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Design as a Perception-in-Action Process

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TSCHIMMEL, Katja (2011). Design as a Perception-in-Action Prozess. In Design Creativity 2010. London: Springer Verlag.
223-230.

Design as a Perception-in-Action Process

Katja Tschimmel
Escola Superior de Artes e Design (ESAD), Portugal

Abstract. Design thinking is thinking in variety and in new 2 Design Cognition

semantic and material combinations. To think about the
possibilities, the designer needs to liberate himself from
routines of perception. This liberation is the basis for all Over the last thirty years, scientific interest in the
innovative design. Taking into account the dominant role of creative thinking process of designers has grown
a deliberately orientated perception in the creative design rapidly. The research in design cognition started with
process, we consider design as a Perception-in-Action the increasing criticism of the rational design metho-
Process. The name of our model is based on the dology. Against all expectations, the methodological
methodological design paradigm proposed by Schön, the design movement failed in its attempt to improve the
‘Reflective Practice’ with it’s Reflection-in-Action Process. quality of design projects through the application of
The Perception-in-Action Process is divided into five rational methods. Instead of the development of
procedures which are not linear but intersecting each other:
universal methods, Design Cognition Research is
the perception of the task, the perception of a new
perspective, the perception of new semantic combinations, interested in finding the essence of the mental
the perception in prototyping and the perception of users’ processes of the designer when he is reflecting on a
reaction. At the end of the paper we will identify some project, with the objective to better understand the
strategies to develop students’ perception in design attributes which characterize design creativity, both in
education. the process, and in the solution.
Researchers such as Lawson (1986), Schön (1983,
Keywords: design cognition, perception in design, 1987), Cross, Dorst & Roozenburg (1992), Gold-
constructivism, creative process, methodological paradigms, schmidt (1994, 2001, 2003), Eastman, Mc Cracken &
design education. Newstetter (2001), Oxman (1999, 2002) or Gero
(2006), who studied the cognitive processes of
designers, all pointed out that the design process is too
1 Introduction complex to reduce design thinking to mere ‘problem-
solving’ or ‘information-processing’. The designer
Since the 1980’s, cognitive science and constructivist decides what to do and when, on the basis of the
theory have challenged the existence of an objective personally perceived and reconstructed design task.
reality and recognize the plurality of perceptions and Thus, information about the design project and
perspectives of reality. This perspective has profound knowledge of the subject are not enough to develop an
consequences for the interpretation and conceptuali- innovative design solution, but creative thinking and
sation of the creative design process. As our thinking perception are even more essential.
process is influenced by the fact that the brain is a self-
referential system (Roth 1992), all inovative design 2.1 Design Thinking in Constructivist Perspective
visions emerge, grow and mature during the creative
process in interaction with the situational system of a Radical Constructivism, an interdisciplinary theory
project. about cognition (Schmidt 1992, 2000), shows us that
In this paper we want to show how the perception and recognition are exclusively a re-
understanding of design creativity is influenced by the organization of previous experiences and expectations.
dominant methodological paradigm of the moment, Constructivist authors challenge the existence of an
and its changes, and describe the important role which objective ontological reality and promote the plurality
the designer’s perceptive capacity has in his creative of perceptions. Von Glasersfeld, Roth, Schmidt, and
design processes and how it can be developed in other researchers in cognition and perception, describe
design education. the brain as a ‘self-referential’ and ‘self-explaining’
system, which doesn’t have direct access to the world,
2 K. Tschimmel

