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EMA 412 complete notes-2

Biomedical Laboratory Instrumentation (Maseno University)

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EMA 412

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION.

Introduction.

ECONOMICS AND PLANNING OF EDUCATION.

What is planning?

This is a discipline that has developed as a result of very practical reasons in sense that:

1. They are essential means of a nation to achieve its educational goals and therefore
objectives that are dependent on series of activities planned for future.
2. As envisaged in changes that shape human societies to be individuals that can promote
development, education planning forms part of other societal planning. An example of a
development plan in Kenya is the Vision 2030 which includes plans such as; making
Kenya an industrialized country by the year 2020, documentation every five years on
fight against HIV and AIDS, environmental education and awareness.
3. Better utilization of limited resources by appropriate distribution and utilization.
4. Knowledge on economics plays an important role by having fundamentals of economics
on scarcity of resources.
5. Planning is essential in solving emerging challenges in education. These include financial
constraints, social and cultural interference, equity and efficiency.
6. Planner will endeavor to mitigate these by reducing wastage caused by drop outs and
repeaters.

Assignment.

1. What are the millennium development goals?

2. Discuss the Kenyan Vision 2030.

3. Discuss Kenya's goals of education.

Definition of educational planning.

Planning - this is the rational process of preparing a set of divisions for future actions directed at
achieving objectives already set.

Therefore educational planning can be defined as;

Y. Drow (1963) is "the process of comparing a set of decision for action in the future directed to
achieving goals by optimal means.”

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Arnold Anderson and Jene Bowman (1967) "The process of preparing a set of decisions for
future actions pertaining to education”

Philip Coombs (1967) in What Is Educational Planning? , states, educational planning in its
broadcast generic sense is the application of rational systematic analysis to the process of
educational development with an the aim of making education more effective and efficient in
responding to the needs of its students and the society.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING.

Planning is a natural process in societies and example of application of planning in education can
be detected in the history of the remotest times. Education develops in socio-cultural and
economic objectives of any given society. For example, 25 C ago in the city state of Spartak,
they set up an educational system exactly suited to military training, social and economic
purposes which were precisely defined that is, the aim of education was to produce an ideal
citizen soldier who was to be loyal, honest and Courageous. Educational activities included
gymnastics, sports, games as well as dancing.

Plato of the ancient Athens in the Republic proposed a scheme in order to make school the
servant of the society. Educational Planning can also be traced back to the ancient civilization of
the Nile, Peru of the Incas and China of the Han Dynasties.

During the 16th century, Scottish educators like John Knox visualized school and colleges as
places where the spiritual and material well being of a society could be realized.

In later centuries, Classical economists like Alfred Martial and Adam Smith also emphasized
relationship between education and industrial training and development.

During the twentieth century historical development of educational planning can be traced to be
specifically in the Soviet Revolution of 1917.

From 1923 onwards, the educational system in the Soviet Union was carefully planned and
utilized to transform the country. The communist ideology of creating a classless society
provided a philosophy of life for the people and the ruling party coordinated the learning
activities of the Soviet community.

In the rest of Europe, educational planning before world war2 had certain characteristics - short
range, not integrated with planning of the entire economy. However, this situation changed after
the WW2. Education was seen to be in 4 phases of planning.

1. Reconstruction Phase.

Able bodied men were lost and infrastructure got destroyed leading to the need for reconstruction
to be inevitable.Politicians and planners in Europe saw that the only way to meet the man power
need of their economics, emphasis had to be laid on educational planning. The scarce resources

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provided through the American Marshall plan for economic recovery were through planning
allocated.Britain adopted a 5-year plan while models from the Soviet Union influenced the
countries from the Eastern Europe.There was emphasis on the relationship between educational
planning and economic development through planning.

More importantly, it equated an efficient educational system with economic growth.

2. Manpower Shortage.

Dominant in 50s and markedwith interest of economists in education planning.T. W. Schultz,

(1961)conceptualized the 1960s economists were interested in the link between education
planning and economics.In his theory of Investment in HumanCapital, he studied the
investment in human capital.Economics of education became a new course offered in
Universities.

3. Rampant Expansion Phase.

There was demand for popular and higher education.France to meet this demand, integrated
educational planning with overall educational planning.These planning however met first testing
in 1967-68 by demos in educational institutions and the major complain were the relevance of
education to existing occupational opportunities.The phase led to the current phase of innovation
and adaptation of education and educational planning.

4. Innovation phase.

A phase marked by change in society and adoption of modern methods of education where
technology that was new was used. Strategies were developed to solve socioeconomic
challenges.

Historical Development of Educational Planning In Developing

Countries.
The same phases were realized as those in Europe. The phases though were realized after 1960s
when countries were gaining independence.Manpower approach became so popular because
education was associated with economic growth. Newly independent countries nevertheless
faced a lot of problems such as

-imbalances especially in educational systems - pry, sec and tertiary as well as between regions -
rural /urban.

-inadequate resources and rising social demands for education forcing education to be aligned
along social and manpower approach.

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FPE was introduced in Kenya in 1974.Internationalization of development of educational

planning was realized in 1961 at the Addis Ababa where an outline for the development of
education in Africa was adopted.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN KENYA.

Its development can be traced back to pre independent Kenya by looking at various commissions
for education appointed by the colonial government.Department of Education was established to
look into issues that affect education. The department was to plan, implement and coordinate
education activities in Kenya.

Missionaries’ presence and their possessive outlook towards education as being basic and tool
for evangelism posed threat to this department.This was a threat because the colonial government
wanted to use education to produce cheap but literate labour and improving the lives of
Africans.To avoid competition from literate black, education and curriculum had to be
controlled.

Education commission such as Frasier Commission was set up.

THE FRASER REPORT-(1909)

The commission was mandated to carry out a survey of education and advise on the organization and
type of education to be given to the various racial groups.

The following were the major recommendations:

1. Provision of industrial education for Africans to guard against the likely conceit and insolence that
was likely to follow the provision of literary education. Practical education through apprenticeship was
recommended to replace the relatively expensive Indian artisans with Africans.

2. Education facilities for Africans to be provided by missionary societies. Fraser's argument was that
any education, whether industrial or technical needed to have a good moral foundation-hence Christian
instructions given by missionaries were necessary to help the Africans obey the authority and have moral
character.

3. Fraser recommended establishment of a Department of Education and appointment of a Director of

Education.

4. Education was to be on racial lines i.e. Europeans, Asians and Africans. European and Asian
children were to be given academic education.

The Fraser Report was accepted by the Education Board of Government officials, settlers and
missionaries. The following are examples of its implementation.

a) In 1911, the Department of Education was established to regulate educational activities in the
colony. James R Orr was appointed as the first Director of Education.

b) The Director introduced payments of grants-in aid to mission schools to experiment with the
teaching of basic industrial skills like smithing, agriculture, carpentry and typing.

