ENGINEERING PHYSICS

NOTES IN BRIEF

By
DEPaRTmENT OF PHYSICS
ST JOSEPH ENGINEERING COllEGE
VamaNJOOR, maNGalORE
(2022-2023)
 Module - 1
QUANTUM MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS

Black Body: A black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls on
it. No electromagnetic radiation passes through it or gets reflected from it. Hence it appears
perfect black and re-emits all the radiation from the surface. Hot filament, Sun etc may be
approximated as Blackbody

Distribution of energy in the black body spectrum

Kirchhoff stated that the Black body should radiate electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths
when supplied with energy such as heat energy.
From this, it can be concluded that the spectrum of
a black body should contain completely the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.
Wein studied the spectrum of radiation emitted by
blackbody by heating it to higher and higher
temperature and noticed that the spectrum included
wide range of wavelengths with different quantities.
According to Wein’s displacement law, the
wavelength of maximum intensity m is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitting body. Hence the peaks of the energy
curves for different temperature get displaced towards the lower wavelength side.
1
i.e.  m  or m T = a constant = 2.898 x 10-3 mK
T
Stefan’s law: Total energy radiated per unit area from a black body is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
. i.e. E   T 4

Where   5.67  10 8 W/m2/K4 is called the Stefan’s constant.

Planck’s Law: A German Physicist, Max Planck in 1900 considered the possible ways of
distributing electromagnetic energy over the different modes of charged oscillators in matter
with each oscillator vibrating with a frequency of its own.

7
According to his hypothesis,
1. A black body is imagined to be consisting of large number of electrical oscillators which
are vibrating at discrete frequencies.
2. Each electrical oscillator in the black body can have only a discrete set of energy values,
i.e. integral multiples of a fundamental unit of energy, E and is proportional to the
oscillation frequency ν, given by the equation, E = nh, where n =0,1,2,3…….etc.
3. An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing respectively a radiation of
E
frequency  whose value is given by,   , where E is the difference in the value
h
of energies of the oscillator before and after the emission or absorption had taken place.
Based on the above hypothesis, Planck derived the entire spectrum of black body radiation
given by,
8  hc  1 
U  d   d
 e
5 h  / kT
 1 
This is Planck’s law of radiation.

De-Broglie’s theory: The physical concept of a particle characterized by mass and velocity
by Newton’s laws of motion is very familiar to us. But this concept is not very adequate to
some of the experiments such as photoelectric effect, black body radiation, Compton-effect
coupled with the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization. After the success of
wave particle duality of radiation, the French scientist Louis de-Broglie in 1924 extended this
idea of dual nature of radiation to matter itself

Statement: By the law of symmetry of nature, a particle exhibits wave properties in addition
to its particle properties.
The wavelength of the group of waves associated with particle of mass m moving with a
velocity v is given by the expression
h h h
  
mv 2meV 2mE
where h is the Planck’s constant, E is the kinetic energy of the particle

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

In quantum mechanics, the particle is described by a wave, which is a direct consequence of
dual nature of matter. A material particle cannot behave as a particle and a wave at the same

8 Physics Department, SJEC

instant of time. As per de-broglie hypothesis, a particle is considered as a group or packet of
waves. Since the wave packet is spread in space, the position of the particle cannot be pin
pointed or specified accurately.
If the group is considered to be narrow, it is
easier to locate its position but the
uncertainty in calculating its velocity or
momentum increases. On the other hand, if
the group is wide, its momentum can be
estimated satisfactorily, but there is a great uncertainty about the exact location of the
particle.
In 1927, Heisenberg proposed his famous uncertainty principle which states that "It is
impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the position and the momentum which
describe the motion of an atomic system". In general if Δx denotes the error in the
measurement of the position of the particle along the x-axis and Δpx represents the error in
h
the measurement of momentum, then Δx Δpx ≥
4
We can also find the uncertainty between the pair’s of energy and time and angular
momentum & angular displacement, which can be written as
h
ΔE Δt ≥
4
h
ΔL Δθ ≥
4

Here ΔL is the uncertainty in angular momentum

Δθ is the uncertainty in the measurement of angular displacement
ΔE is the uncertainty in the measurement of energy
Δt is the uncertainty in the measurement of time interval during which the particle
exists in the state E

Physical significance of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to classical mechanics, a particle occupies a definite place in space and possesses
a definite momentum. So it is possible to evaluate its position and momentum at any later
point of time and the trajectory of the particle could be continuously traced. But such a
phenomenon is not possible in quantum mechanics. An increase in the accuracy in the
measurement of position, there is a decrease in the measurement of Δx as a result there is a
proportionate increment in the value of Δpx. The physical significance of the above
9
agreement is that instead of thinking the exact position or momentum of a particle one should
think of the probability of finding the particle at a certain position or the probable value for
the momentum of the particle. This can be explained from the following example.

Application of Uncertainty Principle

Show that the electron cannot exist within the nucleus

The diameter of the nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10 -14 m. So if an electron is present
inside the nucleus, the uncertainty in its position must be smaller than 10 -14m.
i.e. Δx  10-14 m
From uncertainty principle, we have
h
Δx Δpx ≥
4
h 6 . 624  10  34  21
px    5 . 274  10 kgm / s
4  x 4  3 . 14  10  14
Then the momentum of the electron can at least be equal to the uncertainty in momentum.
p  5  10 21 Ns
Now the energy of the electron with this momentum supposed to be present in the nucleus is
given by (for small velocities -non-relativistic-case)
p2 (5  1021 ) 2
E  31
 1.37  1011 J  85.85MeV
2m 2  9.1 10
or E ≥ 85.85 MeV

Thus if an electron is present inside the nucleus its KE must be of the order of 85.85MeV.
But the experimental observations on beta decay reveal that, the KE of the beta particle is of
the order of 3 to 4 MeV. This clearly indicates that the electron cannot exist within the
nucleus.

Bohr's Complementarity Principle:

We know that the consequence of the uncertainty principle is both the wave and particle
nature of the matter cannot be measured simultaneously. In other words, we cannot precisely
describe the dual nature of light. Now suppose that an experiment is constructed in such a
way that it is designed to measure the particle nature of the matter. This implies that, during
this experiment, errors of measurement of both position and the time coordinates must be
zero or absent, this in turns explains that the momentum, energy and the wave nature of the
matter are completely unknown. Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring the
10 Physics Department, SJEC
wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the measurement of the energy and the
momentum will be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates of the matter will be
completely unknown. From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when the particle
nature of the matter is measured or displayed, the wave nature of the matter is necessarily
suppressed and vice versa. The inability to observe the wave nature and the particle nature of
the matter simultaneously is known as the complementarity principle.

Wave Function
In quantum mechanics it is postulated that there exists a function determined by the
physical situation. The quantity whose variations make up the matter waves is called
wave function. It contains all possible information about the system. Hence it is called a state
function.

Time Independent Schrodinger Wave Equation

In classical mechanics, the motion of a particle is described by Newton’s laws but in quantum
mechanics the development of the wave function with time is given by Schrodinger equation.
Based on de-Broglie idea of matter waves, Schrodinger developed a mathematical theory.
Consider the motion of a free particle in one dimension along the x-axis and then the equation
for the wave is given by

  x , t   A .e  i  t  kx  ………….(1)
2
where A is the amplitude, ω = 2v and k = and x is the position coordinate at time t.

Here  is called the total wave function. The periodic changes in  are responsible for wave
nature of the moving particle.
The space dependent part of the above equation can be represented as

  Ae ikx -- (2)

Hence the equation (1) becomes  ( x , t )   e  i t - - (3)

Differentiating equation (3) with respect to x twice we have
d 2 iwt d 
2
 e --- (4)
dx 2 dx 2
Now again differentiating equation (3) with respect to ‘t’ twice we have
d 2
2
  2 e it --- (5)
dt
But for a travelling wave, the equation is
11
 d2y 1 d2y
 , where y is the displacement and v is the velocity of the wave
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
By analogy we can write
--- (6)
The above equation represents wave propagating along x- axis with a velocity v.
Substituting eqn (4) and (5) in eqn (6), we get
d 2 1
e iwt 2
 2 ( 2 e it )
dx v
d 2 2
Or   
dx 2 v2
4 2
 . , where =2πγ and v  
2
1 1 d 2
  . …………….(2)
2 4 2 dx 2
The kinetic energy of a moving particle of mass m and velocity v is given by,
1 2 m 2v 2 p2
= mv  
2 2m 2m
h
But 
p
h
or p

p2 h2 1
 Kinetic energy =  .
2m 2m 2
1
Substituting from Eqn. (2)
2
p2 h2 1 d 2
Kinetic energy =   . .
2m 8 2 m  dx 2
If the particle is moving in a field whose potential is V then,
Total energy of the particle E= Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
p2
 E V
2m
p2
or  E V
2m
h2 1 d 2
or  . .  E V
8 2 m  dx 2

12 Physics Department, SJEC

 d 2 8 2 m
or   E  V 
dx 2 h2
d 2 8 2 m
 E  V   0
dx 2 h2
This is the Schrödinger’s time independent equation for a particle in one dimension.