but which operates on the base of genetic 2005). We understand perceptive cognition as the
determination, educational and cultural patterns, complex process of exploiting at one and the same
earlier internal experiences and one’s emotional state time the stimulus input, and also the reasoning about
(see the different approaches in Schmidt 2000). its properties. Both operations are applied at several
Researchers in design cognition, call this activity points of the creative design process.
‘constructive memory’ (Gero 1999). It operates both
on the personal experience of the designer, and by the
recall of design-relevant information from the memory 3 The Creative Process in Design
(Eastman 2001). Besides referring to the register and
recall of determinate moments, the concept of Although originally it was psychologists who
‘constructive memory’ also includes a constant investigated the phenomenon of creativity, it was
readjustment of meanings in the face of new natural scientists who started to identify and describe
experiences. This phenomenon explains the fact that the mechanisms and the structure of the creative
designers not only interpret a given design problem in process. The first references to a multiphase structure
quite different ways from one another, but also at of the creative process go back to Poincaré (1924),
different moments. Thus, each designed object is the who through his thoughts about his own creative
result of a personal choice from the designer/team at a thinking process in solving mathematical problems,
certain moment and in a certain design-situation, based gave the impulse to Wallas (1926) to divide the
on his personal and professional life story. Gero (op. creative process into 4 phases: the preparation phase,
cit.) introduces the concept of situatedness, which the incubation, the illumination and the verification
includes both, the context of design decisions and the phase. This classification was the starting point of the
way the situation is interpreted by the designer. Also research movements into creativity (also in design)
Eastman (op. cit.) sees a close relationship between the which looked for new models to best describe the
experiences of a designer and the recall of relevant phases of a creative problem solving process. The
information from the memory to respond to the objective of this research was, and still is, the
contextual conditions of the project. What discovery and development of methods, which can
characterizes the expert designer is his capacity to guide a person successfully through a creative process
connect in a flexible way his personal and professional in a domain of innovation, such as design. It was the
experiences with the situational factors of the project. birth of the classic methodology of design.
To do this, he utilizes creative thinking operations,
such as associative thinking, thinking in analogies, 3.1 The Change of Methodological Paradigms
visual reasoning and perception with all of the senses.
The classification and respective visualization of the
2.2 The Role of Perception different phases of the design process, depends mainly
on the methodological paradigm in which we analyse
While our day to day thinking consists of automatic and describe the creative process in design. The
pattern recognition in accordance with the Gestalt laws dominant paradigm refers to the scientific and
(with the objective of quick orientation and theoretic background of the domain and its applied
recognition), design thinking is based on new pattern practical habits. In doing this, it also forms the
creation (with the objective of achieving different interpretation of the scope and characteristics of design
forms and impact). In this sense, Dorst describes visual methodology itself. The first design methodology
thinking in design as “a way of looking, of being more movement in the early 1960’s was mainly composed
actively involved in the world than most people” of engineer-designers and led to the development of a
(2003: 159). This affirmation we can easily stretch to phase-model of the creative process oriented by
all of the perceptual senses. rationality and systematic proceding (Archer 1965;
As perception in constructivist perspective operates Cross 1989).
as a ‘self-organizing-information-system’, which Since the 1980’s and the growing influence of
restricts our thinking to already set up patterns, the architects (Lawson 1986; Goldschmidt 1998) and
designer has to liberate himself from a routine and educators (Schön 1983) in design methodology and
mechanical kind of perception. In earlier works, we design thinking research, we have seen a multiple
defined ‘perceptive cognition’ as a basic skill in the change of methodological paradigm: 1. The change
creation of new realities and artefacts, and considered from the rational and analytical paradigm to the
the training of conscious and directed perception, the holistic paradigm of the emergence of design; and
searching for new nuances to be, the core of design inside the first change is 2. the change from the
education (Tschimmel 2005; Pombo & Tschimmel Problem Solving paradigm to the interpretation of the
 Design as a Perception-in-Action Process 3

