SENSORS & INSTRUMENTATION BEC306

Syllabus
MODULE 5

Transducers: Introduction, Electrical Transducer, Resistive Transducer, Resistive position

Transducer, Resistance Wire Strain Gauges, Resistance Thermometer, Thermistor, LVDT.
Instrumentation Amplifier using Transducer Bridge, Temperature indicators using
Thermometer, Analog Weight Scale.
Programmable Logic Controller: Structure, Operation, Relays and Registers.

Introduction:

A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits
it to another, often in a different form.

It provides a usable output in response to a specified input measurand, which may be a

physical or mechanical quantity, property, or conditions. The energy transmitted by these
systems may be electrical, mechanical or acoustical.

The nature of electrical output from the transducer may be analog, digital or frequency
modulated.

Basically, there are two types of transducers, electrical, and mechanical.

Electrical Transducer

An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical quantity
is transformed directly by into an electrical voltage/current proportional to the input measurand.

An electrical transducer must have the following parameters:

1. Linearity: The relationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical
signal must be linear.
2. Sensitivity: This is defined as the electrical output per unit change in the physical parameter
(for example V/°C for a temperature sensor). High sensitivity is generally desirable for a
transducer.
3. Dynamic Range: The operating range of the transducer should be wide, to permit its use
under a wide range of measurement conditions.
4. Repeatability: The input/output relationship for a transducer should be predictable over a
long period of time. This ensures reliability of operation.
5. Physical Size: The Electrical Transducer Definition must have minimal weight & volume,
so that its presence in the measurement system does not disturb the existing conditions.
Advantages of Electrical Transducer: The main advantages of electrical transducer (conversion of
physical quantity into electrical quantities) are as follows:

1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.

2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. Effects of friction are minimized.
4. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.

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5. The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling units.
6. The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of similar
transducers or control signals.
7. The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
8. The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.

Electrical transducer can be broadly classified into two major categories,

(i) Active (ii) Passive.
An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical
parameter and does not require an external power source for its operation.
Example: piezo electric sensors and photo voltaic cells

Passive transducer - external electrical source is required for their operation.

Examples-strain gauges (for resistance change in response to pressure), and thermistors (for
resistance change corresponding to temperature variations).

A transducer which converts a non-electrical quantity into an analog electrical signal may be
considered as consisting of two parts, the sensing element, and the transduction element.
The sensing or detector element - Responds to a physical phenomenon or to a change in a
physical phenomenon.

The transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output.
Selecting a Transducer:

The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application. The
following should be considered while selecting a transducer.

1. Operating range: Chosen to maintain range requirements and good resolution.

2. Sensitivity: Chosen to allow sufficient output.
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency: Flat over the entire desired range.
4. Environmental compatibility: Temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks,
interaction, size and mounting restrictions.
5. Minimum sensitivity: To expected stimulus, other than the measurand.
6. Accuracy: Repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to
sensitivity to other stimuli.
7. Usage and ruggedness: Ruggedness, both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus
size and weight.
8. Electrical parameters: Length and type of cable required, signal to noise ratio when
combined with amplifiers, and frequency response limitations.

Resistive Transducer

Resistive Transducer are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some
physical phenomenon.

The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be used
for the measurement of temperature.
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Potentiometer

A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding contact,
called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. Some have a
combination of both.

Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig. 5.1(a), are linear (straight) devices.
Rotational resistive devices are circular and are used for the measurement of angular
displacement, as shown in Fig. 5.1(b).

Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the
measurement of either translatory or rotational motion. A potentiometer is a passive transducer
since it requires an external power source for its operation.

Figure 5.1: (a) Translatory type (b) Rotational type (c) Helipot (Rotational)

Advantage of Potentiometers

1. They are inexpensive..

2. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
3. Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow control
operations.

Disadvantages of Potentiometers

1. When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding contacts.
2. The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.

Resistance Pressure Transducer

Working Principle: A change in pressure results in a resistance change in the sensing elements.
Types.:(i) The electromechanical resistance transducer, - a change of pressure, stress,
position, displacement or other mechanical variation is applied to a variable resistor.

(ii) The strain gauge- the stress acts directly on the resistance.

It is very commonly used for stress and displacement measurement in instrumentation.