Physical Significance of the Wave Function

In classical mechanics, the intensity of radiation is proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the wave. The same concept is considered even for de-Broglie waves. Hence if  is the
wave function associated with the system, then ||2 may be regarded as the measure of
density of electrons. And if V is the volume inside which an electron is known to be present,
but exact positioning within this volume is not possible. Therefore the probability of finding
the electron in a certain element of volume dV of V is equal to ||2 dV. Hence ||2 is called
the probability function. This interpretation was given by Max Born in 1926. Since the
electron must be somewhere inside the volume V, the integration of ||2 over the entire
volume V must be unity.
  | |
2
dV =1

It means that the state of a system is completely characterized by a wave function.

Eigen Function and Eigen Values

A system is always defined by its energy, momemtum and position etc and the state of the
system can be determined by the wave function, . When the state changes, the
corresponding system also changes.
In order to find , the Schrodinger’s equation has to be solved. Since it is a second order
differential equation, there are many solutions. All of them may not be correct wave function
so we have to search the wave function which have physical meaning and are called
admissible or acceptable wave function. For this it needs to satisfy the following criteria
  must be continuous and single valued every where

 The first derivative  must be continuous and single valued everywhere

x
  must be normalizable i.e. it is finite everywhere
Such admissible wave functions are called Eigen Functions. Since there are restricted set of
Eigen function there are also restricted set of energy values and these values are called Eigen
Values.

13
For any system, the physical quantities such as angular momentum, energy etc are the Eigen
values, then the equation can be written as A =  , where A is the operator for the
physical quantity and  is the Eigen function.

E.g.:
 
d e ax
 a.e ax , where
d
is an operator, e ax is a function and ‘a’ is an Eigen value.
dx dx

Normalization of Wave Function

It is the probability of finding the particle inside the box. If the integral of the wave function
over the entire space in the box is equal to one then wave is said to be normalized.

  | | dx  1 ,
2



i.e. at any time the particle is present somewhere inside the box only.

Applications of Schrodinger’s Equation

a. Particle in one Dimensional Potential Well of infinite height

Consider a particle confined in a one – dimensional box of length ‘a’ in the direction i.e. in
the region from x = 0 to x = a. The potential energy V is infinite outside the region i.e. x < 0
and x > a
The Schrodinger equation outside the box is given by
d 2 8 2 m
 E     0 …… (1)
dx 2 h2
 = 0 or ||2 = 0, which means that the particle cannot be
found at all outside the box. The particle is free inside the box
i.e. no force acts in it. V=0. Since V is independent of time
we can write Schrodinger’s equation as
d 2 8 2 m
 2 .E  0 ….….…… (2)
dx 2 h
8 2 m
Put E  K2 ….……… (3)
h2
In the Eqn. (2) we have
d 2
2
 K 2  0 .……..….. (4)
dx
This is a differential Equation, therefore the general solution of this equation is

14 Physics Department, SJEC

  = A Sin Kx +B Cos Kx ……… (5)
Applying the boundary condition i.e. at x = 0 ,  = 0
Putting x = 0 in equation (5) we have
0 = A Sin 0 + B Cos 0
Since, Sin0 = 0  A ≠ 0 and B = 0 since Cos0 =1
At x = a,  = 0,  0 = A Sin Ka ….…….….. (6)
This is true only when Ka = n
n
or K ..…….……. (7)
a
where n=0, 1, 2, 3……….. n is called quantum number
Substituting for K and A in Equation (5) we can write
n
  A sin .x .……..…… (8)
a
Using Equation (3) and (7) we have
n 2 2 8 2 mE

a2 h2
n 2h 2
E  ..……….. (9)
8 ma 2
The above equation shows that the particle in the box can have only restricted values for total
energy E which varies as the square of the Principle Quantum number n. Thus a particle
confined in a box cannot have arbitrary energy. Hence it can have energies specified by the
equation (9)
The different Eigen value for the confined particle can be written as

h2 4h 2 9h 2
E1  , E2   4 E1 , E 3   9 E1 ….. etc.
8ma 2 8ma 2 8ma 2

The energy corresponding to n = 1 is called zero point energy or ground state energy.
To evaluate ‘A’ in equation (8), use normalization of the wave function.
a
We have | 0
n |2 dx  1 .…...…….. (10)

n
a
1
A .x.dx  1 [Using sin2 =
2
i.e. sin 2 (1-cos2)]
0
a 2

1 a
1
a
2 n 
We have, A 2 
2
 dx 
0
2  cos
0
a
. x .dx   1


15
 a
A2   2 nx  a 
2  x  sin  a  2 n    1
   0

A 2a a
or  sin 2 n   0 1
2 2n
A2 a
or 1 [Since sin(2n)=0]
2

2
 A
a
Therefore the normalized Eigen function of a particle in a one dimensional box is given by

2 n
n  sin .x
a a

Wave Functions, Probability Densities and Energy Level for a Particle in a Box

We can write, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , …….. as the Eigen functions for a particle in a box by putting
n = 1,2,3,4, …….. respectively.

2 
When n =1 the Eigen function is, 1 = sin .x
a a
a
In the above equation 1=0 for both x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum when x = .
2
Similarly the probability |1|2 of finding particle at different location inside the box is
a
maximum at x = and both at x = 0 and x = a, |1|2 is zero. Thus a point of 1 verses x is
2
shown below.

 Then zero point energy E0 is given by the

h2
E1 
8ma 2
2 2
When n = 2, 2 = sin .x
a a

16 Physics Department, SJEC

 1 1 3
Now 2= 0 when x = 0, a and at ‘a’ and it is maximum at x = a and x = a . So also the
2 2 4
1
probability |2|2 = 0 at x= 0, a and at a. It means that the particle cannot be observed either
2
at walls, or at the centre.
4h 2
E2 =  4 E1
8ma 2
Thus the energy in the first excited state is 4 times the zero point energy.

Wh
en n = 3

2  3 
3 = sin  .x
a  a 
1 2 1 1 5
3=0 for x = 0, a , a & a and is maximum for x = a , a & a
3 3 6 2 6
So also the |3|2
9h 2
 E3 =  9 E1
8ma 2

*******************************

17
 Module - II
LASERS

LASER is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is

highly parallel coherent beam of light of very high intensity. T H Maiman, an American
physicist in 1960 fabricated the first laser.
Basic principles: Light radiation interacts with matter under appropriate condition. Due to
this the atoms undergo transition from one energy state to another. But if the transition takes
place from higher to lower energy state, the system will give out a part of its energy.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system. Then the

difference between the two energy states, E = (E2 – E1). If an
electron at the energy state E1 is excited by absorbing a photon
of high energy, it can move to a higher energy state E2. The
energy absorbed by the electron must be equal to the difference
between the two energy levels.

But according to Planck’s theory, the frequency corresponding to the energy E is

 = E/h = (E2 -E1) / h
where  is the frequency required for the transition of an electron to the higher energy state.
Or in the other way, if an electron in the energy state E2 emits a photon of frequency , then
the electron should occupy the energy state E1.