design process, first as a Reflective Practice (described development of the project and the emergence of a
in Dorst 1997), then as a Co-Evolution of the Problem- solution. Through the realisation of change/testing
Solution Space (Dorst & Cross 2001) and finally as a experiments, the designer actively constructs a view of
Systemic Process. This last model (for example the world, based on his experiences. Instead on a well
described in Jonas 1994) will not be integrated in the or ill-defined problem, the designer now thinks and
following descriptions of the paradigms, because it is works on a task, which is essentially unique and
not essential for the development of the Perception-in- includes the characteristics of the designer, the
Action model, which is the subject of this paper. available time and the subject to work on. The basic
elements of design activities in this paradigm are
3.1.1 Design as a Problem Solving Process actions: naming the relevant factors in the project
Traditionally, since the 1960’s, design processes have situation, framing the core of the project in a certain
been described as rational or creative problem solving way, making moves toward a new formal-aesthetic
processes (Archer 1965; Simon 1969; Rittel 1970), and expression, and evaluating those moves. An overview
in many cases they still are. This approach is on the of the paradigm of reflective practice is given in Kees
one hand based on the phase model of Wallas and the Dorst’s PhD work Describing Design. A comparison
Creative Problem Solving movement, and on the other of paradigms (1997).
hand by cybernetic science and the search for
optimization of resources and processes for solution 3.1.3 Design as a Co-Evolution of Problem-Solution
finding. Characteristically in this paradigm, designers Space
are seen as problem solvers: the work on a design Parallel to, and as an evolution of, the model of
project starts with a problem, which is to identify, to Reflective Practice, the design process is also
understand, to explore, to redefine, and in the end to conceptualized as a Co-Evolution of the Problem-
solve, by the creation of a new product, service or Solution Space (Dorst & Cross 2001). Assuming that
process. This perspective was so embedded in the in the reflective design practice there is no way to
understanding of the design process, that a lot of determine a priori which approach will be more
designers and design theorist have developed methods successful, design task and solution are always and
to better guide the design process. Numerous classical inherently developed together. In a think-aloud study
design methods are described in the important works with nine expert designers, Dorst and Cross came to
of Archer (1965), Cross (1989) or Bürdek (2005). the conclusion that creative design is a matter of
At the end of the 1970’s the belief in universal and developing and refining both the formulation of a
objective methods, which in a rational way led to problem, and the ideas for a possible solution (op. cit.).
‘good’ design solutions was challenged. The In this non-linear process, cause and effect are no
protagonist of the criticism of the classical longer distinguishable because of the constant cross-
methodology was Paul Feyerabend (1975), who fought fertilisation. According to Dorst and Cross, the
against the idea that only one method – for example decisive creative moment in a project is that in which
the Cartesian – should be universally accepted. Only a the coupled ‘problem-solution’ gets a new frame.
concept of methodology, which respects variety and Thus, the originality of the solution depends on the
diversity, can be compatible with a humanistic view of framing and reframing process, which means the
life and the constructivist perspective, where construction of a personal perspective of the problem-
subjective perception and the construction of one’s solution space.
own reality is the core. A change of paradigm in
design methodology was obviously needed.
4 The Perception-in-Action Model
3.1.2 Design as a Reflective Practice
Since the 1980’s, numerous theorists and methodo- Taking into account the dominant role of a deliberately
logists have challenged the linearity of the creative orientated perception in the creative design process,
process and the positivists’ design methods, in favour and in a kind of homophonic and homographic
to a pluralist and emergent approach (Schön 1983, analogy to the Reflection-in-Action process of the
1987; Dorst 1997; Bürdek 2005; Pombo & Tschimmel Reflective Practice, we consider design as a
2005). In this constructivist perspective of cognitive Perception-in-Action process (PiAp). Doing this, we
processes, Schön describes the creative design process are not denying the paradigm of reflection, but
as a “reflective conversation with the situation” (op. complementing the model, dislocating the focus from
cit.) and introduces the concept of Reflection-in- the reflection mode to the perception mode. Thus, we
Action. While the designer works on a project, he is describe with the concept of Perception-in-Action the
reflecting on his actions, which step by step guide the design process in which the designer consciously
4 K. Tschimmel