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c) The department also played an important role in establishing government schools especially in
areas where they believed were not adequately served by the missionaries. It started by supporting and
expanding a school that had been started by a District Officer in Kitui in 1909. Later, another government
school was opened in Machakos (1913).

Other schools that were opened included the Maasai School at Narok, Coast Technical and Waa for the
Wadigo.

In spite of the development following the Fraser Report, there were still many areas of discontentment
amongst various groups e.g.

a) The missionaries were not happy with the secular schools that the government was opening.

b) The government had no staff of their own for the schools they started. They depended on the
missionaries to teach for them or provide teachers.

c) The missionaries were experiencing shortage of funds. The grants given were not adequate and
were based on results-i.e. the better the performance, the more the grants.

d) The Asian and European communities were concerned with improving education for their children
and were agitating for more support from the government-they had to pay fees and some found it difficult
to do so.

e) The rapid expansion of the village schools was not favoured by the colonial administration as it
included literacy which was contrary to colonial policy.

f) There was still the general question as to which agency-mission or government was best suited to
fully undertake the education of Africans.

As a result of these concerns, proposals were made to appoint a commission to bring together views on
the nature of education. The Education Commission of 1919 was then appointed. This Commission
solicited for views from different bodies and individuals including the missionaries before giving its
recommendations.

The Commission made the following recommendations:

1. There should be regular moral and religious instructions in African schools.

2. The missionaries were better placed to educate the Africans because Christianity was an integral
aspect in the process of civilization. The commission therefore recommended a partnership between the
missionaries and the government which was to support missionaries in development of African education
through grants in aid.

3. That the policy of payment by results be abolished and payment made on the general state of
efficiency of the school.

4. The government should give subsidies for technical education.

5. Curriculum for Africans to lay emphasis on technical education-any literacy only to be given as a
basis for technical education. African children were not to be given literary education which would "ruin"
them and make them aspire for clerical jobs instead of manual work.

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Most of these recommendations were implemented e.g.

a) The government abolished payment by results and introduced a system of grants in aid.

b) African education was left mainly in the hands of the missionaries.

c) Christian moral and religious instruction was incorporated in the curriculum.

d) Teacher training remained in the hands of the missionaries.

N.B

It is important to note that the desire by the Christian missionaries to monopolize the process of educating
Africans was specifically meant to prevent the government from undue interference-this was because
education formed an integral part of evangelization. It was out of such suspicions that some missionary
groups such as AIM and SDA refused government grants.

Discuss the post independent educational commissions in Kenya briefly elaborating their
recommendations.

THE PROCESS IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING.

The following are the main steps that are followed in educational planning.

Formulation of situational analysis.

Setting of provisional targets - draft.

Interventional /Strategies considered for optimal methods of goal satisfaction.

Implementation stage.

Feedback and evaluation stage.

Formulation /situational analysis stage.

INTRODUCTION

For purposes of discussion, this process may be analysed into six stages, namely

Planning Stage: This stage comprises 5 principal steps:

1) Diagnosis Formulation of situational analysis –

I. national educational objectives are defined.
II. educational planner ascertains whether the current educational effort of the country is
adequate, relevant and conducive to their achievement. This is done by matching the
output of the educational effort with the objectives and noting the salient
divergencies.

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III. diagnosis leads to the identification of weaknesses and shortfalls in nature,

magnitude, quality, organization and level of performance of the national educational
activities.
IV. criteria for this diagnosis are dictated by national educational objectives. The pattern
is to stress on the three criteria of relevance, effectiveness and efficiency, i.e.
Relevance to national and social aspirations.

Effectiveness in achieving national objectives in full.

Efficiency in the best use of resources to achieve maximum results.

Formulation of Policy –

The diagnosis of the existing educational situation highlights defects and deficiencies are to be
corrected to enhance relevance, effectiveness and efficiency.

Corrective action are based on a policy spelled out to indicate the general framework within
which detailed decisions are to be made.

A set of policies framed to remedy each of the defects and deficiencies revealed by the diagnosis.
Each new policy seeks to reform education and, therefore, policy formulation is an instrument of
educational reform. The purpose of planning in this stage is primarily two fold:

(a) to present a set of decisions to the appropriate national authorities for approval: and

(b) to provide a blue-print for action by the various agencies responsible for implementing those
decisions.
For both purposes, the agencies concerned require a clear statement of what is proposed, why it
is proposed and how the proposals are going to be implemented.

NOTE

What is called Education Plan is that statement.

Preparation of Each statement is referred to as Plan Formulation.

It calls for certain skills as the statement has to be brief, succinct and, at the same time, adequate.

2) Establishment of Priorities and Target -Setting –

the educational plannerstake stock of the resources available to educational development
from various sources.
These data are extrapolated to get an idea of the resources reasonably anticipated on the
basis of past trends.
Most countries, the financial outlay for education are indicated in a macro-economic
plan giving the governmental share in the anticipated expenditure on education. With

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data from either of these sources, the educational planner reviews the future needs,
establishes priorities among competing candidates for resources and sets the targets
which can realistically be achieved with the anticipated investment of resources. This is
the stage when alternative means of achieving the objectives are examined in order to
determine the most relevant and effective ones within the allowable cost.
3) Feasibility Testing - The targets are set according to needs that have been identified
ensuring targets is necessary to ensure whether they are consistent and feasible.

4) Plan Implementation Stage:

Begins when individual projects are taken up for execution. Here, planning process
merges with the management process of the national educational effort. Using the annual
budget or the annual plan as the principal instrument, an organizational framework is
developed for the various projects. The resources (men, money and materials), needed
for each project, are allocated. The time within which it is to be completed are indicated.
Moreover, such other operational details as delegation of authority, lines of
communication and consultation, assignment of responsibility and installation of
feedback and control mechanisms are also developed. Generally, the entire educational
administrative organization of the nation participates in the Plan Implementation Stage.
5) Evaluation. Revision and Replanning Stage: As the education plan is being
implemented, the machinery to evaluate the rate of progress and detect deviations is set
in motion. While evaluation is normally a continuous operation, simultaneous with plan
implementation, the preparation of reports may be at fixed points (e.g. annually, mid-
term or half-way point of the plan period or end-of-term). Evaluation serves two specific
purposes:
(a) It highlights weaknesses in the plan (e.g. unrealistic targets, inadequate financial provisions,
improper phasing) and throws up matters for revision of the Plan for the balance of the plan
period. Where the practice of "rolling plans" is adopted, each year's rolling plan embodies
revisions as necessitated by implementation experience.

(b) It takes the place of Diagnosis of the Planning Stage in providing the basis for replanning.
Thus, it becomes the beginning of the next cycle of planning.
National goals are identified and function to offer direction towards a desired end. The set goals
must be realizable, measurable, relevant and capable of being operational.