There are three possible ways in which interaction of radiation and matter can take place.
1. induced absorption 2) spontaneous emission and 3) stimulated emission.
1. Induced absorption: In this interaction, the atom absorbs all the energy of the incident
photon and excite to the higher energy level such that the difference in the energy of the
two states must be the energy of the incident photon.
Consider two energy states E1 and E2. Let a photon having an energy E= (E2-E1) be
incident on the atom. As a result the atom absorbs the photon of energy E and the
energy becomes E1+ E = E2. Hence the atom makes a transition to the excited state. This
is called induced absorption.
 atom + photon  atom* (atom* - atom in the excited state)

18 Physics Department, SJEC

2. Spontaneous emission: It is the emission of a photon, when an atom falls from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.
Consider an atom in the excited state. The atom voluntarily emits a photon of energy E
equal to (E2-E1) and falls to the energy state E1. The emission where an atom emits a
photon without any aid by external agency is called spontaneous emission. The photon
emitted may have any direction. Hence they are in-coherent. This is the kind of emission
that occurs in glowing electric bulb or a candle flame.
 atom*  atom + photon

3. Stimulated emission: In this an atom in an excited or higher energy level is stimulated to

fall to the lower state and emit photon energy. The photon thus emitted is called the
stimulated photon and will have same phase energy and direction of movement as that of
the passing photon called the stimulating photon.
Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy E= (E2-E1) interact
with the atom. The atom emits a photon and transits to the lower energy state. The two
photons travel in the same direction with exactly the same energy. The electromagnetic
wave associated with the two photons will have identical phase and thus they are
coherent. The directional coherent beam is the laser.
 atom* + photon  atom + photon + photon

Einstein’s Coefficients
According to Einstein, there is an exchange of energy between
matter and radiation which must be in equilibrium. Hence he
provided a theory which involved important parameters known as
Einstein’s coefficients which gives the probability of absorption
and emission process.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 be the number of atoms in
E1 and N2 be the number of atoms in E2 per unit volume of the system.  N1 and N2 are
called the number density of atoms in the state 1 and 2 respectively. Let U d be the energy
of the incident radiation/unit volume of the system where radiation lie in the range  & +d.
Then U represents the energy density of frequency .
Case (i): Induced absorption: The atom in the level E1 can undergo a transition to the level
E 2  E1
E2 by absorbing a radiation of suitable frequency,   . The number of such
h

19
absorptions per unit time per unit volume is called rate of absorption. It depends on a) the
number density of lower energy state i.e. N1 and b) the energy density U.
 Rate of absorption  N1 U
or Rate of absorption = B12 N1 U --- (1) where B12 is the coefficient of induced absorption.

Case (ii): Spontaneous emission: In this case, an atom in the higher energy state E2 undergo a
transition to the lower energy state E1 voluntarily, by emitting a photon and it is independent
of energy density of any incident frequency. The number of such spontaneous emission per
unit time per unit volume is called the rate of spontaneous emission which is proportional to
the number density in the higher energy state i.e. N2.
 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2 ---- (2)
where A21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission
E 2  E1
Case (iii): Stimulated emission: It requires an external photon of frequency   to
h
stimulate the atom from higher energy state to lower energy state.
The number of stimulated emission per unit time per unit volume is called rate of stimulated
emission and is proportional to N2 and energy density U.
Rate of stimulated emission = B21 U N2 ---- (3)
where B21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

Let the system be in thermal equilibrium. Under such conditions, the number of photons
absorbed by the system per second must be equal to the number of photons it emits per
second by both the stimulated and spontaneous emission process.
Rate of absorption = rate of spontaneous emission + rate of stimulated emission
 B12 U N1 = A21 N2 + B21 U N2
Or U (B12 N1- B21 N2) = A21 N2
A21 N 2
U  
B12 N 1  B21 N 2

 
A 21  N2 
U    
B 21  B 12
N1  N 2 
 B 21 

Dividing N2 to the numerator and denominator, we have

20 Physics Department, SJEC

  
 
Or  U   A21 
1
 ---- (4)
B 21  B12 N 1  1 
B N 
 21 2 
But by Boltzmann’s law, we have
 E  E1   h 
 2   
 N 2  N 1e  kT 
 N 1e  kT 

 h  
N  
 1
 e  kT 
---- (5)
N 2

 
 
A 21  1  --- (6)
U  
B 21  B 12 kTh

 e  1
 B 21 
But according to Planck’s law,
 
8 h  3
 1  --- (7)
U  
c3  h

e kT
 1
Comparing equation (6) and (7) we have,
A 21 8 h  3
B 12
 and 1
B 21 c3 B 21

B12 = B21 = B and A21 = A

A
 U   h
 
B  e kT
 1 
 
Laser cavity
A laser device consists of an active medium
bound between two parallel mirrors of high
reflectivity. The mirror reflects the photons to and
fro through the active medium. Thus the two
mirrors along with the medium is called laser cavity, inside which two types of waves exist,
one moving towards the right and other to the left. The waves interfere constructively or
destructively depending on the phase difference. In order to arrange for constructive
interference, the distance L between the two mirrors should be such that the cavity should be
integral multiple of half wavelength (λ/2) i.e. L = mλ/2, where m is an integer. Thus the
radiation inside the laser cavity builds up resulting in amplification of stimulated emission of
radiation, which is a laser light.
21
Requisites of laser system: For any lasing system it needs the following.
1) An energy source for pumping action.
2) An active medium for supporting population inversion.
3) A laser cavity.
The energy source provides the energy for pumping the atoms to the higher energy levels.
This energy may be in the form of light energy. This pumping is called optical pumping. The
energy will be absorbed by the active medium in which population inversion occurs and the
laser cavity provides the feedback necessary to tap certain permissible part of laser energy
from the active medium.

Condition for lasing action

The conditions for continuous laser beam are population inversion and metastable states.
1.Population inversion: For any lasing action, the number of atoms in the higher energy
state must be greater than the lower energy state and this condition is called population
inversion. Under normal condition, the population is more in lower state. But for stimulated
emission, more atoms must be present in the excited state which can be achieved by some
artificial means i.e. by providing energy or pumping energy into the active medium of the
lasing material.
2. Metastable state: It is a state different from the ordinary excited state. The atoms which
are excited to the higher energy states remain for a short duration of 10-8 sec and return to
one of the lower energy state, where they remain for longer time around 10 -3 sec to 10-2 sec.
These states are called metastable states. The transition from the metastable to the ground
state is the lasing transition, during which stimulated emission can occur by passing a
photon.
Consider 3 energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a quantum
system. Let E2 be a metastable state of the system. By
the supply of external energy the atoms get excited
from E1 to E3. The atoms in E3 undergo spontaneous
transition to E1 and E2 rapidly. Since E2 is a metastable
state, the atoms in this state stay for a longer time duration because of which the population in
E2 increases steadily which is the population inversion.
Once the population of E2 exceeds E1, the stimulated emission takes place. Such stimulated
photons which are all identical in respect of phase, wavelength and direction, grow to a very
large number which build up the laser light.

22 Physics Department, SJEC

Characteristics of a laser beam
1) Directionality: Laser beam is a highly directional and highly collimated beam of light.
2) Monochromaticity: If the line width of radiation emitted by a Na source of wavelength
5896A0 is equal to 1 then the line width of radiation emitted by a He-Ne laser beam of
wavelength 6328A0 is 10-7 which is 10 million times better than that of Na source. Hence
it is highly monochromatic.
3) Coherence: If the phase difference between different wavefronts of the propagating light
is same at different time then the wave is said to be highly coherent. The laser light is
highly coherent.
4) Light intensity: The intensity is 100 times more than the light from the sun of equal
surface area.
5) Focussiblity: It can be brought to a sharp focus even at large distance.

Carbon Dioxide Laser

The carbon dioxide laser was invented by Kumar Patel from Bell Laboratory in 1964. It is
one of the most efficient lasers amongst the different types of molecular gas lasers because of
their high power output. It produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength
band covering around 9.6µm and 10.6 µm. A
CO2 molecule is made up of 3 atoms. Thus in
addition to electronic motions, atoms in the
molecule may vibrate in different modes or
rotate about different axes. The 3 modes of
vibrational motions are symmetric mode,
deformation or bending mode and asymmetric
mode as shown in the diagram. The energy
difference between various vibrational levels
corresponds to infrared region.
Construction: The schematic diagram of CO2 laser is as shown.

23
It consists of a discharge tube having a bore of cross section of about 1.5mm 2 and length
26cm, with two electrodes at both ends. The windows W1 and W2 at the ends are fitted at
Brewster’s angle. The electrodes are connected to a power supply which provides current for
the discharge. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of CO2 and N2 in the ratio 0.8 : 1.
The N2 gas is used to increase the efficiency of the laser. Other additives such as water
vapour and helium gases are also added.

Working: The energy level diagram of the active mixture is as shown in the diagram.

When current passes through the mixture of gases, the N2 molecules get excited to the higher
level which is a metastable state and molecules build up in that level. The N2 molecules
undergo inelastic collisions with ground state CO2 molecule and excite them to the E5 level,
where the excited state of N2 molecule is identical in energy to (001) vibrational level of CO2.
The processes can be represented as
e1 +N2 = e2+N2*,
N2* + CO2 = N2 + CO2*
Where e1 and e2 are the energy values of the electrons before and after collision and
N2, CO2 and N2* CO2* are the energy values of the nitrogen and CO 2 molecules in the
ground and excited states
Due to this the population of CO2 molecules builds up at the E5 level and hence population
inversion takes place. These molecules jump to lower energy state E 4 and E3 giving out 2
laser lights of frequency 10.6 µm and 9.6µm respectively. The remaining decay from E 4 to
E3, E3 to E2 or E2 to ground state will dissipate energy in the form of heat instead of light.
The laser works in continuous wave mode and hence it is used in industrial applications like
laser cutting, drilling, welding, medical field to destroy infected tissues in the wound etc.