Figure 5.2(a) and (b) show two ways by which pressure varies the resistance element.
They are the bellow type, and the diaphragm type.

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In each of these cases, the element moved by the pressure change is made to cause a
change in resistance.

Figure 5.2: (a) Resistance Pressure Transducer (b) Sensitive diaphragm moves the resistance
contact.

Resistive Position Transducer

The principle of the Resistive Position Transducer is that the physical variable under
measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing element.
One type of displacement transducer uses a resistive element with a sliding contact or
wiper linked to the object being monitored or measured.

Thus the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element depends
on the position of the object. Figure 5.3(a) gives the construction of this type of transducer.

Figure 5.3(b) shows a typical method of use. The output voltage depends on the wiper
position and is therefore a function of the shaft position. This voltage may be applied to a
voltmeter calibrated in cms for visual display.

Considering Fig. 5.3(b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage Vo is a certain fraction
of Vt, depending upon the position of the wiper. Therefore,

This equation shows that output voltage is proportional to R2, i.e. the position of the wiper of the
potentiometer.
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Figure 5.3: (a) Construction of resistance position transducer (b) Typical method

Strain gauges

The Strain Gauge Factor is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in
electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the

fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor changes. Also, there is a change in the
value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain, a property called the piezo-resistive
effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of
cross-section decreases.The resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. This
property is called the piezoresistive effect.

The following types of Strain Gauges are the most important.

1. Wire Strain Gauge

2. Foil Strain Gauge
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge

Resistance Thermometer Transducer

The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is
utilized for the measurement of temperature. The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an
instrument -that uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature.

The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The characteristics of
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the sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating temperature range of the
instrument.

The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large resistance
change with change in temperature. Also, the material used should be stable in its
characteristics,

The speed with which a resistive element responds to changes in temperature is important
when the measured temperature is subjected to rapid variations. The smaller a given sensing
element, the less heat required to raise its temperature, and the faster its response.

Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature.
The resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than for other metals,
hence it is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers. The temperature range over
which platinum has stability is — 260-1100°C.

Figure 5.6(a) shows an industrial platinum resistance thermometer. The changes in

resistance caused by changes in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in
Fig. 5.6(b). Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be nickel, copper or platinum
contained in a bulb or well, along with the balancing bridge.

The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, and
R1, R2, and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant under normal temperature
changes.

When no current flows through the galvanometer, the normal principle of Wheatstone’s bridge
states the ratio of resistance is

In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator, and its leads have a
resistance, say R3, R4.Therefore,

Figure 5.6: (a) Industrial Platinum resistance thermometer (b) Bridge circuit

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Now it resistance Rs changes, balance cannot be maintained and the galvanometer

shows a deflection, which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.

Advantages of Resistance Thermometer Transducer

The measurement is very accurate.
It has a lot of flexibility with regard to choice of measuring equipment.
More than one resistance element can be clubbed to the same indicating/ recording
instrument.
The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed
The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by substituting a standard
resistor for the resistive element.
Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
Resistance thermometers have a wide working range without loss of accuracy, and can be
used for temperature ranges (-200°C to + 650°C).
They are best suited for remote indication.
The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to lOs
Stability of performance over long periods of time.

Limitations of Resistance Thermometer Transducer

High cost
Need for bridge circuit and power source
Possibility of self-heating
Large bulb size, compared to a thermocouple

Thermistor

The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature. By selecting materials that
are very temperature sensitive, devices and for temperature measurements can be made.
Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made
by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.

Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), i.e. resistance decreases as

temperature rises.
Figure 5.7 shows a graph of resistance vs temperature for a thermistor.
The resistance at room temperature (25°C) for typical commercial unit’s ranges from 100 Ω to10 Ω.
They are suitable for use only up to about 800°C.
In some cases, the resistance of thermistors at room temperature may decrease by 5% for each
1°C rise in temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor
extremely useful for precision temperature measurements, control and compensatio

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Figure 5.7: Resistance vs temperature graph of a thermistor

The smallest thermistors are made in the form of beads. Some are as small as 0.15
mm (0.006 in.) in diameter. These may come in a glass coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass
probes. The probes are used for measuring the temperature of liquids. The resistance ranges
from 300 Ω to 100 Ω. Where greater power dissipations is required, thermistors may be obtained
in disc, washer or rod forms.
Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self-supporting or mounted on a small
plate, are mainly used for temperature control.

Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the
center in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt.

Rod thermistors are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25, 2.75, and
4.25 mm in diameter and 12.50 min long. Their resistance usually varies from 1 — 50 Ω

Thermistors can be connected in series/parallel combinations for applications requiring

increased power handling capability.

Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments. Their wide
range of characteristics also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits,

Typical thermistor configurations are as shown in Fig. 5.8(a). Figure 5.8(b) shows a bush
type thermistor.

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Figure 5.8: (a) Various configurations of thermistor (b) Bush type thermistor

A thermistor in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides precise temperature information.

Accuracy is limited, in most applications, only by the readout devices. Thermistors are non-linear
devices over a temperature range, although now units with better than 0.2% linearity over the 0-
100°C temperature range are available. The typical sensitivity of a thermistor is approximately 3
mV/°C at 200°C.

Advantages of Thermistor Circuit

1. Small size and low cost.

2. Fast response over narrow temperature range.
3. Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
4. Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
5. Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
Limitations of Thermistor Circuit

1. Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.

2. Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
3. Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
4. Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.

Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)

The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a Linear

Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT). The basic construction is as shown in Fig. 5.9.

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Figure 5.9: Construction of a Linear Variable Differential Transducer

The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1
and S2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The secondary windings have an equal number of
turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is
connected to an ac source.

A movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects the
magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.

The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core.
When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary
windings. The frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.

The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding S2
is Es2.

The two secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition

Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages.
Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
When the core is at its normal position, the flux linking with both secondary windings is
equal, and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Hence, at null position E s1 = Es2. Since the
output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage Eo is
zero at null position.

Figure 5.10: Secondary winding connected for differential ouput

Now, if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with winding S1
and less with winding S2. Hence, output voltage E s1 of the secondary winding S1 is greater
than Es2 . The magnitude of the output voltage of the secondary is then E s1 — Es2, Similarly, if
the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with winding S 2 becomes
greater than that linked with winding S1. This results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1. The

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output voltage in this case is Eo = Es2 — Es1

The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount
of movement of the core. The farther the core moves from the centre, the greater the difference
in value between Es1 and Es2 and consequently the greater the value of Eo. Hence, amplitude
is function of distance the core has moved, and the polarity or phase indicates the direction of
motion, as shown in Fig. 5.11.

By comparing the magnitude and phase of the difference output voltage with that of the
source, the amount and direction of the movement of the core and hence of the displacement
may be determined.

The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the displacement. The
output signal may also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can restore the moving
system to its normal position.

The output voltage of an Linear Variable Differential Transducer is a linear function of the
core displacement within a limited range of motion (say 5 mm from the null position).

Figure 5.11(d) shows the variation of the output voltage against displacement for various
position of the core. The curve is practically linear for small displacements (up to 5 mm). Beyond
this range, the curve starts to deviate.
The diagram in Figs 5.11(a), (b) and (c) shows the core of an Linear Variable Differential
Transducer at three different positions.

In Fig. 5.11(b), the core is at 0, which is the central zero or null position. Therefore, Es1
= Es2, and Eo = 0. When the core is moved to the left, as in Fig. 5.11(a) and is at A, Es1 is more
than Es2 and Eo is positive. This movement represents a positive value and therefore the phase
angle, is Φ = 0°.

When the core is moved to the right towards B, E s2 is greater than Es1 and hence Eo is
negative. Therefore, S 2 the output voltage is 180° out of phase with the voltage which is
obtained when the core is moved to the left. The characteristics are linear from 0-A and 0-B, but
after that they become non-linear.

Figure 5.11: (a), (b), (c): Various core position of LVDT

(d) Variations of output voltage vs displacement
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Advantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer

1. Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements upto
5 mm (a linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
2. Infinite resolution: The change in output voltage is stepless. The effective resolution
depends more on the test equipment than on the
3. High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for
intermediate amplification devices).
4. High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
5. Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and
shock.
6. Less friction: There are no sliding contacts.
7. Low hysteresis: This transducer has a low hysteresis, hence repeatability is excellent
under all conditions.
8. Low power consumption: Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power.

Disadvantages of Linear Variable Differential Transducer

1. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.