The guiding questions include:

❖ What alternatives? For whom? To what degree? At what rate?

❖ Under what conditions? How would the goals be recognized when well achieved?
Educational objective are formulated along time frames - medium range objectives should cover
for a learning duration between 5-10 years.

They are statements that can be attained and measured.

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ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION

Economics - can be said to be the study of activities involved in the production in exchange of
goods. It deals with resources and it analyses economic trends in prizes, output un/employment
in society.

Specifically, economics is the science of choices that studies how people choose to use those
limited resources to produce maximum output.

Samuelson, (1961 ),economics is the study how people, men and women in the society choose
with or without the use of money to employ scarce productive resources to produce various
commodities over time for consumption now and in the future.

Education - a process of training and developing knowledge, skills and character among people.
It involves the production and distribution of knowledge whether they are undertaken in regular
institutions of learning or elsewhere. Economists and educationists have a strong relationship
because while economists are concerned about how limited resources - buildings, land labour
and capital are used in production.Educators are concerned with actual process of making
decision relative to the use of resources for the purpose of specific functions.

Economics of education is the study of how men and women in the society choose to employ
scarce resources to produce various types of educational training such as development of
knowledge, skills and character.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION.

Education As A Consumption /Investment.

We attain higher learning grades for better jobs and salaries.

It can be quantified.

Direct benefits are realized.

Indirect benefits include enlightenment, appreciation of the environment etc.

As an investment its benefits can be quantified and they are tangible.

Education imparts the right knowledge, skills and attitudes in a person.

Helps in securing employment. Increase lifetime earnings.

Education promotes further training. Education enhances prestigious promotional levels.

It leads to market mobility. Gives opportunity to read and write.

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Conversing in foreign language. Increases job productivity. Improves innovative

ability of workers.

It creates self employment.

Education as consumption.

Leads to crime reduction in the society. Conformity to environment.

High levels of environmental conservation. Enhance social cohesion.

Increases level of patriotism. Creates a politically conscious citizenry.

Improved health standards. Good positive neighborhood.

Enhances social prestige. Increase useful connections in societies.

Equity and Efficiency in Education.

Equity - deals with justice and fairness in allocation of resources. Equity looks at a situation in
its fairness regardless of a people's background. In education, it looks at how resources are
distributed among schools and how education beneficiaries are treated.

Efficiency in education-Looks at relationship between input and output. It looks at how

education resources - inputs generate maximum educational output.

Internal Efficiency.

Deals with extent to which school systems meet internal objectives. Objectives are normally of
quality and measurable e. g studying for passing exams is one of the objectives of a school it
means all systems in that school will be geared towards passing of the of exams in order to
achieve that objective.

Ways of Measuring Internal efficiency in Education.

Can be measured through

Dropout rates. Repetition rate. Grade promotion rate - minimum grade.

Completion rate. Passing rate. Graduation rate.

Enrolment rate.

External Efficiency.

Educational system looks at the extent to which educational system is able to meet the goals of
other sectors in a country.

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The goals are normally the ones found within the school systems.

Factors Affecting Internal Efficiency Of An Educational System and Their

Solutions.
PROBLEMS SOLUTION

Inflation partnership - IMF, cushioning.

High student: teacher ratio. Employing more teachers.

Unqualified teachers. In service, workshops

Financial misappropriation. Structures - EACC, QUSO, refresher

courses.

Repetition rate.

Too much pressure on performance - ranking.

Inappropriate curriculum.

Long distances.

Drop outs - poverty.

Factors That Affect Equality In Education.

Ethnicity - affects resource allocation in terms of teachers, money or other facilities due to their
geographical location.

Regional location - climatic conditions. Influences teachers allocation.

Historical background - colonial syllabus; missionaries influence; placement by the whites.

Corruption - political influence-bills and policies, influences administration.

Mismanagement by school heads- finances, curricular delivery.

IQ-learner individual differences; learning methods.

Racial segregation.

Gender and culture.

Government Intervention To Ensure Equity.

1. Introduction of FPE and FSDE-improved retention and access to all.

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2. Feeding programme in school - ASAL areas.

3. Introduction of economic recovery plans - looks into economic needs for the far to reach
communities and also help resuscitate economy.
4. Ensuring that education is given to all.
5. Introduction of HELB. -
6. Improving school infrastructure - conducive learning environment.
7. Allowing girls to go back to school after delivery.
8. Enhancing bursaries and targeted cash transfers through CDF.
9. Lowering cut - off points for girls joining university.
10. Introduction of polytechnics.
11. Abolishing of school rankings.

Importance of Equity.
Education as a human right requires that it should be availed to all.

Benefits of education are many and its opportunities must be given to all.

People must be given opportunities to avoid displacement of blames.

Education and Employment.

Education is believed to have a positive relationship with employment and that is why it holds
the key to life. This is because of the following reasons.

It imparts the relevant knowledge that prepares people to find employment and work
productively.

It gives one the hedging option - flexibility to change jobs in the market.

Education is believed to pay handsomely in dividends in terms of earnings, modern amenities

that go with class.

Earns one promotional chances.

Education has benefits geared towards investment. They include :

Status of Education in Developing Nations.

1. There are syllabus that are inappropriate and don't respond to the employment needs.
2. Lack of education that focuses on self reliance to daily lives - rural environment and
developing self employment projects.
3. Developing countries have academic programmes that focus more on traditional
cognitive, psychosocial and political objectives thus productivity in such fields depend on
the availability of such jobs which are always very scarce.

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4. Emphasis is on passing exams and certificates from one educational level to another for
the needs of better pay and jobs.
5. Demographic problems in which population keeps on growing.
6. Inappropriate means of distributing resources that affects employability interfering with
opportunities.
7. The disease of over qualification for the purpose of better job has led to education
unemployment.
8. Educational supply has outdone the demand as more graduates are produced from both
colleges and universities.
9. Corruption manifested through nepotism and favoritism.
10. Civil wars.
11. Competing between developing and developed countries.

NATURE AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING.

There was a widespread belief in post independent Africa was that education held a very
important key factor in economic and social change. Other than being seen as a means of
understanding, controlling and developing the natural environment, it can also be a tool for the
enhancement of life and the enrichment of human spirit.

Educational planning becomes handy to achieve this effectively and efficiently, hence it has
become essential element of overall comprehensive socioeconomic planning (vision 2030).
Educational planner is called upon to ensure that the national and economic resources in
education are used well.Planners use data such as enrolment based on sex, age, rate in progress
and repetition, unit and aggregate, manpower requirement focus and building and equipment
needs are always essential data on social structure.

The above mentioned data is not enough and a complete plan must take into account another
group of issues which by the facts of life for an administrator, that is, the pattern of pressure
groups, organizational structures, pay scale, union rules or any combination of a history of other
complicated features which might force reluctant rejection of a plan unless that plan indicates
necessary changes in those features.