24 Physics Department, SJEC

Applications
Due to the high intensity, high mono-chromaticity and coherence, lasers find many
applications in different fields.

1. LIDAR: Laser Rangefinder

LiDAR - Light Detection and Ranging - is an
active remote sensing system that can be used
to measure the distance of an object on the
earth’s surface. Rangefinder is one such
LIDAR that measures the distance from the
observer to a target for the purposes of surveying, auto-focusing or accurately aiming a
weapon or enemy without the enemy’s knowledge. The laser rangefinder uses a high power
pulsed laser signal, which is directed towards the enemy target from a transmitter. Upon
incidence, the beam bounces from the surface of the target and the signal is received by the
receiver. An internal clock then measures the time it takes for the beam to reach the target
and back and finally calculates the distance and then displays the distance on an internal
display. The receiver consists of reflector, photo-detector and amplifier.
LIDARS have numerous applications such as to designating Bombs ie by shining lasers at the
target, the bomb is released at the precise location of the target, to determine the depth of
snow in inaccessible areas, air pollutant distribution, attitude characterization of space debris,
trajectory of aircraft, satellites. Laser technology is more cost effective.
Applications: Key applications for LiDAR sensors include remote sensing, agriculture,
military, security, forestry, automotive, robotics, industrial, and unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) applications. They can be used for speed, 3D imaging, speed detection, and collision-
avoidance. Some specific applications where LiDAR has played a basic role include:
 Forest planning and management
 Forest fire management
 Flooded area maps
 Coastal mapping
 Agriculture
 Oil and gas exploration
 Mining
 Accident scene

25
 2. Road Profiling: (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3444093/)
In road construction, renovation or expansion, it is a prerequisite for the engineers and scientists to
have accurate and reliable data that will have productive
work. Road profiling is the analysis and estimation of road
texture and its roughness. A profiler is an instrument that
produces the values related to road surface. It works on
three basic systems, reference elevation, height relative to
reference and longitudinal distance. A laser spot is
projected on the surface of the material to be measured.
The laser beam undergoes a reflection, where the
magnitude of the reflection depends on the type of surface targeted; a part of the reflected
signal hits the receiving sensor positioned at a known distance. By repeating this operation
for all the points in which it is possible to discretize the surface of the object

3. Laser barcode: (https://www.denso-wave.com/en/adcd/fundamental/barcode/scan/index.html)

A barcode scanner, or barcode reader, is a device
which consists of three different parts including
the illumination system, the sensor, and the
decoder. It “scans” the black and white elements
of a barcode by illuminating the code with a red
light and captures the information contained in
barcodes. The sensor (Photodiode) in the barcode
scanner detects the reflected light from the
illumination system (the red light) and generates an analog signal that is sent to the
decoder. The decoder interprets that signal, validates the barcode using the check digit,
and converts it into text. This converted text is delivered by the scanner to a computer
software system holding a database of the products.
Principles of bar code reading (https:// www.ex plainthatstuff. com/barcodescanners.ht ml)

26 Physics Department, SJEC

A bar code consists of white and black bars. Data retrieval is achieved when bar code
scanners shine a light at a bar code, capture the reflected light and replace the black and white
bars with binary digital signals. Reflections are strong in white areas and weak in black areas.
A sensor receives reflections to obtain analog waveforms. The analog signal is converted into
a digital signal via an A/D converter. (Binarization). Data retrieval is achieved when a code
system is determined from the digital signal obtained. (Decoding process). Laser scanners use
a laser beam as a light source and typically employ oscillating mirrors or rotating prisms to
scan the laser beam back and forth across the barcode.

4. Laser Printers
A laser printer is a popular type of
computer printer that uses a non-impact
photocopier technology where there are no keys
striking the paper. Their principle of operation
involves electrophotography, also called
xerography, similar to the process used in
photocopy machines.
A laser beam projects an image of the page to be
printed onto an electrically charged rotating drum
coated with selenium. Photoconductivity removes charge from the areas exposed to light. Dry
ink (toner) particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum's charged areas. The
drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the ink to the
paper.
Like a photocopier, laser printers read the electronic data from the computer as tiny dots that
make up the text and images – one horizontal line at a time. As the beam moves across the
drum, the laser emits a pulse of light for every dot to be printed, and no pulse for empty
space. The laser doesn't actually move the beam itself. It bounces the beam off a movable
mirror instead. As the mirror moves, it shines the beam through a series of Lenses. The laser
assembly moves in only one plane, horizontally. After each horizontal scan, the printer moves
the photoreceptor drum up a notch so the laser assembly can draw the next line. A small
print-engine computer synchronizes all of this perfectly, even at dizzying speeds.
Color laser printers use colored toner (dry ink)' typically cyan, magenta, yellow, and black
(CMYK)' While monochrome printers only use one laser scanner assembly, color printers
often have two or more scanner assemblies.

27
 OPTICAL FIBRES

Fibre optics is a branch of physics based on the transmission of light through transparent
fibres of glass or plastic. These optical fibres can carry light over distances ranging from a
few centimeters to hundreds of kilometers. An optical fibre is a thin, flexible pure glass
material of diameter 5 – 50µm. These are the
backbones of optical communication systems
where the communication takes place using light
rays called light guides of optical wave guides.
They are transparent dielectrics and able to guide
visible and infrared light over long distances.

Construction
It is made of a high purity silica glass, thin cylinder of 5 - 50µm in diameter called core at the
centre, which is surrounded by a similar glass material but of lesser refractive index called
cladding. The cladding is enclosed in a poly-
urethane jacket, which safeguards the fibre
against chemical reaction with surrounding
called sheathing. Many such fibres are
grouped to form an optical cable.

Propagation Mechanism
The basic principle of transmission in an optical fibre is total internal reflection. For this the
condition is that, the core should have a refractive index more than the cladding. To illustrate
the total internal reflection, consider a set of two media having refractive indices n1 and n2
such that n1 > n2.
Let a beam of light AO incident on the interface
through the first medium at an angle θ1 in the medium
of refractive index n1. The ray will refract away from
the normal, since n1 > n2.
Consider the ray BO incident at an angle where the
refracted ray just grazes the surface making an angle
900. This angle of incidence where the refracting
angle is 900 is called critical angle (θc). But for the

28 Physics Department, SJEC

ray incident at an angle more than θc, the ray reflects back into the same medium. This
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection.
For refraction, we have the Snell’s law
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
At critical angle, n1 sinθc = n2 sin90
n2 n2
 sin  c  or  c  sin 1
( )
n1 n1
In total internal reflection, the loss of
light energy is zero, since the materials are of highest purity. Therefore the entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Hence it is total internal reflection. Under such
circumstances the light beam is completely trapped inside the core and cannot escape from
the core.

Acceptance angle and numerical aperture

Consider a ray that travels along AO entering into the core at an angle θ 0 of the fibre axis. Let
it refract along OB at an angle θ1 in the core and at B, it just moves along the interface
between core and cladding. Therefore (90-θ1) is the critical angle. Hence any ray enters at an
angle of incidence greater than θ0 at O will have an angle less than (90-θ1) i.e. the critical
angle at the interface. Thus will be refracted and lost.

On the other hand, if the ray enters into the core at an angle less than θ0 will have an angle
more than (90-θ1) at the interface and undergoes total internal reflection. This angle θ0 at the
centre of the core is called acceptance angle.
If the angle θ0 is rotated about the axis forms a cone and this is called acceptance cone. Thus
any light beam falling within the cone will undergo total internal reflection and other get
refracted and lost. The sine of the maximum acceptance angle i.e. sinθ 0 is termed as
numerical aperture (NA). It signifies the light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.