challenges stereotypical thinking, searching out the Each procedure is characterized by the perception of a
new and different inside the problem-solution space. problem/task of the design project and of a possible
The objective is the posterior establishment of a solution space (Sx) in parallel, because problems can’t
connection between newly perceived impulses and be defined, reformulated, developed and solved with-
elements of the design task. None of this is possible out thinking at the same time about possible solutions.
without reflection.
It is perceptual reflection that we consider to be the 4.1.1 The perception of the problem/task
basic skill and procedure in the creation of new The first phase of the Perception-in-Action process is
realities. What the designer perceives with all his the perception of the problem/task (p/t). The designer/
senses while he is reflecting on a design task has the team (Dx) analises and interprets the design task,
profound impact on how a situation is interpreted, how using previous professional and personal experiences,
analogies to other knowledge domains are made, and his world vision and a recalling of relevant memorised
how design solutions are developed. information for the project. In an interchange he
We could have called our model a Perception-and- searches out information relevant to the design, and
Reflection-in-Action process, because perception and possible points of tension, contradictions and
reflection are continuously interacting in any creative ambiguities in the project. At the same time, the
process. But as we want to put the focus on the designer perceives various stimuli which help him to
important role of perception, we have concentrated on prioritise the project tasks to be considered; later the
the Perception-in-Action model. Thus, in the use of the criteria for future evaluation will emerge. To an
term ‘perception’, we include perception through our outside observer, the more unexpected the perceived
senses, and also perception as interpretation and elements are, the more original would be the response
meaning giving to a reality. The emphasis on the to the task and the identification of its elements. This
aspect of perception is based on its core importance for first phase of the PiAp corresponds to the procedure
the originality of design solutions and surprising which Schön called naming (1987).
semantic versions.
4.1.2 The perception of a new perspective
4.1 The Process and its Phases In the second phase the designer reaches a point at
which a new perspective, relative to the task, is formed
The Perception-in-Action process can be divided into (designated by Schön as framing) which will be
five procedures which are not linear but intersecting developed in accordance with the respective
each other (Fig. 1): redefinition. In this procedure the designer actively
• the perception of the task, searches out new ideas and design criteria together
• the perception of a new perspective, with a new visual and semantic language. In this way
• the perception of new semantic combinations, he will select various stimuli which will be integrated
• the perception of new solutions in prototyping in the design process and will help him to produce
and more or less original ideas. This phase can be seen as a
• the perception of users’ reaction. reformulation of a problem.

Fig. 1. A sketch of the five procedures of the Perception-in-Action process where at any moment, chance can influence the
perception of the problem/task and of the actual design situation.
 Design as a Perception-in-Action Process 5

4.1.3 The perception of new semantic combinations limit it. The activity of sketching is, according to
In the third phase of the PiAp various versions of the Goldschmidt, a kind of modulation of the problem
design are developed, since the perception process of space.
the designer is directed by the search for semantic Graphic representations need a slow, intense and
solutions in similar artefacts. In a comparison of thorough observation, permitting the designer to
different compositions and versions of the product, the appreciate the different relations between the objects,
designer is keenly aware of the stimuli which lead to the individuals and their characteristics. Thus graphic
distinct design solutions. Here is also found the representations are both output, being a result of a
perception of random or chance occurences which mental process, and are also a spur to further mental
have little or nothing do do with the project, but which activity from the designer. While drawing, through the
could lead to surprising design solutions by way of interaction of line, form, symbols and ideas, new
analogical thought. characteristics, unconnected to the design task, can
appear, despite not having been planned by the
4.1.4 The perception of new solutions in model designer. Apart from this, the playful aspect of
construction and prototyping sketching gives pleasure to the designer, which in turn
After choosing one or more versions of a design, there helps his concentration and perceptive sensitivity.
follows the period in which the product is developed. Essentially, a drawing made by hand is, for a
In this phase the concentration is centred on designer, a tool in his thinking process. Goldschmidt
modifications and improvements of models and (2003) asserts that in the process of creative perception
prototypes. The expectation which a designer has for a of self generated sketches made in the quest for new
project directs his perception and evaluation of the approaches and perspectives, the designer spends
design models, and can still provoke fundamental and much less energy than in the observation and active
surprising revisions. The construction of numerous interpretation of other sources of imagery. Apart from
different models at a very early stage of the process this, because of their frequent graphic ambiguity,
prevents the designer from getting prematurely drawings made by hand allow many more
attached to an idea, a semantic language, a material or interpretations than, for example, photographs
a tecnological solution . mimicking reality.
For the designer to be able to benefit from his
4.1.5 The perception of users’ reaction sketches in the creative perception process, he must be
During any of the previous four phases or as the final reasonably competent at drawing. A design specialist
phase of the PiAp, the new product/image/service/ can be considered as one who can rapidly and
process can be tested by target users. The perception recognisably, express ideas and shapes by drawing,
and reaction of these consumers contributes to any and who can also change and adapt them at will. So in
rethinking and possible modification of the new design education, the development of the expression of
artefact. The designer has to understand and interpret ideas by drawing must have a central role.
the feedback from the users. With respect to our Perception-in-Action model,
we reach the conclusion that the designer, in a
4.2 Perception in and through images perceptive dialogue between his imagination and his
graphic representations, identifies, alters, reinterprets
Since visual perception is the dominant among the and improves situations and elements of the task. In
senses, perception in and through images plays a the search for originality through creative perception,
special role in the Perception-in-Action process. This thinking in and through imagery helps the designer to
is emphasised by several design researchers get a unique design solution. According to a
(Goldschmidt 1994; Lawson 1996; Oxman 2002). constructivist perspective, in this Perception-in Action
In her various publications on the central role of process, the designers’ models of reality and personal
graphic representations in the formation and experience of all sorts, which he relates to the
development of ideas in the design process, Gabriela situational factors of the project, support him.
Goldschmidt maintains that sketching is an extension
of mental imagery (1991, 1994, 1998). By drawing,
the designer expands the problem space of the 5 Design Education
projected task, to the extent of including and even
discovering, new aspects, which he considers relevant, Since Schön’s work in educating the ‘reflective
as much as through a subsequent interpretation of his practitioner’ (1987), we can find results of cognitive
graphic representations. Expressive representations studies being used as a foundation of design learning
can expand the over view of the project, but may also and education by several design researchers (amongst
6 K. Tschimmel