Educational planner must ensure educational resources are used economically and intelligently
planned. Educational planning is future oriented and draws lessons from the past. Educational
planning must take into consideration both formal and informal learning, training facilities in the
country so as to achieve educational goals.

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It is a tool for socioeconomic and political development that is adaptable to the goals of the
society, involving a willingness to size up the situation. The difficult task in educational planning
is to ensure that education fits harmoniously into the patterns of change which is sufficiently
progressive to produce the kind of social and technical leadership and qualified human resource
while at the same time preserving continuity and development of the societal cultural identity.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN EDUCATION.

In recent years it has become increasingly popular to argue institutions of learning should operate
like business. The overall opinion is to recognize the basic principles of economics of demand
and supply as applied in education. Demand and supply is an economic model of price
determination in the market. In a competitive market, the unit price for a particular good will
varies until it settles at a point where the quantity supplied by the producers enough resulting in
an economic equilibrium of price and commodity.

How does the model affects /applies to education?

Public schools are funded by taxes which are extracted from the parents therefore they are
essentially tax payers hence parents have an obligation to take their children to school. Parents
who cannot afford private schools or homeschooling have little choice but to send their children
to public schools funded by the government.

Conditions for supply and demand.

Supply is not just amount of something but the willingness and ability of potential sellers to
produce and sell it. Quantity supply is the amount of goods that the sellers would choose to
produce and sell under a given condition which include;

1. Price of the goods.

2. Price of factors of production.
3. Prices of alternative products.
4. Technology.
5. Productive capacity.
6. Prices expected in future.
The conditions are further referred to as determiners of supply.

To economists, demand refers to both the willingness and ability to pay quantity demanded, is
the total amount of goods that buyers would choose to produce under the following conditions.

1. Prices of the goods.

2. Income and wealth.
3. Price of substitutes.
4. Population.
5. Preference or taste.

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6. Expectations of future prices.

Factors that influence demand and supply of education.

1. Price of education as influenced by ;
I. Tuition fee.
II. Price of electricity, water and conservancy.
III. Levies such as PTA, development and purchase.
IV. Local transport and travelling.
V. Administration coast.
VI. Land for primary and day secondary schools.
VII. Excursions, games and symposium.
VIII. Price and availability of related products.
Some products in education are interrelated in that they can either be used together or
independently, therefore changes in price of one of the related products will influence
demand for similar products depending on the relationship for example ink, pen, chalk etc.

2. Income distribution and income from consumers.

The level of income of an individual will determine their ability to pay for products. Parents with
higher incomes tend to consume education in private schools and private universities.
Alternatively, the lower income group tends to consume public provision of education. Peasant
children find it difficult to afford education and eventually drop out.

3. Preferences and taste of consumers.

Pegged on what we still prefer. The consumer may prefer an expensive school, foreign
universities while others will prefer local day school, national school and county schools.
Preferences and tastes are pre – determinants of demand and supply.

4. Consumers’ expectations.
The performance of an individual school or university can either raise or lower the expectations
of the consumers and his or her decision to invest in education. For example, consumers may
prefer national school as opposed to local schools due to performance, better standards, well
equipped Institutions, that all work towards attracting students.

5. Size structure of the population.

Changes in population over time affect the demand for education. As the population structure
expands, the population structure changes and if it consists of youths as majority the demand for
education will be high.

6. Government policy.

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For example, the taxation by the government on its citizens can be used to subsidize education
through FPE and FSE which in turn influences the demand for education. Government quarter
system such as entry into the university and national school has influenced the demand for
education on various courses in the university. Banning corporal punishment and bullying of
students have great g influences on the demand for education.

7. Socio-cultural factors.
For example the entry age in school, rites of passage on women and men.

8. Change in the education system.

9. Changes in leadership in primary and secondary schools.

Influences enrolment of students due to performance.

Factors InfluencingSupply Of Education.

1. Price of Education-this involves salaries of the teachers prices of textbooks, prices of

pieces of equipment, prices of books and food stuffs.
2. Price of factors of production-this includes factors such as land, labour, capital and
entrepreneurship. For a school to be established, land is required and if pricing in land
increases the demand and supply of education will be limited.
3. State of technology-currently most schools are being supplied with computers and
laptops for primary schools. The aim is to improve information and communication
within the education sector. Problem arises in the supply of text books and other
materials because they can easily be accessed through the internet.
4. Time Aspect-if the school or an institution has problems of discipline, encourages
corrupt practices by teachers and students, time management becomes a problem and
therefore most parents and students will prefer to go to schools with high levels of
discipline thus influencing enrollment in schools.
5. Goals of education in a country-in Kenya, the establishment of F. P. E & FSE has
greatly influenced enrollment in public schools. At the university level HELB has greatly
influenced enrollment in public university thus supply has greatly increased in such a
way that over 60 universities are offering spaces for students. The number of primary and
secondary schools been increased.
6. Universities in the country-political environment will influence establishment of
schools.
7. Teachers’ supply and demand-various techniques are used to access supply and
demands of the teachers. In Kenya TSC is mandated to register and employ teachers.

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Factors Influencing Teacher Shortage In Kenya.

1. Lack of interest in teaching.
2. Aging of the teaching workforce.
3. Lack of teaching in key subjects areas e.g.science, arts and comparative education.
4. Recruitment of teachers abroad.
5. Increase in students’ enrollment.
6. Relative financial and non-financial rewards of teaching of alternatives.
7. Migration of teachers.
8. Working conditions for teachers.
Factors Dealing With Demand of Teachers.

1. Government policy.
2. Schools and their zones.
3. Population issues.
4. High retention rate.
5. Lack of teachers in rural areas.
Indicators of demand and supply of education.

1. No of education institutions in Kenya.

Number of ECD centers rose from 29455(2003) to 37267(2007) a 26.5% and it has continued
to increase.Number of primary schools.

Total number has increased from 19554(2003) to 26104 (2007) a 35.5%andto a

69.4%.This has led to more demand for teachers’ supply.
Number of secondary schools.
Kenya had 4071 (2003) to6432 (2007) and presently they are over 8000 an estimated
increase of 79.1%.
2. Enrollment.
1.154M (2003) to 1.67 (2007), ECD 7M-8.3M between 2000-2007.

Opportunities for the current graduates.

I. Replacement of the retired teachers and the transferred ones.

II. Tertiary institutions – ECDE colleges,TTC, Polies and other technical institutions.
III. Certain industry such as banking and insurance.
IV. Social selection building of networks on who know who basis.
V. NGO
VI. AGR/BUS.

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HUMAN CAPITAL IN EDUCATION.

Schulz(1993)H.C is an important element in improving firm’s assets in the employee’s in order

to increase productive as well as sustain competitive advantage in an organization. H. C becomes
instrumental in increasing productivity. Human Capital is therefore the process that relates to
training, educating and other professional initiatives in order to increase the level of knowledge,
skills, abilities and social assets of an employee which will to the employee’s satisfaction and
performance and eventually on a firm’s performance.