29
Condition for propagation
Consider an optical fibre with a core and cladding. Let n1, n2 and n0 be the refractive indices
of the core, cladding and surrounding medium respectively.
Let AO be the incident ray that falls at an angle θ0 refracts along BC at an angle θ1.
According to the Snell’s law, n0 sinθ0 = n1 sinθ1 --- (1)

At the point B, the ray is incident at an angle (90-θ1) at the interface. Therefore by Snell’s
law, n1 sin(90-θ1) = n2 sin90
 n1 cosθ1= n2
n2
or cos  1  ---(2)
n1
Re-writing equation (1), we have
n1 n
sin  0  sin  1 = 1 (1  cos 2 1 )
n0 n0
Substituting for cosθ1 from eqn. (2), we have

n1 n22 n12  n 22
sin  0  (1  )
n0 n12 n0

Assuming the surrounding medium be air,  n0=1

 sin  0  n12  n 22

Since sinθ0 = numerical aperture (NA),

 NA  n12  n 22

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate only
when θi < θo

or sini  sin0 or sin  i  n 12  n 22

or sin  i  NA , which is the condition for propagation.

30 Physics Department, SJEC

Fractional index (  ): It is defined as the ratio of the difference between refractive indices
of the core and the cladding to the refractive index of the core in an optical fibre.
n1  n 2
 
n1
We can establish a relationship between the numerical aperture and the fractional index
change as follows.
n1  n 2
We have,   or n1  n2  n1 
n1

But NA  n12  n 22  ( n1  n 2 )( n1  n 2 ) = ( n1  n 2 )  n1

Since n1 ~ n2, (n1 +n2) = 2n1

 NA  2n12 

or NA  n1 2

From above, we can see that the value of NA increases with the increase in , so as to receive
a maximum light into the fibre. But fibres of large  will not be useful since it leads a
distortion known as ‘intermodal dispersion’.

Modes of propagation
It is expected that all the rays having angle less than the acceptance angle should travel in
core by series of total internal reflection. But theoretically it is not so. According to
Maxwell’s equation, out of the light that enters into the core within the acceptance angle
sustaining the propagation in the fibre, only some light waves in terms of a certain number of
modes will sustain propagation. There are different types of fibre modes. They are guided
mode, leaky mode and radiation mode. The number of modes supported for the propagation
in the fibre is determined by a parameter called V-number is given by
d
V= n12  n 22 where d is the diameter of the core, λ is the operating wavelength, n1, n2

are the refractive indices of core and cladding respectively.
d d
We can write V = (NA) or V = n1 2
 
2
V2 1  d
The total number of modes N is given by N    NA 
2 2  

31
Types of optical fibres
The types of optical fibres are mainly depending on the refractive indices of cladding and the
core. Generally the refractive index of the cladding is kept constant and the refractive index
of the core is varied in a particular way. The curve which represents the variation of
refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fibre is called
refractive index profile.
Based on these, the optical fibres are classified into 3 categories.
1) Step index single mode fibre
2) Step index multimode fibre
3) Graded index multimode fibre

1. Step index single mode (mono-mode) fibre

This fibre is made of a small (5 – 10 µm diameter) core with a thick cladding, about 10
times the core diameter (40 - 100µm outer diameter) and a suitable protective sheathing.
Both the core and the cladding have uniform but different refractive indices. Since the
profile forms a step due to the abrupt change in the refractive index between the core and
the cladding, it is termed as step-index fibre. Because of its narrow core it can guide just a
single mode fibre.

This is extensively used in the world. It is suitable for long distance, high data rate
communications, since it has a large bandwidth. Due to small core diameter, only lasers
are suitable for transmission.

2. Step – index multi mode fibre

32 Physics Department, SJEC

 The construction of this fibre is similar to that of the single mode fibre, except for the
large diameter so that it is able to support propagation of large number of modes.
The core and the cladding have uniform but different refractive indices. Hence it is step –
index. Its V parameter is greater than 2.4 and hence it can transmit many modes.
In this mode both laser and LED light can be used as source. It is less expensive. The
scattering and absorption losses are more and hence it is suitable for short distance
communications.

3. Multimode graded index fibre

The construction is similar to multimode step index fibre except for the refractive index
of the core. The refractive index of the core decreases across the core radially outward
direction from the axis and becomes equal to that of the cladding at the interface. But the
RI of the cladding remains uniform. Due to that variation in the RI of the core, the fastest
components of the rays take the longer path and the slower components take the shorter
path in the core so that the time taken by different modes is almost same. This reduces the
intermodal dispersion and hence losses are minimum. These are most suitable for large
bandwidth, medium distance and medium bit rate communication systems. Both laser and
LED can be used as source.

Attenuation [Fibre Loss]

It is the loss of light intensity as it travels in the fibre. The loss increases with increasing
distance, which reduces the average power reaching the receiver.
There are 3 different ways in which the attenuation takes place.
1. Absorption: The absorption losses are due to the impurities present in the fibre or due to
the fibre itself. The types of impurities present in the fibre are generally the transition
metal ions, chromium, cobalt and copper. The electrons of these materials absorb the
photons and get excited to the higher energy level. When they come back, they re-emit
certain wavelengths, which are different from the laser wavelength. Hence it is a loss.

33
 This loss of power will be converted into heat in the fibre. The other kind of impurities is
hydroxyl (OH) ions, which absorb a large amount of energy.
Also the fibre itself can absorb light energy in a smaller way. This is called intrinsic
absorption, which is attributed to the electronic and vibrational reasons.
2. Scattering losses: It is due to the in-homogeneity if the refractive index in the fibre. This
is called Rayleigh scattering, where a light wave travels though a medium scatters with
the object whose dimensions are smaller then the wavelength of the light used. Due to
Rayleigh scattering, the photons move in random directions and in all probabilities leave
the fibre and thus become a loss.
1
Rayleigh scattering 
4
The sharp variation in the RI is due to in-
homogeneity in the material because glass fibre
consists of randomly connected networks of
molecules and it is having a mixture of many oxides such as SiO2, GeO2, P2O5 which
results in rapid fluctuations of the composition which results in the variation of density of
the material.
The other types of scattering losses are due to the structural in-homogeneity and defects
created during fibre fabrications. Now the manufacturing methods are such that these
losses are negligible compared to the Rayleigh scattering.

3. Radiation losses: These losses are due to bending of the fibres. There are two types:
a) Macroscopic and b) microscopic.
The bends having radii greater compared to the fibre
diameter are called macroscopic bends. In such curved
fibres the incident angle falls below the critical angle
and no total internal reflection takes place.
Microscopic bending occurs due to non-uniformities in
the manufacturing of the fibre where of the light rays
may leak through the fibre. Micro bending losses
could be minimized by extruding a compressible
jacket over the fibre that will keep the fibre relatively
straight.

34 Physics Department, SJEC

Attenuation coefficient ()
When the light travels in the material medium, there will always be loss in its intensity with
distance traveled. The loss of intensity is expressed in terms of a quantity called attenuation
coefficient, is given by the equation

10 P 
or    log 10  out  dB / km.
L  Pin 
where L is the length of the optical fibre through which the optical signal travels and P in &
Pout are the initial and final intensities of the signal expressed in watts.

Applications of optical fibres

Point to point communication:

Optical fibre communication is the transmission of information by propagation of optical
signal through optical fibres over a large distance. The optical signal is derived from

electrical signal at the transmitting end and converted back to electrical signal at the receiving
end. The voice is an analog electrical signal which is to be converted into binary data. The
binary data comes out as a stream of electrical pulses from the coder. These pulses are
converted into pulses of optical power by modulating the light emitted by the optical source
such as LED or laser. This unit is called an optical transmitter from which the optical power
is fed into the fibre.

Now the optical light is tunneled into the core within the half angle acceptance cone, which
will sustain the propagation within the fibre by means of total internal reflection. As it

35
propagates, there may be attenuation losses or delay distortions. The attenuation losses are
due to absorption or scattering of photons and delay distortion is due to spreading of pulses
with time. These effects cause continuous degradation of the signal as the light propagates.
To reduce this effect repeaters are used in the transmission path. It consists of a receiver and
transmitter arranged adjacently, which receives the signal, reshapes, amplifies it and re-
transmit back into the optical fibre.
At the receiving end, the optical signal is fed into a photo detector where the signal is
converted into pulses of electric current. These pulses then fed to the decoder, which converts
the sequence of binary data stream into an analog signal, which will be the same information,
which was sent at the transmission end.
Other applications of optical fibres are
1) as sensing device which senses the parameters like pressure, voltage, current etc.
2) Data link communication
3) Local area network – information can be exchanged between the terminals located at
different places.