2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on ac signals, or
a demodulator network must be used if a dc output is required.
4. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by
the applied voltage.
5. Temperature also affects the transducer.
Instrumentation Amplifier Using Transducer Bridge

Figure 5.12 shows a simplified circuit of a Differential Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer

Bridge. In this circuit a resistive transducer (whose resistance changes as a function of some
physical energy) is connected to one arm of the bridge.

Let RT be the resistance of the transducer and ΔR the change in resistance of the
resistive transducer. Hence the total resistance of the transducer is (RT ± ΔR).

The condition for bridge balance is Vb = Va, i.e. the bridge is balanced when Vb = Va,

Initially the bridge is balanced at a desired reference condition. As the physical quantity to be
measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes, causing the bridge to be
unbalanced. Hence, the output voltage of the bridge is a function of the change in the resistance
of the transducer.

The expression for the output voltage V0, in terms of the change in resistance of the
transducer is calculated as follows.

Let the change in the resistance of the transducer be ΔR. Therefore, applying the voltage
divider rule,

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Figure 5.12: Differential instrumentation amplifier using transducer bridge

The output voltage Vab, given by Vab=Va-Vb

Therefore,

(5.9)

The output voltage Vab of the bridge is applied to the Differential Instrumentation Amplifier
Transducer Bridge through the voltage followers to eliminate the loading effect of the bridge circuit.
The gain of the basic amplifier is (R F/R1) and therefore the output voltage Vo of the circuit is given
by

(5.10)

It can be seen from the Eq. (5.10) that V o is a function of the change in resistance ΔR of
the transducer. Since the change is caused by the change in a physical quantity, a meter
connected at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of the physical quantity.

Temperature Indicators Using Thermistor

The Thermistor is a relative passive type of temperature resistance transducer. They are
basically semiconductors.

In many respects, is a two- terminal device which resembles a conventional resistor. It is

generally installed and operated in the manner of an ordinary resistor. But its great difference is
that most thermistors has a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) An NTC type is one in which its
resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

Since it is a THERMally sensitive resISTOR, it has a high temperature coefficient of

resistance and is therefore well suited for temperature measurement and control.
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If in the bridge circuit of Fig. 5.12, the transducer used is a thermistor, the circuit can thus
be used as a temperature indicator. The output meter is then calibrated in °C or °F.
The bridge is balanced initially. As the temperature varies, the resistance of the thermistor
also changes, unbalancing the bridge, which in turn produces a meter deflection at the output.
By selecting the appropriate gain for the Differential Instrumentation Amplifier, the meter can be
calibrated to read a desired temperature.The meter movement (deflection) depends on the
amount of unbalance in the bridge, which is caused by a change in the value of thermistor
resistance ΔR.

Analog Weight Scale

Figure 5.12 can be converted into a simple analog weight scale by connecting strain gauges in
the bridge circuit. These strain gauges are connected in all the four arms of the bridge, as shown
in Fig. 5.13. The strain gauge elements are mounted on a base of the specially made weight
platform, on which an external force or weight is placed. One pair of strain gauge elements in
opposite arms elongates, (i.e. RT1 and RT3 both increases in resistance) while the other pair
compresses (RT2 and RT4 both decreases in resistance), and vice-versa.

The bridge is balanced when no external force or weight is applied, i.e. RTI = RT2 =
RT3 = RT4 = R, and the output voltage of the weight scale is zero.

Suppose a weight is placed on the scale platform and R T1 and RT3 increases in resistance.
Then RT2 and RT4 decrease in resistance by the same value AR and the bridge is unbalanced,
thereby giving an unbalanced output voltage. This unbalanced voltage Vab, is given by

where

E = excitation voltage of the bridge.

R = RT1 = RT2= RT3 = RT4 = unstrained gauge

resistance ΔR = change in gauge resistance.

Figure 5.13: Strain gauge bridge for analog weight scale

The Differential Instrumentation Amplifier Transducer Bridge then amplifies the voltage
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Vab, giving a deflection on the meter movement. As the gain of the amplifier is (+ RF/R1), the
output voltage Vo is given by

The gain of the amplifier is selected depending on the sensitivity of the strain gauge and on
the full scale deflection requirements of the meter. The meter can be then calibrated in grams
or kilograms.

For better accuracy and resolution, a micro based digital weight scale may be
constructed. However, such a scale is much more complex and expensive then the
analog scale.

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