It corresponds to any stock of knowledge or characteristics that the workers may have either
innate or acquired that contribute to their productivity depending on the generic origin. The
above definitions are broad and both cases have disadvantages and advantages.

Advantages.
1. Measures the financial performance of an individual.
2. Enables the firm to review the experience of an individual.
3. Measures the profitability of an individual in an organization.
4. Measures the capital employed towards delivering education on an individual.
5. Measures earning per individual.
6. Tend to be used as a benchmark for accounting indicators.
7. Measures the equality of workers in terms of salary, compensation, and quality of
workers and productivity of the workers.
Disadvantages

1. Discriminates in terms of payment structure for individuals within an organization hence

it differentiate within an organizational set up.
HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY.
The standard approach in labour economics views human capital as a set of skills or
characteristics that increase a worker’s productivity. This is useful in starting point and for most
practical purpose quite sufficient. It may be useful in distinguishing some models or ways of
thinking for purpose of classification. The following models argue the case for human capital in
education.

1. Becker’s View.
His book, Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Human Capital, illustrates his model. Becker
argues that there are different kinds of capital that include schooling, computer training and
expenditure on medical care. He argues that human capital is directly useful in production
process. More explicitly, Becker argues that human capital increases a worker’s productivity in
all tasks through differentiated situations in an organization. He says that human beings may
perform complex tasks because they have a sense and at the same time they can think in many
dimensions and therefore human beings have a stock of knowledge, skills that can improve
production.

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2. Gardener’s View.
We should think of human capital not only as dimensional but rather human capital should be
unseen to have many dimensions such as mental ability, physical ability, intellectual ability
and unskilled ability.

3. Bowels and Giniti’s view.

It is the capacity to work in an organization, obey orders and to adapt to the hierarchical
system in the society that is important. According to him, the main aim is to instill on an
individual the correct ideology and approach in life. Despite the differences in the theories,
human capital is still valued under the market consideration for the purpose of increasing
profit in an organization.

Sources of Human Capital Differences.

1. Innate Ability – workers can have different amount of skills because of innate ability and
differences. Researchers has documented that differences may be genetic or acquired and
therefore we can have individuals who are talented in science, arts and medical fields
because of innate abilities. The earnings for these different groups will also vary
depending on the genetic abilities.
2. Schooling-has been defined as the process of focus of human capital. Research indicates
that schooling differences account for small fraction of difference in earnings. Further,
schooling is likely to be very informative if the focus is on the productivity of an
individual.
3. Training –similar to schooling in that workers at least to some degree go through a
process by being trained in complex skills acquisition Training is acquired after schooling
and often associated with a particular industry or technology – banking sector, ICT,
engineering and diversity of skills acquired in technical training and polytechnics.
4. Pre-labour Market. May be manifested by the following ways :
Peer Influence.

Individuals are exposed into labour through peer groupings. The ultimate effect of peer
groupings is to a significant lost ability of an individual to join labour market.

Skilled Personnel.

These can be agriculturalists, engineering, building and financial managers.

Diversity of skills.

National character -integrity etc.

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Evidences Of Human Capital in Kenya.

Human capital is tendered to rely on accumulation of skills, however, certain attributes are being
considered in Kenya, they include :

National characters.
Entrepreneurial ability.
Manpower development.
Administration skills.
Uses Of Human Capital.

1. Productivity in the area of specialty.

2. Innovativeness.
3. Development of talents e. g music, athletics and sports.
4. Entrepreneurial skills.
5. Teaching, medical and architectural.
6. Mental and physical abilities e. g literacy skills and arithmetic.
7. Capacity to work in organizations through obedience, discipline, corrects ideology and
correct approach to life.
Limitations of human capital.

Human capital theory has been criticised by so many people for example Karl Max and classical
economists.

1. Production is technical process and does not rely on human beings alone.
2. Labour is not a commodity but rather efforts.
3. Individuals have got sense, feelings and can make decisions which are opposed to
machine within the industries.
4. Wage structures tend to discriminate the skilled and unskilled individuals within the
organization.

FINANCING OF EDUCATION.
The M. O. E plays an important role towards the generalisation public expenditure in education
through the population policies, strategies and programmes that ensure assets are well use to
improve of quality education at various levels. To support the implementation of these
programmes, the government allocates budgetary resources to the ministry to both the current
and development expenditures. Various stakeholders including development, private sectors and
religious organization have made significant efforts towards financing education.

Public expenditure on education and training has increased over the last five years rising from
Ksh. 72B to the current Ksh 152B.The government spending on education and training in terms

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of percentage has increased from 24%-30% during the period under review. In 2014/16, the
recurrent expenditure accounted for 93% of the total ministry expenditure while development
expenditure accounted for 6% over the same period.

In economic classification, the largest recurrent expenditure was in primary and secondary
education school teachers’ salaries which accounted for 70% of M. O. E expenditure.
Development, expenditure increased from 4M to the current 8B in 2015/16.The average sector
development allocation increased by 6% within the same period. In terms of bursaries allocation,
the government and development partners have availed funds to be disbursed to the needs
students countrywide to enhance access to, retention and quality educational programmes. The
target groups include orphans, youths and the poor households including those with special
needs. In financial year 2015/16, the government disbursed 25M to the national polytechnics
while over 50 M was disbursed in relation to the technical training institutions in Kenya. A total
of 7932 students benefited from these funds in the year under consideration.

Methods Of Financing Education.

Efforts are being made for alternative methods of financing education. The World Bank has
emphasised that increasing demand of education on public finance has caused strain in public
financing across all sectors in Kenya. Therefore, the following methods can be used to restall
the increasing shortage of funds.

1. Post Recovery Method /User Charges.

The growing financial constraints on education investment combined with continued strong
private demand of education have led to several governments to consider the possibility of
increasing the share of financial support provided by students and families by various post
recovery methods that include :

i. Levy institution fee.

ii. Levies –on parents, medical charges, development, mock examinations.
iii. Students’ loans.
iv. Community financing.
v. Boarding fees.
vi. Fees levied on vocational training institutions and adult training programme.
vii. Direct labour provided by the students’ community.
viii. Contributions by local community through fundraising and purchasing.
ix. Loaning Schemes. This may be through:
1. HELB.
2. Loans from CBO and NGO.
3. Community Financing of Education.

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This can be in form of direct labour provided by the community during school construction,
allowing the community to provide goods and services in the line rather than cash payment and
self help projects within the school supported by the local community for example, cattle and
tree planting. According to Zymelma, (1973), self help projects by the community has a great
potential as a method of financing education because it provides extra resources to ensure
efficiency is achieved in our schools. In Kenya, most primary schools have been viewed on the
basis of self help efforts. This practice eases pressure on the government capital allocation.