others Eastman, McCracken & Newstetter 2001; Another important strategy for the refining of
Oxman 1999, 2001; Tschimmel 2004, 2005). And perception is to work on emotions and feelings. These
taking into account the constructivist didactis (applied filter and structure the perception of situations and
by Oxman 1999; Tschimmel op. cit.; Saariluoma, information (Solovyova 2003), and thus point our
Nevala, Karvinen 2006), we can conclude that the attention in a specific direction. With this, emotions
main objectives of design education should be the are an expression of the way an individual assimilates,
development of process related skills, instead of giving interprets and stores experiences. Positive feelings and
too much attention to the designed products in project personal interest in a theme or project increase
classes. Learning is a process of the self-development intrinsic motivation, perceptive sensibility and the
of the cognitive system, which occurs through the unconscious search for stimuli, which could relate to
perception and construction of meanings. Thus, learn- the project. Dealing with feelings and emotions in a
ing through construction seems to be the most conscious manner could also turn into a strategic
appropriate way of building knowledge structures in means of developing perceptive ability.
the students’ minds and for transforming the students An important strategy for learning how to deal with
into creative design thinkers. And in this process, the emotions in social situations and at the same time for
training of perception plays an important role. developing perceptive abilities, is in an open exchange
with others in dialogue. Open communicative
5.1 Principles and strategies for training perception exchange helps to free this limited and blinkered
perception of a situation. For this the designer must
Owing to the impossibility of teaching creative develop the ability to listen carefully, encourage his
perception theoretically, design education can only partners to express their opinions and to continue,
create the conditions which lead to attentive and taking into account the point of view of the others. In
focused perception, and to the emergence of new ideas the literature of psychology there are a lot of books
and perspectives. about group dynamics with exercises to develop the
One of the basic principles of creative perception is students capacity of dialogue.
the conscious search for new perspectives and fields of As well as the increase of verbal perspectives, one
knowledge, which can provide facts and information of the most frequently used strategies in the
that can be transposed to the context of the problem in development of perception is, as we have seen, the
hand. It’s a kind of perceptive observation. In order to teaching of drawing. Since lack of ability in drawing
complete or consciously modify his first spontaneous can limit visual and spatial imagination, it follows that
perception of a situation or task, the designer needs a drawing lessons take a central position. Just as a
mental flexibility, which lets him jump from one field successful writer must have verbal skills, the designer
of knowledge to another, carrying information. In needs visual expression skills to be creative at this
design classes, it is possible to instruct the students to level.
familiarise themselves with other areas of learning, Unfortunately design students fall back all too
such as biology, astronomy or cognitive sciences. In often on visual or verbal thinking alone, overlooking
each new area they will find crossing points, or aspects the other perceptive senses, and thus limiting the
which could be useful for the Project, and which could design solution possibilities. But formal, material and
result in new perspectives. Concretely, this strategy chromatic nuances, unusual perspectives, strange
could be applied in an exercise like the following: sounds, new smells and flavours can be rich sources of
while the students work on a certain design task or new ideas, concepts and forms. Beside the activation
detail, an invited specialist of an unrelated knowledge of all the senses in the act of perception during
domain like astronomy or physics could give a speech exercises and projects, in design education some other
about a certain subject, from which the students had to complementary strategies, whose purpose is the
transfer something to their design task with the development of a ‘creative perception’, as opposed to
objective of getting a new perspective of the project. In a routine kind of perception, could be applied, such as:
the science of creativity, this procedure is called • Divergent exploration of the project
Forced Relationship. Strategically it also makes sense information and the relevant knowledge to deal
to search out, or to be open to, day-to-day influences, with the problem-solution space;
which can show objects in a new light or with a new • Introduction of students into the world of
significance by semantic confrontation. The creation design cognition, design interaction and of the
of ambiguous situations or the provocation of internal learning process itself;
tensions through contradictions can, especially at the • Encouragement of travelling to other countries
outset of a project, sharpens the perceptive senses of and cultures with predefined observation tasks.
the students.
 Design as a Perception-in-Action Process 7

