TYPES OF DEFECTS

1. Cha ng
• Reference: "Aircraft Materials and Processes"
by George Titterton.
• Brief description: Cha ng is a type of wear
that occurs when two surfaces repeatedly rub
against each other. It can cause abrasion,
surface damage, and even breakage of parts.
• Equipment needed: Visual inspection may be
enough to detect cha ng, but a microscope or
magnifying glass can be helpful to identify the
extent of damage.
• General allowable limits: There are no speci c
allowable limits for cha ng as it depends on
the application and severity of the damage.
• Location: Cha ng can occur in any area
where two surfaces are in contact and rubbing
against each other.
• Cause: Cha ng is typically caused by
vibration, motion, or inadequate lubrication
between surfaces.
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2. Corrosion
• Reference: "Aircraft Maintenance and Repair"
by Michael J. Kroes and William A. Watkins.
• Brief description: Corrosion is the gradual
deterioration of metal caused by chemical
reactions with the environment. It can weaken
structures and compromise their integrity.
• Equipment needed: Visual inspection, probes,
or ultrasonic testing may be needed to detect
corrosion.
• General allowable limits: The allowable limits
depend on the type and location of the
corrosion. In some cases, it may be allowed to
be present as long as it is within certain
tolerances.
• Location: Corrosion can occur in any area
where metals are exposed to moisture, salt, or
other corrosive agents.
• Cause: Corrosion is caused by the reaction of
metals with the environment, including
exposure to moisture, salt, acids, and other
chemicals.
3. Crack
• Reference: "Aircraft Inspection, Repair and
Alterations" by Federal Aviation Administration.
• Brief description: A crack is a discontinuity or
fracture in a structure that can lead to failure if
not detected and repaired.
• Equipment needed: Visual inspection or
penetrant testing may be needed to detect
cracks.
• General allowable limits: The allowable limits
depend on the type and location of the crack.
Some cracks may be acceptable if they do not
compromise the structure's integrity, while
others may require immediate repair or
replacement.
• Location: Cracks can occur in any area where
there is stress or fatigue, such as around
fasteners, corners, and edges.
• Cause: Cracks can be caused by stress,
fatigue, corrosion, or manufacturing defects.
4. Crazing
• Reference: "Aircraft Structures for Engineering
Students" by T.H.G. Megson.
• Brief description: Crazing is a network of ne
cracks on the surface of a material that does
not extend into the structure's depth.
• Equipment needed: Visual inspection or
magnifying glass may be needed to detect
crazing.
• General allowable limits: The allowable limits
depend on the extent and location of the
crazing. Some crazing may be allowed if it
does not a ect the structure's integrity or
performance.
• Location: Crazing can occur in any area where
there is stress or exposure to chemicals or UV
light.
• Cause: Crazing can be caused by stress,
temperature, chemicals, UV light, or aging of
the material.
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5. Delaminating
• Reference: "Aircraft Inspection, Repair and
Alterations" by Federal Aviation Administration.
• Description: Delamination refers to the
separation of layers or plies in a composite
material, typically caused by stress or damage.
It can appear as a crack-like feature along the
interface between the layers.
• Special equipment: such as X-rays or
ultrasound can be used to detect delamination.
• The allowable limits: depend on the
application and type of composite, but in
general, it should be minimized or eliminated to
ensure the material's structural integrity.
• Location: Delamination can occur in any
composite material, including carbon ber
composites used in aircraft, wind turbine
blades, and sporting equipment.
• Cause: Delamination can be caused by a
variety of factors, such as impact damage,
fatigue, manufacturing defects, or exposure to
moisture and temperature changes.

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6. Dent
• Reference: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Handbook
• Description: Delamination is a type of defect
that occurs in layered structures such as
laminated composites. It is the separation of
layers due to inadequate bonding, which can
result in a decrease in strength and sti ness.
Delamination may appear as a visible
separation between the layers, or it may be
hidden within the layers.
• Special equipment: such as ultrasound or X-
ray inspection is used to detect this defect. The
allowable limits for delamination depend on the
location and the application of the structure.
• Location: Delamination is most likely to be
found in laminated composite structures such
as aircraft wings and wind turbine blades.
• Cause: Delamination can be caused by
inadequate bonding during manufacturing,
exposure to harsh environmental conditions, or
mechanical damage.
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7. Fatigue failure
• Reference: ASM Handbook Volume 19:
Fatigue and Fracture
• Description: Fatigue failure is a type of failure
that occurs over time due to repeated loading
or cyclic stress. It can result in cracks or
fractures in the material, which can eventually
lead to complete failure. The appearance of
fatigue failure can vary, but it often appears as
a crack or fracture on the surface of the
material.
• Special equipment: such as ultrasound or X-
ray inspection may be used to detect cracks
and measure their size. The allowable limits for
fatigue depend on the material and the
application.
• Location: Fatigue failure can occur in various
materials such as metals, plastics, and
composites. It is commonly found in structures
that experience repeated loading, such as
aircraft wings, bridges, and machinery.
• Cause: Fatigue failure can be caused by cyclic
loading, stress concentrations, or
manufacturing defects.
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8. Fretting
• Reference: Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) Advisory Circular AC 43-206A
• Description: Fretting is a form of wear that
occurs at the contact point between two
surfaces that experience small amplitude
oscillatory motion or vibration. Fretting can
cause surface damage such as pitting,
cracking, or erosion.
• Special equipment: such as microscopes and
non-destructive testing equipment may be
needed to detect fretting. The allowable limits
for fretting will depend on the speci c
component and its function.
• Location: Fretting can be found in various
locations on an aircraft, including engine
mounts, wing attachments, and landing gear
components.
• Cause: The main causes of fretting are cyclic
loading and vibration, which can occur during
normal aircraft operation.
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 9. Gouging
• Reference: FAA Advisory Circular 43.13-1B
"Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and
Practices - Aircraft Inspection and Repair"
• Description: Gouging is a type of defect that is
characterized by the removal of a relatively
large amount of material from the surface of an
aircraft structure. It can be caused by various
factors, including accidental damage, improper
maintenance procedures, or exposure to
foreign objects. Gouges can compromise the
structural integrity of the aircraft and may lead
to stress concentrations that can cause cracks.
• Special equipment: Gouging can be detected
through visual inspection or using non-
destructive testing techniques such as eddy
current testing or ultrasonic testing.
• The allowable limits: for gouges depend on
the location and severity of the defect, as well
as the type of material and stress level in the
a ected area.
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 10. Scratch
• Reference: FAA AC 43.13-1B
• Description: Scratching is a type of surface
defect that is characterized by the removal of a
relatively small amount of material from the
surface of an aircraft structure.
• Cause: It can be caused by various factors,
including accidental damage, improper
maintenance procedures, or exposure to
foreign objects. Scratches may not
compromise the structural integrity of the
aircraft but can a ect the aerodynamic
performance and appearance of the aircraft.
• The allowable limits: for scratches depend on
the location and severity of the defect, as well
as the type of material and stress level in the
a ected area.
• Special equipment: Scratches can be
detected through visual inspection or using
non-destructive testing techniques such as dye
penetrant inspection or magnetic particle
inspection.
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