Intensity based fibre optic displacement sensor:

A sensor transforms one physical variable into another. Displacement sensor is a type of
intensity modulated sensor where the light reflected from the body undergoing displacement
is detected by using an optical fiber in combination with a detector. It measures the distance
between the sensor and an object by detecting the amount of displacement through a variety
of elements and converting it into a distance.
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle of
receiving fibers coupled to
the detector as shown in the
figure. Here the light is sent
through a transmitting fibers
and is made to fall on a
moving target. The reflected
light from the target is sensed
by a detector. With respect to
intensity of light reflected
from its displacement of the
target is measured.

36 Physics Department, SJEC

Based on the intensity of the light received, the displacement of the target can be measured,
(i.e.) if the received intensity is more than we can say that the target is moving towards the
sensor and if the intensity is less, we can say that the target is moving away from the sensor.

Optical sensors are very much useful in medical field. A medical endoscope is a tubular
optical instrument, used to inspect or view the internal parts of human body which are not
visible to the naked eye. The photograph of the internal parts can also be taken using this
endoscope. It also plays an important role in many applications, such as structural health
monitoring, industrial control, and so on. The measurements of many physical parameters
like stress, strain, temperature, and acceleration could be converted to the measurement of
displacement.

Advantages:
1. Carry large amount of information.
2. The materials used for the fabrication of optical fibre are cheap. (silicon di-oxide,
glass etc)
3. Cost per meter per channel would be lesser compared to metallic cable.
4. Light weight – easy to transport.
5. No interference since no light enters from outside.
6. No disturbance when compared to metallic wires.
7. No tapping of informations.
8. No sparks are generated since the signal is optical.

Limitations:
1) Splicing (connecting) of two fibres is highly expensive.
2) May break when bent in very small curvatures.
3) Expansion and contraction of fibres may take place due to variation in temperature,
which lead to loss in signal power.

********************

37
 Module III
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS

Classical Free Electron Theory (Drude -Lorentz Theory)

A metal is made up of atoms and these atoms consists valence electrons, which are
responsible for electrical conduction in the bulk state of the metal. E.g.: A copper atom
consists of 29 electrons out of which 28 electrons are bound in the 3 shells forms the core and
one electron remaining in the fourth shell is the free valence electron. As a whole an atom is
neutral.

But when a large number of copper atoms join to form a metal,

the boundaries of the neighbouring atoms slightly overlap on
each other. Due to this the valence electrons find continuity
from atom to atom and can move easily throughout the body of
the metal, but are restricted within the boundaries of the solid.
When an electric field is applied, the randomness persists. So
there is an overall shift in its position in the opposite direction of
the field is called the drift velocity.

Expression for electrical conductivity

As per classical free electron theory, the conductivity σ of a conductor is given by
ne 2

m
where, n is the free electron concentration, e is the charge on the electron, τ is the mean
collision time and m is the mass of the electron.
Failures of Classical free Electron Theory
Even though the theory is successful in explaining some experimental facts such as electrical
and thermal conductivity in metal, it failed to explain other experimental facts such as
temperature dependence of  and the dependence of electrical conductivity on electron
concentration.

1. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

1
It was found that   …..(1)
T
But according to classical Drude-Lorentz theory,
38 Physics Department, SJEC
 1
 ………(2)
T
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical electron theory in not agreeing
with the experimental observation.

2. Dependence of Electrical Conductivity on Electron Concentration:

ne 2
According to the classical theory, Electrical conductivity   , where n is the
m
electron concentration n
Consider specific cases of Zinc which is a divalent metal, the electrical conductivity is
1.09×107 /m which is much less than that of Cu, 5.18 × 107 / m. But the electron
concentration for Zn is 13.10 ×1028/m3 which is much higher than that for copper
8.45×1028 /m3. Also for trivalent metal Al, the electron concentration is 18.06 ×10 28 /m3
which is far higher than that of Cu. But the electrical conductivity of Al is 3.65 ×10 7 /m,
which is far lower than that for Cu.

Elements Electron concentration Conductivity

(n) 
Cu (monovalent) 8.45 × 1028 /m3 5.18 × 107 /m
Zn (divalent) 13.10 × 1028 /m3 1.09 × 107 /m
Al (trivalent) 18.06 × 1028 /m3 3.65 × 107 /m

The above example implies that, the prediction of the classical free electron theory that   n
does not hold good.

Quantum Free Electron Theory

The electrons in an atom are distributed in various shells and subshells. The energy of
electrons in different subshells is different, but is approximately equal. When another atom is
brought nearer, then the energy levels will be splitting into two. Therefore if N atoms are
brought together, then N energy levels will be formed in place of each level for the isolated
atom. Such a bunch of quasi-continuous energy levels is called energy band. Each band is
separated by a certain gap called forbidden band or energy band gap. The topmost band
completely filled or partially filled is called valence band and the band just above the valence
band is called conduction band.

39
In 1928, Arnold Sommerfield succeeded in overcoming many of the drawbacks of the
classical free electron theory using Pauli’s exclusion principle and is known as quantum free
electron theory. The main assumptions are
1. The energy levels of the conduction electrons are quantized.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed levels occur as per Pauli's exclusion
principle.
3. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its
boundaries.
4. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between
electrons are ignored.

Density of states
In a solid material the permitted energy levels are in
terms of bands. Each band is spread over an energy
range of few electron volts and the number of energy
levels in each band is extremely large. Because of such
distribution, the energy values appear to be virtually
continuous over the band spread. So the distribution of energy levels in the energy band is
realized by density of sates. Hence density of states can be defined as the number of available
energy states per unit energy interval in the band associated with the material of unit volume,
which is denoted as g(E).
Density of states per unit volume is given by
3
8 2 m 2
g ( E ) dE  E dE
h3
This eqn. represents the number of states in an energy range E
and E+dE for the electron in a 3-dimensional solid of unit
volume. It is clear from the above equation, the number of
energy states within an interval is proportional to E . A plot of g(E) versus E shows a
parabola.

Fermi Energy
There are N allowed energy levels for N free electrons for a
metal which are separated by energy differences that are the
characteristics of the material and are quantized. As per Pauli’s

40 Physics Department, SJEC

exclusion principle, each energy level can accommodate a maximum of two electrons with
different spin. The filling up of electrons in the energy level should be undertaken from the
lowest energy level. So, in each level there are two electrons one with spin up and other with
spin down. However there are still higher energy levels left vacant.
The energy of the highest occupied level at zero degree absolute is called Fermi energy and
the energy level is referred as Fermi level (EF).
At absolute zero temperature, i.e., when the metal is not under the influence of any electrical
field or thermal energy, no electrons will be present above the Fermi level. They are
completely empty and those levels below Fermi level are completely filled. Since there are 2
electrons in each energy level, out of the N allowed energy levels, N/2 of them will be
occupied.

Fermi – Dirac Statistics

In a metal there are large numbers of free electrons and each of them can possess an energy
corresponding to certain energy state in the valence band. Under thermal equilibrium the free
electrons acquire energy obeying a statistical rule called Pauli’s exclusion principle, is known
as Fermi-Dirac statistics. These electrons are identical with spin 1/2 and are indistinguishable
particles. Fermi-Dirac statistics permits the evaluation of probability of finding electrons
occupying energy levels in a certain energy range. The evaluation is done through a function
called Fermi factor

Fermi factor: At temperature above absolute zero, the material will be receiving thermal
energy from the surroundings. So the electrons just below the Fermi level absorb the thermal
energy and will occupy the higher empty energy levels. The electrons occupying energy
levels far below the Fermi level cannot absorb this energy because there are no unoccupied
higher energy levels into which the electrons can come into, when their energies increase by
small amount.
Though such excitations seem to be random, the resulting distribution of electrons in
various energy levels after excitation will not be random, but systematic. The distribution is
governed by a statistical function once the system is in thermal equilibrium (steady state).
Therefore the probability that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady
1
temperature T is given by f ( E )  E EF
, where f(E) is called Fermi factor.
e kT
1
It is defined as the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal
equilibrium.

41
Let us consider the different cases of distribution as follows.
i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0K:
1 1
When T = 0K and E<EF, f ( E )  
 1
e 1 0 1
It means that the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF
applies to all the energy levels below EF.
ii) Probability of occupation for E>EF at T = 0K:
1 1
When T = 0K and E > EF, f ( E )  
 0
e 1  1
f(E) = 0 i.e. at T = 0K all the energy levels above Fermi level are unoccupied.
In view of the above two cases, at T=0K, the variation of f(E) for different energy values
becomes a step function as shown in the fig.
iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:
At ordinary temp., the probability starts reducing before E F and decreases to zero after EF.
1 1 1
At E = EF, we have, f ( E )   
e 1 11 2
0

i.e. the value of f(E) becomes ½ at E = EF.