4. Bursary and scholarships.

These include:

❖ Constituency Bursary Schemes

❖ County Bursary Schemes.
❖ Su County Bursary Schemes.
❖ Ministry Of Education Scholarship – higher education.
❖ Rantasi Students Scholarship -private.
❖ Equity Bank Scholarship - Wings to Fly.

5. Fundraising and Donations Programmes.

i. Raising money for school buses.
ii. Constructions for example dormitories
iii. Students Trip.
iv. Buying text books.
v. International Agencies and External Aids. This has been an important source of capital
investment in education. The sources include:
➢ World Bank’s loans to M. O. E and universities.
➢ Bilateral relationship through grants, aid and scholarship.
➢ Partnership in research and development within the institutions of higher learning.
➢ Direct and indirect labour.
Currently, provision of labour has become a major source of financing education. It may be from
the students or community. Students provide labour during holidays in agricultural projects in
school, clubs and societies where they belong, community service within the school
environment.

6. Wide variety of public sources.

1. National lotteries.
2. Licensing of various programmes.
3. Co-curricular activities such as drama.
4. General taxation through customs.

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5. Local authority transfer funds.

6. Donations and endowment.
Certain institutions from time to time receive donations towards various programmes which they
are undertaking towards various programmes. This can be informing of cash to support school
activities.

7. Voucher Systems.
When practised in USA and U. K, it is always compulsory for income families. Instead of being
offered free education like Kenya, students or their parents should be given a voucher (funded by
public funds )of certain monetary value that will be used to pay the required fee in schools and
colleges.

8. Government Subsidy of education.

✓ Free primary education.
✓ FDSE
✓ HELB
✓ Current /recurrent expenditure in education.
✓ Infrastructure development.
✓ School feeding programme.
✓ Salaries for teachers.
✓ Bursaries and scholarships.
✓ NGOs and CBOs.Their activities have strengthened the
education sector. They include:
World Vision. Plan International. Red cross.

These NGOs have adequate resources to support students and in the construction of schools.

Sources Of Financing Education In Kenya.

❖ Students through parents, grants, CBOs etc.

❖ Institutions – property rentals, professional bodies-KMDB, grants, aids etc.
❖ Voluntary bodies –alumni association, charitable organisations, government sources,
parents,
❖ County Government and CDF.
Problems Facing Education.

1) Competition from other sector.

Education is an essential sector to the community .Other sectors like security, health, agriculture
and public works require funding from the government hence these sectors challenge educational
institutions for public funding. In Kenya, education accounts to over 30% of gross domestic
product therefore creating the need to increase the amount allocated to education.

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2) World Recession and Inflation.

The declining on the government expenditure is caused by recession and inflation. Education is
facing a growing financial constraints.

3) Huge Public Debt.

Kenyan debt burden has been increasing steadily from 20% in the late 80s to 40% in the 90s and
currently it stands at 56%. The implication is that the government resources will be used for
refinancing public debt as to oppose to general provision of services and development. This may
be true in regard to incorrect allocation of resources to institutions of higher learning. Various
reports indicate a decline in the government allocation to public universities. Most universities
have started self sponsored programmes and satellite campuses to generate additional income.

4) Attitude and uncertainties.

Attitudes about financing education partly as a result of increased number of graduates who are
not working any and many politicians who have expressed uncertainty about economic role of
education in the light of diminishing scarcity of employ opportunities.

5) Civil Strife and Wars.

Developing countries such as Somalia, South Sudan and Congo, allocate huge amount of
finances to curb wars and very little towards education development. This is due to civil strike
wars in these countries.In Kenya, most parts of Mt. Kenya, Kuria and Marsabit there is a lot of
fear in provision of education development programme due to insecurity hence provision of
educational services have been affected.

6) Poverty.
This has affected education in both developing and developed countries. Private financing of
education and public subsidies suffer due to poverty. The government has attempted to provide
education through FPE and FSE. Though, poverty has made majority of the scholars to give up
due to not being able to access education.

7) Private Financing of Education.

This consumes less than 10% of publiceducation consumption. However it is difficult to measure
precise contributions of students and parents towards financing private institutions. On most
cases, levies and fees within these institutions are high making it difficult to access by the
ordinary poor.

8) Corruption in Education.
In Kenya, it has been recorded that about 30% of money intended for both development and
recurrent expenditure do not reach the recipients and therefore, a lot of money is lost through
misappropriation, embezzlement and fraud on government funds.

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Problems In Financing of education.

1) Inadequate funds-as a result of inadequate disbursements.

Inadequate funds has been caused by :

2) Availability of funds – has come about due to moral issues in handling and sourcing for
funds. This can lead to low quality of education, low enrolment and inequitable
distribution of resources between boys and girls.
3) Lack of accountability –loss of funds and poor facilities in school.
4) Cost policies - this interferes with the government outlined procedures such expansion of
school. Policies are dynamic depending on the government of the day. There can be a
change in curriculum without a proper preparation in facilities and manpower needed.
Overlooking the education planners.
5) Inaccurate population data –has been influenced by ever increasing number of children
being enrolled in different levels of learning pegged on age. This can cause improper
planning for school causing inhibition towards access of education.
6) Shortage of resources– caused by inadequate funding, presence of semi permanent
buildings in schools, studying under trees as well as lack of well equipped laboratories in
school.
7) Insufficient qualified teaching personnel –schools and institutions of higher learning are
affected by the number of available tutors as a result of ineffective manpower approach.
Individuals get promoted from one level to another without refresher causes hence
leaders don’t get appropriate skills to tackle problems. These learning institutions are also
affected by brain drain.
8) Time Element.
A planner looks at the present moment for planning for future. Rate of training to fill the gap is
also law. There is an issue for duration between proposals and implementation.

Solutions To Problems In Financing Education.

❖ Political Authority and Atmosphere.

❖ Planning should have clear ideas on their responsibilities for example advising the
government.
❖ There should be serious attention to develop clear educational policies and properties –
make educational planners to have the better notion of what to plan for.

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❖ Policy makers must refrain from treating the alternativeto education as a political tool
but a technical matter.
❖ Educational administrators must support changes in line with education.
Administrative planners must walk together support each other.
❖ There should be mutual coordination of all the concerned with development education
as a whole.

EDUCATION COMMISSIONS IN KENYA THE SINCE INDEPENDENCE.

4:4 for African child.

4:4:4 lower primarily, intermediary, commercial sector.

7:4:2:3, primary, secondary, higher education, (university).

After independence.

1964-Ominde’s Commission.

Commission for harmonization of education system. There was the need to train manpower to
fill the gaps left by the expatriates. Kenyans needed to be united not along the racial lines.
Education system to be established to provide the required labour responsive to the need of
education.

Recommendations.

✓ Development of secondary goals of education.