5.2 Perception-in-Action in the Project Classes or The perception of new solutions in prototyping
Design Studios (4th procedure of PiAp), can be taught in studio
classes by creating many different models, each one
Project classes or design studios are at the heart of highlighting different aspects of the product or service
design education in every design school, because the (form, colour, material, details, etc.).
simulation of real design situations still seems to be The fifth phase of PiAp, the perception of users’
the most effective frame for learning design thinking, reaction, concentrates on methods, which allow a
as Dewey showed us a century ago (1910/1997). varied observation of peoples’ interaction with the
Students who are learning design by projects, side by designed products.
side, and often in collaboration, with colleagues and
with their teachers, experience an intense process of
reciprocal inquiry in which each involved party frames 6 Conclusions
and shapes the design task and every problematic
situation and, at the same time, is shaped by it. In this Each time we, design researchers, observe, describe
process of transaction (Schön 1992), students and and visualize the creative design process with the
teachers give form to the information they transmit to objective of creating new methods and tools to support
each other, and construct together points of view and the process, we have to choose in which design
meanings. There are frequently in this transaction paradigms we move. By choosing the Perception-in-
process a lot of communication and interpretation Action model, the focus is on the development of
problems, as for example identified by Schön (ibid.). techniques which help designers to challenge mental
Students and teachers therefore benefit from patterns, stereotypical ideas and well-known forms of
expressing their ideas usually in images such as hand perceptive expression. But we still lack more tools that
drawings and digital drawings, but also in other kind can be applied in classes and the studio, to help the
of visual representations such as Mind Mappings, development of students’ perceptive thinking abilities.
Mood Charts, Scenario sketches, etc. These kinds of In future projects we intend to develop some more of
complementary imagery tools are still not applied these tools and exercises, and at the same time test the
enough in project classes, which are not directly existing methods of creative thinking through
related with methodology. But as every design class perception in respect of their usefulness.
should give an incentive and motive for the Although our reflections on the Perception-in-
construction of new perspectives and knowledge, Action model and our experience in design education
process methods should not only enter the design have indicated that perception training is an valuable
studio, but also other classes, including the theorical contribution to the learning process of future
ones. designers, we have to admit that there is a big
For training a creative perception of a design task limitation of our model: it seems to be extremely
(1st procedure of PiAp), besides the application of difficult to prove that perception training in design
methods such as Mind Mapping or Role Play, education improves the creative thinking capacity of
exercises, which lead to the uncommon observation future designers and the degree of originality and
and registering of curious situations in peoples’ live innovation of their designed products. To prove the
could be used. Important in these exercises is the core of perception in creative design, we still have to
exploration of nuances, rareness and ambiguity. develop an empirical way of measuring the
In the second phase of PiAp, the perception of a contribution of perception training: because of the
new perspective, methods such as Inverted ‘sleeper-effect’ of learning, positive results of
Brainstorming, Bodystorming, Extreme Characters or perception development only are evident some years
Scenarios can develop the capacity of reframing. The later.
reframing and redefinition of situations can be taught
in any kind of class, working with texts, images or
other sensual stimuli. At the centre should be the
conscious destruction of stereotypical views in respect
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