Therefore the Fermi energy is the most probable energy or the average energy of the
electrons across which the energy transitions occurs at temperature above zero degree
absolute, which results in the conductivity of the metal.

Expression for Fermi Energy at zero kelvin

Let g(E)dE be the number of energy states per unit volume in the range E and E+dE and f(E)
be the probability of occupation by the electron in any energy states, then be the number of
electrons within this energy states represented by N(E)dE is given by
N ( E ) dE  g ( E ) dE  f ( E ) ---- (1)
The number of electrons per unit volume of the material ‘n’ can be evaluated by integrating
the above expression from E = 0 and E = Emax, wherw Emax is the maxiumum energy
possessed by the electrons.
Emax

n   N ( E )dE
E 0

Emax

Or  n 
E 0
 g ( E ) f ( E )dE
But f(E) = 1 at T = 0K

42 Physics Department, SJEC

 Emax

n   g ( E )dE
E 0

3
8 2 m 2 1
But g ( E ) dE  E 2
dE
h3
3 3 E max
2 E max
8 2 m 1 8 2 m 2
2 3 
n 
h3 
E 0
E 2
dE 
h3
 E
3
2

0
At T = 0K, the maximum energy that any electron can have is E Fo
3
8 2 m 2
2
E Fo 
3
n   2
h3 3
8  2 32 m 23   
    E Fo 
3
  2
 h3   3 

 h 3   3n 
Or E Fo 
3
2   3 
 
 8 m  2    
2
 h2   3n  3 2
Or E Fo      Bn 3
,
 8m    
2
 h2  3  3
 38
where B      5 . 85  10 J
8m   

Fermi energy at T > 0K:

The Fermi energy EF, at any temperature T in general can be expresses as
 2  kT  
2

E F  E Fo 1    
 12  E Fo  

Except at extremely high temperatures, the second term within the brackets is very small
compared to unity. Hence E F  E Fo

Fermi velocity (vF): The velocity of the electrons which occupy the Fermi level is called as
Fermi velocity.

The Fermi energy, E F  1 mv F 2 , where vF is the Fermi velocity.

2

2EF
 vF 
m

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Fermi temperature (TF)
It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in a solid
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K.
When, T = TF, EFo = k TF, (since EFo = EF)

EF
or TF 
k

Effective Mass
When a metal subjected to the influence of an electric field, a free electron in the metal
moves under the combined influence of the applied electric field and that of a periodic
potential due to lattice ions. Because of such a superposed effect the electron responds as if it
possesses a mass called effective mass which is different from its true mass, denoted as m*.

Expression for electrical resistivity and conductivity

According to Sommerfeld, the free electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics as compared to the
gas molecules. Hence the expression for electrical conductivity of metals can be arrived as

ne 2
  , where m* is the effective mass of electrons
m * vF

m *vF
Also, the expression for resistivity is given by  
ne 2 

Merits of quantum free electron theory

The quantum free electron theory is successful in explaining the drawbacks of classical free
electron theory.

1) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

1
According to the classical theory  
T
ne 2 
We have   but  
m vF

ne 2 
  ---(1)
mv F

We have EF which is temperature independent. vF is also temperature independent. But

λ is temperature dependent. The nature of dependence of λ and T can be analyzed as
follows.

44 Physics Department, SJEC

 During the conduction electrons are scattered by the vibration of lattice ions, the
displacement of ions takes place equally in all directions. If 'r' is the amplitude of
vibration then, the ions can be considered to be present within an area πr 2. Since vibration
of larger area of cross section should scatter more efficiently then, the mean free path of
the electron will reduce.
1
  but  r 2
 T
r 2

1
 
T
Comparing this is equation (1) we have,
1 1
     
T T

2) Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:

ne 2 
We have the equation for the electrical conductivity  
m * vF

n
Since σ depends on n and vF , 
vF
If we compare the cases of copper and aluminium, the value of n for aluminium is 2.13

times higher than that of copper. But the value of for copper in about 3.73 times
vF
higher than that of Al. Thus the conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminium.
Further, the value of m* for aluminium is 1.08 times that for copper. Because of the
inverse dependence of  on m*, this also serves as a contributing factor for the higher
value of  for copper.

45
 SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductivity is a fascinating and challenging field of physics. Scientists and engineers

throughout the world have been striving to develop an understanding of this remarkable
phenomenon for many years. Superconductors have the ability to conduct electricity without
the loss of energy.

Today however, superconductivity is being applied to many diverse areas such as medicine,
theoretical and experimental science, military, transportation, power production, electronics,
and many other areas. With the discovery of high-temperature superconductors, which can
operate at liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K), superconductivity is now well within the reach
of students.

Kemmerlingh Onnes in 1911, who discovered superconductivity during the study of the
temperature dependence of electrical resistance of Hg, observed that at 4.16K, the resistance
dropped to zero. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913.
All metals show resistance. When the temperature of the
metal increases, the amplitude of lattice vibrations also
increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The reverse is
also true that resistance decreases with the decrease of
temperature and at a particular temperature the resistance
of some metals drops to zero and the phenomenon is called
superconductivity. The temperature at which the conductor becomes superconductor is called
transition temperature or critical temperature. It is different for different materials.

Temperature dependence of resistivity

An increase in temperature will increase the thermal agitation of ions about their mean
positions, which reduces the mean free path of electrons.
On the other hand, as the temperature decreases, the
thermal agitation decreases which reduces the resistance.
The resistance at T = 0K is due to the impurities present in
the material and is called residual resistance.
But some materials lose their resistance completely at very
low temperatures. All those materials whose resistance
drops to zero at low temperature are called

46 Physics Department, SJEC

superconductors. But many of the metals are not showing superconductivity, like Cu, Ag, Au
etc. even if the temperature is brought to zero.

Effect of Magnetic Field on Superconductivity

Metals lose their state of superconductivity when subjected to a
strong magnetic field. The field at which superconductivity is
destroyed is called the critical magnetic field.
If T is the temperature of the superconducting material, T c the
critical field and H0 the field required to turn the
superconductor to the normal conductor at 0K, the relation for
critical field is given by
 T2 
H C  H 0 1  2 

 TC 
For eg., the ceramic superconductors have a lower state of HC than metallic superconductors
and hence ceramic superconductors require a lower magnetic field to transit from
superconducting to normal conducting state.

Meissner Effect
A superconductor will not allow a magnetic field to penetrate its interior when kept in a
magnetic field i.e. it expels the magnetic flux out of its body when it is cooled below the
critical temperature and thus becomes a perfect diamagnet. This effect is called Meissner’s
effect. It causes currents to flow that generate a magnetic field inside the superconductor that
just balances the field that would have otherwise penetrated the material.

Consider a superconducting coil, where it is wound with two coils primary and secondary.
The primary coil is connected to the battery through a key and the secondary coil is
connected to a BG (Ballistic Galvanometer).

47
When the key is pressed, the current flowing through the primary coil sets up a magnetic field
in it. This magnetic flux immediately links with the secondary coil and hence a current is
driven through the BG, which shows a deflection. As there is no further change in the flux
there is no change in the current in the secondary coil.
Now the temperature of the superconductor is decreased gradually. At the critical
temperature, the BG suddenly shows a deflection indicating that the flux linkage with the
secondary coil has changed. The change in flux linkage is attributed to the expulsion of the
magnetic flux from the body of the superconductor.

Types of superconductors
There are two types of superconductors - Type I and Type II. Very pure samples of lead,
mercury and tin are examples of Type I superconductors. High temperature ceramic
superconductors such as YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) and Bi2CaSr2Cu2O9 are examples of Type II
superconductors.
i) Type – I superconductors:

These exhibits complete Meissner effect. At H < HC, the material in superconducting state is
a perfect diamagnet and hence it possesses a negative magnetic moment (-M). As the
applied field H exceeds HC, the entire material becomes normal by loosing its diamagnetic
property completely and the magnetic flux penetrates throughout the body. The resistance
rises from zero to some value.
The critical field is very low in Type – I superconductors. Hence they cannot be used for coils
in superconducting magnets. Elements like tin, lead, Hg fall in this category. The strongest
type-I superconductor pure lead has a critical field of about 800 gauss. (Ten kilogauss (1 x
104 gauss) is equal to 1 tesla).

48 Physics Department, SJEC

ii) Type – II superconductors:
These are characterized by two critical magnetic fields HC1 and HC2. For the field H < HC1,
the superconductor expels the magnetic field from its body completely and behaves as a
perfect diamagnetic material. But when H exceeds HC1, the flux penetrates into the body and
fills partially. With the further increase in H, the flux filling also increases there by
decreasing the diamagnetic property of the material and at H = HC2, the flux fills completely
and the material turns into normal state. Here HC1 and HC2 are called the lower critical field
and the upper critical field respectively.