✓ It removed school administration from missionaries to the public authorities.
✓ Ominde proposed a change from educational system of 7-4-2-3.
✓ Free and compulsory education to all children in Kenya.

Challenges of Ominde’s Recommendations.

1) Increased enrolment that affected quality of education.
2) Rapid expansion of schools
3) There was an increase in enrolment that affected quality of education.
4) There was rapid expansion of schools.
5) Schools were hit with great shortage of trained teachers in various subjects.
6) Lack of teachers who were conversant with the proposed curriculum.
7) Teachers were not able to handle the teaching and learning equipment. 70-80s was a
period marked by high proportion of untrained teachers.
8) Lack of teaching materials and equipment from the government.
Criticism of Ominde’s Commission.

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✓ It was too academic in nature –education given was not suitable for employment because
vocational training given such as agriculture was done away with. Emphasis was laid on
certificates.
✓ Individual attitude more so from elitist.
✓ It led to high rates of unemployment. This can be summed up by what K’owino states as
lacking capacity and flexibility to respond to the aspirations of individual Kenyans and
the labour market.
The Kericho Conference on Education, Employment And Rural Development. (1966)

Chaired by Dr. Arthur Peter – Principal of Nairobi University. Had an aim to address how the
government can deal with the high unemployment.

Recommendations.

i. Restructure education system to relate to rural and urban development. Rural areas
needed vocational training.
ii. Establishment of village polytechnics. The government was to ensure that secondary
school has provision for technical and vocational training.
iii. Establishment of commission of higher education –Commission Of University Education
to follow the programmes, charter and authorization.
It was opposed by majority of stakeholders.

Basey Report 1972.

It was mandated to address the issue of unemployment among the youths.

Recommendations.

Curriculum had to be changed so as to make school leavers self reliant. Schools were to have
cash crops of livestock keeping projects in schools.

The National Committee on the Educational Objectives and policies – Gachahi Report of
1976.

To address the issue of unemployment caused by expanding number of school leavers.

To define objectives and policies meant to bring us together and develop social structures.

Results.

1. Government support on Harambee Schools was provided in terms of employing teachers,

building facilities and offering grants.
2. Establishment of national centers Early Childhood Centre.
3. Vocational, technical and practical learning were incorporated.

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The Report Of The President Working Paper on The 2nd University in Kenya – McKay
Report (1981).

To address youths’ unemployment –it was to find ways in which graduates were to be self
sufficient and productive in agriculture, commerce and industry. Emphasis was on vocational
training and education. Lack of feasibility in establishing a second university as a development
centre.

Recommendations /Results.

Removal of A level and change of curriculum to 8-4-4 from 7-4-3-2.

Establishment of Moi University and the second university.

The Presidential Working Party On Education and Manpower Training In The Next Years
And Beyond-Kamunge 1986.

The establishment of this commission was necessitated with the need to address unemployment.
Focus was on education financing, quality and relevance of education SessionPaper No.6 whose
purpose was to look into cost sharing in education.

Recommendation

1. Education financing should not be left on the government alone.

2. Reduction of examinable subjects in both primary and secondary schools.
National conference on education for all -1992

It brought together educational policy makers, politicians NGOs donor partners and community
leaders. It was held in Kisumu.

Try and discuss how Kenya could domesticate educational programmes.

National Symposium On The Education Of The Girl Child-Machoka Report.

To review the status of the girl child in terms of education

To identify areas that could be changed to improve the access to education by the girl child.

Report Of The Commission Of Inquiry Into The Education System In Kenya –TIQET,
KOECH REPORT.

The aim of this commission was to review issues of relevance and quality of education.

It proposed totally Integrated Quality Education and Training.

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RECOMMENDATIONS.

1. Manageable curriculum at all levels of education to reduce the burden on learners

andhead teachers.
2. Expansion of the accessto basic education from 8 to 12 years which should be free and
fair.
3. It recommended the reduction of work load to both learners and teachers.
4. There was need for unified laws of education-Education Acts, eg Basic Education Act
2012, 2013.
5. Reallocation of the budget in areas with high intake rates.
6. Bursaries to poor children, loans at the university level and any other assistance to
learners in schools.
7. It recommended a way of reducing wage bills of teachers.
8. Strengthening of financial management in education institution –rationalizing the staffs.
Report On Task Force On The Realignment Of The Education Sector To The Constitution
Of Kenya-Odhiambo’s Report.

Mandates.

To address the issue of relevance of education.

To review the issues of policies and legal frameworks.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.

Society can be conceived as a fabric that consists of interrelated activities, organization and
activities. Development occurs when this complex fabric improves its own organization that the
organization’s development can take place simultaneously in several dimensions.

It can experience quantitative expansion

It can experience geographic expansion.

It can experience integration with the new organizational set up.

The direction that the development process takes is influenced by among others education of the
members within that society.

Education.

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One of the most powerful means of propagating and sustaining new development is the
education system that the society adopts. Educationtransmitssocieties collective knowledge from
one generation to another .it does the following.

1. It equips each new generation to face future opportunities and challenges.

2. It shows the young generation the opportunities that are ahead of them.
3. It raises the expectations of the youth about the future.
4. It improves the living standards of the youths with mental capacity to devise ways and
means of productivity.
Development.

Development can be defined as a manner applicable to all members of the society to reflect
upward movement in reward to the following.

Productivity

Efficiency

Quality

Enjoyment

Development is a process of social change in terms of set of policies and programmes

instituted for specific results .For development to occur, the following resources \re necessary

1. Land
2. Capital
3. Labour
4. Technology
5. Supportive infrastructure.
6. Entrepreneurship.
Development indicators include the following

Gross domestic product

Income distribution

Literacy

Economic Development.

This is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political and social well being of
its people .the concept has been in the existence in the western countries for many centuries .it
encompassesmodernization, westernization and industrialization.

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The goal of economic development involves improvements in a variety of indicators such as

Literacy rate

Life expectancy

Poverty rate

Leisure

Environmental quality

Freedom

Social justice

Social development

This involves learning the values knowledge and skills that enable children to relate with others
effectively and lastly to the community. Most important influence on children social
development include the following

Parents Extended family social and health services community peers the environment
religion familyfriends the school.

Through relationship, children can build a sense of who they are and where they fit within the
society.

Contribution of education to the social development.

Preschool level

Within the preschoollevel, education is able to help the preschoolchild the following manners.

1. Children are able describe their appearances, families and hobbies.

2. At this age, education gives the child ability to determine his opinions and to show
ability.
3. At this age the child is able to compare himself with others.\
Primary school level

At this age, the child is able to learn their abilities with the peers. The child is able to make
assessment of his or her ability.

Secondary school level

The child is able to appreciate aspects of quality. Personal characteristics are defined and self
dominates the child.

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Enhancement of culture and cultural development.

Education enhances strong cultural identity .It helps individual overcome differences in cultural
aspirations. It helps the minority identify.

