetic substitu- se eyptanalyst must first identity the different ci- “atabets used, then solve each key separately \pbreakable ciphers. A basic assumption of pra leyptogrphy is that outsiders know the general sys- ‘en secrecy must reside only in the keys. For example, json ofa cipher machine should not permit a {pant to solve messages encrypted with it if he or ‘edves not now the key settings. Modem eryptosystems are designed so that frequency sdyishas lle effect against them. However, even the ‘nsisophisticated cryptosystems are vulnerable to a ‘ndefore” attack. Such an attack tries every possible nyt one is successful. The best protection against a titeforce attack is to make the number of possible isso large that itis impractical to try all of them in a ‘esanable amount of time, even with the fastest available comptes. Theonlycryptosystem known to be unbreakable, enby brute-force attack, is called the one-time pad. racomputer the plaintext is first converted to a se~ agence of zeroes and ones (called "bits". This stage may ‘eparnmed by another cipher that represents the let tusofthe alphabet by batches of bits. Then the key, sich consist of another sequence of zeroes and ones exciyas long as the plaintext, is constructed complete- lyarandam, For example, if the plaintext has 20 bits, stemay choose the key by flipping a coin 20 times and ‘toring heads as one and tails as zero. The ciphertext ismade by writing the key above the plaintext and com- biting the bits according to the rules 0+0~0, 0+1=1, 1*01and 1+ 1 = 0. For example: hey 00101000100101001101 paintest —-:'10010100010101001010 ‘iphertext ~—10112100110000000112 Torecover the plaintext, the process is repeated by ‘ombining the bits of the ciphertext with the key accord- ‘glothe same rules. Because the key is random and istaslong as the plaintext, itis impossible to analyze ‘ciphertext to recover any information. Trying all pos- stleeys will only yield all possible strings of zeroes 2ndones ofthe given length, History Occunents indicate that secret writing arose inde- dently in many civilizations as soon as writing be- ‘ae widely used. The Arabs first devised a science of “ypinahss in the A.D. 700's, using letter frequencies. logy came into widespread use in the West ‘ng the 1300's, when ambassadors were first as- Codes and ciphers 751 signed residence in other countries. They frequently used codes to send confidential reports home and to get secret orders. During the mid-1800%, the widespread use of the tele- graph led to the development of military field ciphers. In the early 1900s, military forces sent many messages in cipher by radio, Because enemies could easily intercept these transmissions, cryptanalysis became a powerful intelligence force during World War I Possibly the most important single solution in history occurred during World War |. The British cryptanalyzed ‘a message from the German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German ambassador in Mexico. It promised that if Mexico would fight the United States, Germany would see that Mexico got back its “lost terri tories’ of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. This disclo- sure helped bring the United States into the war. The enormous wartime burden of encrypting radio- grams stimulated inventors to mechanize the work. In 1917, Gilbert S. Vernam, an American engineer, auto- mated cryptography by joining an electromagnetic ci phering device to a teletypewriter. Using a key of punched tape, the mechanism encrypted the plaintext and transmitted the cryptogram. A receiving cipher tele- ‘typewriter automatically decrypted the ciphertext and printed out the plaintext. In 1918, Joseph O. Mauborgne, ‘a major in the United States Army, devised the one-time pad. About the same time, the rotor was invented inde- pendently by both Edward H. Hebern, an American busi- nessman, and Arthur Scherbius, a German electrical en- gineer. Later developments. In 1932, Marian Rejewski, a Polish mathematician, aided by information from a spy, solved the coding procedures of Scherbius's machine, the Enigma. During World War Il, the British mathemati- cian Alan Turing modified Rejewski’s solution to decrypt German messages. United States and British codebreak- ers helped defeat German submarines in the Atlantic Ocean. In the Pacific Ocean, cryptanalysis played a cru- cial role in sinking Japan’s merchant marine fleet. Code- breaking enabled Allied forces to identify and shoot down the airplane carrying Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Japan's chief naval leader. Cryptanalysis also led to victo- ries against German forces in North Africa and Europe. The code solutions hastened the defeats of Germany and Japan and shortened the war by months. See World ‘War Il (The Ultra secret In 1976, Martin Hellman, an electrical engineer at Stanford University, and his student Whitfield Diffie published the concept of asymmetric, or public-key, ci phers, The first practical realization of this concept was the RSA algorithm, developed in 1977 at the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology. Since the 19705, the use of cryptography in private business has grown rapidly. In 1977, the US. govern ment approved a secret-key system that uses a compli- cated electronic transposition-substitution algorithm called the Data Encryption Standard (DES). DES was de- signed to protect data stored in or transmitted between computers. During the 1990's, the tremendous increase in computer speed made DES vulnerable to brute-force attacks. A new algorithm called the Advanced Encryp- tion Standard (AES), approved in 2001, replaced DES in many electronic commerce applications.