The state between HC1 & HC2 is the mixed state and it is called vortex state, with some of the
material in the normal state and part still superconducting. The flux penetration occurs
through small chanelised parts of the body called filaments (shown in the fig). These
filaments increase in number with increase in H till H = HC2 when they spread into the entire
body and the material becomes a normal conductor.

Type –II semiconductor have higher values of TC & HC and hence require a greater magnetic
field to transit from diamagnetic superconducting state to normal state. At a given
temperature the critical field HC2 is about 100 times greater than HC1. Hence they are widely
used in the coils of superconducting magnets. Eg: Alloys of niobium, tantalum, Nb 3Sn etc.
Type I superconductors have Hc too low to be very useful. However, Type II
superconductors have much larger Hc2 values. YBa2Cu3O7 superconductors have upper
critical field values as high as 100 tesla.

BCS theory (Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer Theory)

The understanding of superconductivity was advanced in 1957 by three American physicists-
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer, through their Theories of
Superconductivity, which is known as the BCS Theory. Cooper realized that atomic lattice
vibrations were directly responsible for unifying the entire current. They forced the electrons
49
to pair up into teams that could pass all of the obstacles which caused resistance in the
conductor.

The theory is based upon the formation of cooper pairs, which is purely quantum mechanical
concept. When an electron in a semiconductor drifts through the crystal and approaches the
positive ion core, it experiences an attractive force because of the opposite charge polarity.
Due to this attractive interaction the ion core will get distorted from its mean lattice position
and oscillates around its mean position. Due to this phonons are created. This phonon intern
interacts with a second near by electron and due to the interaction the second electron lowers
its energy. The second electron emits a phonon, which intern interacts with the first electron
and helps to lower its energy. Now since the two electrons are in their lower energy states,
they get attracted and form a bound pair called cooper pair. This pair formation through
phonon interaction is called electron-lattice-electron interaction. The attractive force between
the electrons is maximum when the two electrons forming a pair have equal and opposite spin
and momentum.
At temperature below Tc, the electron-lattice-electron interaction continues with the help of
phonons and all the electrons form a cloud of cooper pairs. This extends virtually over the
entire volume of the superconductor. It results in an effect equivalent to the entire union
moving as a single unit. The resistance encountered by any single cooper pair is simply
overcome by the co-operative action of other pairs in the union and hence no resistance to the
flow which forms the state of superconductivity.

As long as the superconductor is cooled to very low temperatures, the Cooper pairs stay intact
due to the reduced molecular motion. As the superconductor gains heat energy, the vibrations
in the lattice become more violent and break the pairs. As they break, superconductivity
diminishes. Superconducting metals and alloys have characteristic transition temperatures
from normal conductors to superconductors called Critical Temperature (Tc). Below the
superconducting transition temperature, the resistivity of a material is exactly zero.
Superconductors made from different materials have different Tc values.

High temperature superconductivity: The low transition temperature superconductors have

very limited applications. It is necessary to find superconductors of high transition
temperatures and such warm critical temperature can be achieved using liquid nitrogen
(Boiling point = 77K). All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of
copper and bear a particular type of critical structure called Perovskite crystal structure. Such

50 Physics Department, SJEC

complex structure is made up of one atom of rare earth metal, 2 barium atoms, 3 copper
atoms and 7 oxygen atoms and is called 1-2-3 superconductors. In 1987, such a compound
Yba2Cu3O7 was developed having critical temperature of TC = 90K. Two more compounds
were developed using bismuth, strontium, calcium, copper and O2 had TC = 100K and using
Hg, Thallium, Ba, Ca, Cu and O had TC = 139K.

Hg Bi Ba Sr Ca O 150 K (April 1993)

(Hg0.8Tl0.2)Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33 138 K
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 133-135 K
HgBa2Ca3Cu4O10+ 125-126 K
HgBa2(Ca1-xSrx)Cu2O6+ 123-125 K
HgBa2CuO4+ 94-98 K

The formation of superconductors in high Tc is direction dependent. The superconductors are

strong in the copper-oxygen planes and weak in a direction perpendicular to the planes.
However these compounds have very limited applications because of their inherent
brittleness and inability to carry large currents. Once these difficulties are overcome,
superconductors can be used in zero loss power transmission lines, strong magnetic coils and
as the materials of levitating trains.

Quantum Tunnelling
Tunneling is a process arising from the wave nature of
the electron. It occurs because of the transport of
electrons through spaces that are forbidden by classical
physics because of a potential barrier. The tunneling of
a pair of electrons between superconductors separated
by an insulating barrier was first discovered by Brian Josephson in 1962. Josephson
discovered that if two superconducting metals were separated by a thin insulating barrier such
as an oxide layer 10 to 20 angstroms thick, it is possible for electron pairs to pass through the
barrier without resistance. As long as the current is below the critical current for the junction,
there will be zero resistance and no voltage drop across the junction.

Applications of Superconductivity
SQUIDS: SQUID is the acronym for superconducting quantum interface device. These are
highly sensitive devices used to detect very weak magnetic fields in the order of 10 -14 T.
These are fabricated by depositing thin films on silicon wafers and hundreds of devices can
51
be obtained by dicing each wafer. It works on Josephson’s junction where two
superconductors are separated by an insulating barrier.
Josephson junction is simply an arrangement of two superconductors separated by a thin
insulating barrier. When a magnetic field is applied to this circuit, it induces a circulating
current due to the tunneling of the cooper pairs through the junction which can be measured.
The applications of SQUIDs are
1. To study very minute magnetic signals generated in the human brain.
2. Highly sensitive voltmeter
3. To measure magnetic susceptibilities of small samples at different temperatures.
4. To detect ore and oil deposits.
5. Submerged submarines in sea’
6. Security systems – to protect secret information.

Superconducting magnets: An electromagnet made by using coils of superconducting wires

or cables is called superconducting magnets.

Once the superconducting magnet is energized, the field remains for ever since there is no
power loss (I2 R). However it needs the power to keep the refrigeration system to cool the
solenoid coil. The type II superconductors are used in
superconducting magnets, since they have high T C & HC
values. The materials used for this purpose are alloys of Nb
Sn (TC =18.5K) or NbTi (TC = 8.7K)
The superconductor material cannot be used in the form of
a coil because when the current in the two wires is parallel there is a large force of attraction
or if the currents are in the opposite direction the force is repulsive. We may encounter both
forces of attraction and repulsion which inturn have large mechanical stresses. So they are
made to lie as filaments embedded in a copper matrix as shown. The copper matrix acts as a
cushion against the two types of stresses due to large flow of currents. Also if the normal
state of superconductor is lost, the copper takes over the conduction on itself and conducts the
heavy current smoothly.
These are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a technique employed to generate
images of body, which are much safer than X rays. These are also used in magnetically
levitated vehicles.

Maglev Vehicles (A New Mode of Transport for the 21st Century): The magnetically
levitated vehicles are called maglev vehicles. These are used in the field of transportation as
they float under magnetic effect which offers no friction, less power and noiseless
transportation.

52 Physics Department, SJEC

The vehicle consists of a superconducting magnet built in its base. There is an aluminum
guide way over which the vehicle will be set afloat by magnetic levitation. The magnetic
levitation is brought about by enormous repulsion between two highly powerful magnetic
fields one due to the superconducting magnet inside the vehicle and the other due to the
electric currents in the aluminum guide way. The vehicle is provided with retractable wheels.

They serve same as an airplane wheel. Once it is levitated in air the wheels are retracted into
the body and the height levitated is around 10-15cm. While stopping, the wheels are drawn
out and the vehicle slowly settles on the guide way by running over a distance. These can
attain a velocity more than 400 km/hr. Maglev guideways will last for 50 years or more with
minimal maintenance, because there is no mechanical contact or wear and tear. Similarly,
maglev vehicles will have much longer lifetimes than autos, trucks and airplanes. Maglev
vehicles emit no pollution.
Lossless power transmission: Power transmission is accompanied by an energy loss due to
Joule heating effect according to the equation I2R. Since there is no resistance, losses can be
eliminated which amount large saving.
Electric generators made with superconducting wire are far more efficient than conventional
generators wound with copper wire. In fact, their efficiency is above 99% and their size about
half that of conventional generators. These facts make them very lucrative ventures for power
utilities

******************************

53