Ethnicity social class’s religion gender

Self concept.

Children base their belief in self concept on the feedback they receive from others as well as
their own judgment. Self concept is based on ideas, beliefs and knowledge. Within the society,
self concept promotes a sense of connectedness and a sense of belonging.

Social values.

Education will assist children and the young members of the society to put themselves in
someone else shoes and to help them relate better with others .This is done through the
following.

1. Manage conflict and more effectively.

2. Promotes caring, respect and integrity.
3. Appreciating people of diverse ethnic background.
4. Learning to take care of different feelings, expectations and individual perspective.
Contribution of education to economic development.

1. Education and employment.

In today labor market there are many people who are entering with higher levels of education than ever
before. The value of higher education may be appreciated in many different ways.

1. It may provide intellectual fulfillment

2. It may help develop skills and knowledge
3. It may have financial values
4. It may increase employment process.

5. Education and income process.

There is indeed high income prospects and earnings premium associated with education. The earnings
premium associated with education. The earning profiles in Kenya indicates that people with primary
levels of education earn less than these with secondary education whereas fresh graduates, institutions of
higher learning earn more than their counterparts with secondary education.

6. Education and technological advancement.

Higher education can be a technology driver and instrumental in raising the economic development of a
country by doing the following.

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1. Designing cutting edge technology can result in new products

2. Business and employment
3. Applying advanced technology
4. Creating e learning and innovative ways for delivery and expansion of education.
5. Designing web page programmes for advancement business and industry.
6. Education and teaching from pre-school to university.
A higher education together with preschool, primary school and secondary school
and tertiary education creates a pipeline of workers by doing the following.

1. Emphasizing the importance of rigorous course work.

2. Aligning curriculum to new economic skills required in the market.
3. Providing career information for coordinating work focus training for
various certificate, diploma and degree.
4. Identify values within the employment sector.
5. Education and educational advancement.
Educationconnectsthe work force by matching instructional programmes with the
needs in the industries and business world. This includes the following:

1. identifying the specific needs of the industry and business.

2. Providing work based learning opportunities for the students.
3. Offering and supporting apprenticeship programmed.\
4. Offering advisory services.
5. Education and productivity
Education can promote productivity in all sectors of the economy through the
following methods.

1. Training and workshop that involves training making individuals more

productive.
2. Education and training that involves skills upgrading.
3. Technology that improve productivity.

4. Education and agricultural development.

Most studies in rural areas indicate that education increases agricultural
productivity through:

1. Informed use of fertilizers.

2. Investment in farm machineries and equipment.

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3. Knowledge in the use of pesticides and equipment.

4. Education and fertility

Fertilitytend to increase in countries that are less developed countries while
developed countries appear to manage their fertility with results showing fewer
dependence .Studies have indicated that female education is important for the well
being of the family. women who are empowered by education tend to have fewer
children who are healthier and able to stay in the school for longer period
.Empowered women know their fertility and would readily appreciate family
planning methods.

5. Education and health

The educated follow prescription and maintain their environmental against hazards
that are likely to cause serious sicknesses and diseases.

6. Education and literacy

According to Hics ,1980,there is a relationship between economic growth and
literacy skills and this can be used to measure the level of economic development
.Hicks states that development of literacy skills improves life expectancy of an
individual .literacy levels according to him increases with increasing level of
economy as well as the aggregate levels of per capita income.

7. Education and social creativity

Children from poor background are disadvantaged when it comes to privileges
when it comes to privileges associated with education .education simply means the
rations that the employers can use to select their employees and determine their
relative wages and salaries.

8. Education and attitudes

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there is a simple evidence that schooling fosters behavior change that is conducive to economic
growth growth .education empowers an individual to have a character formation, traits formation
and anger management.

Methods of Education Planning.

1. Cost benefitsapproach analysis.

It assists us to make investment decision which will help us to use the limited resources we have
effectively helps us to .it provides us with a means of choosing alternative choices depending on
cost and benefits of the alternative so as to make a right decision .Government to invest in
education looks at the type of education can assist the country achieve its goals. Input resources
such as laptop programmes is controlled by benefits that shall be gained .

Woodhall ,1970,describes CBA as a system of comparison of cost and benefits as a form of

investment in order to access or posses its profitability .Our decision is influenced by the end of
the product of our investment.

Purpose of using Cost Benefit Analyssis.

1. It is a guide to a rational to allocation of resources with refrence to fluctuation of prices

,security of investment in the project ,competition from other sectors and alternative
investment.
2. We need to think about the total cost of the individual and the society.
CBA is the only method that can assist us to have a clear picture about our expectations.There is
social return to the government in that employees pay tax directly related to the level of icome
.Through education,the citizens are easy to deal with because of values instilled in educated.Thes
e educated citizens are able to control population ,educated are also able to promote
security,spread knowledge that is beneficial to the society,icrease mobility as they can work
anywhere in the country,and the educated population passes the same education from one
generation to another.

The assumption of CBA is that productivity of an individual primarily lies on the educated
though there are other factors in play such altitude that control ability and motivation.

3. The man power approach

Man power is essential the work force.This approach tend to achieve optimum allocation of
resources and looks at education as an investment a similar view held by CBA.it attempts to

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provide the society with a crucial number of suitably educated people to meets its economic need
of man power neede in different levels of production and employment .

This approach assist the government to train people for different work force needed and
knowing how long th e it will take to train the man power.Man power appeoach looks at the
work force needed in a country.

Consideration

1. A target year-VISION 2030.

2. Man power requirement and methods of training.
With these it therefore looks at man power needed in the country in the industry, however, it is
not easy to predict the future. It also faces the issue of technology and advances in technology
which cannot be predicted .it is also hampered by recession that cannot be forecasted. This
approach also faces the problem from the government policy. The planning can be effective in
short terms and not long terms. This implies that education planners and curriculum developers
should aim at making education system as flexible as possible.

1. Social demand approach.

Views education as a service to be provided on those who want it and those who qualify to enter
various levels. it embraces the consumption of education as consumption –education for a
purpose .it does not look at it as an investment but a mode of consumption. In 1948 UN Charter
made education a basic need to human. Social Demand Approach is applicable to where levels of
education are compulsory. It embraces private demand of education regardless of our needs
hence the Cost Benefit Analysis. University entry was a C plus, through government
sponsorship, B grade is the ideal for joining a university. This has led to expansion of education
at all levels of education. proponents argue that this approach does not disregard Man Power
Approach and CBA.Students often demands higher education despite low levels of returns.

2. Basic need approach.

Deals with the question, why do we go to school

It was meant to reduce poverty through education for wealth creation. It assumes that whatever
earning people get will spill over to the rest. We are still poor, health system is wanting and
greater part of the citizens is still ignorant and there are still high incidences of dependence. It
can be made more effective by developing a career that emphasizes values.

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