Manufacturing Science

Module-5
Joining Processes
Welding
 Method of joining two or more similar
or dissimilar metals, with application of
heat, with or without the application of
pressure or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without
the use of filler material.
 For permanent joint
 Used in- automobiles, aerospace,
boilers, general repair work and ship
building etc.
Types of welding
1. Fusion welding/ non pressure welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten
state and allowed to solidify
- Filler material used
Ex. Gas welding, Arc welding
2. Plastic/Solid state/pressure welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to
a plastic state and forced together by
external pressure
-no filler material
Ex. Resistance, diffusion, ultrasonic welding
Classification of welding processes

Arc - AC,
DC, TIG, MIG,
Resistance-spot, SAW, SMAW, Gas- oxy
seam, FCAW, Stud acetylene , air
projection acetylene, oxy
hydrogen

Thermo-
chemical – WELDING
Thermit, Soldering,
Atomic brazing, braze
hydrogen welding

Solid State-
Newer -
friction,
Electron-beam
ultrasonic,
, Laser beam
diffusion
 Types welded joints
1. Butt joint

A butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same

plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and
pipe work. A joint of this type may be either square or
grooved.

2. Lap joint

It is a joint in which the metal plates are placed overlapping

before welding. The edge of one part is welded with the
surface of the other plate. There are two types of lap joint
namely (i) Single lap joint and (ii) double lap joint
3. T-Joint

This joint is made by keeping the metal plates at perpendicular (90°)

to each other. Sheets with thickness over 3 mm only are welded
by this type.

4. Corner joint

Two metal sheets kept at 90° to each other are welded by this joint.
This method is adopted when making boxes and tanks. Corner
joints are adopted for thin and thick sheets.

5. Flange / edge joint

The plates of the joint may be kept parallel to each other. The edges
of the plates are bent to form the shape of a flange.
Fig. Types of weld joints
Preparation of Weld Joints
 Surface preparation is very important in
the welding process
◼ Removal of any slag, corrosion and other
foreign material on the surface and nearby
surfaces needs be done prior to welding.
◼ Surface roughness is not usually a factor in
the quality of the weld.
◼ Parts need to be securely anchored because
heat generated from the weld can loosen
clamps and cause bad welds or even injure
the welder.
Edge preparation methods
In welding operations involving plate, joint edge preparation and
proper spacing between edges are important factors. The thickness of
the plates determines the amount of edge preparation required
Gas welding
(oxy-acetylene)
 Gas welding is the process of melting and joining metal parts by
means of a gas flame.
 Generally pressure is not applied during the process of gas
welding.
 Oxygen and acetylene gases are made to pass through the welding
torch.
 These gases are mixed at the required ratio at the torch and the tip
of the welding torch is ignited to produce the flame. Because of the
heat generated by the flame, the edges of the metal parts are
melted.
 Filler rod provides the additional metal required for making the
joint. The flux coated on the electrodes prevents oxidation and
removes impurities.
 This method is suitable in welding metal parts of thickness varying
from 2 mm to 50 mm. The temperature of the flame is around
3200°C.
Oxy Acetylene Welding

Fig . Oxy Acetylene Welding

Gas welding equipments
Gas cylinders
Oxygen and acetylene gases are
Stored in separate cylinders and
used for gas welding. The color of
oxygen cylinder is black and the
acetylene gas is stored in maroon
cylinders. Oxygen is stored
at a pressure of 125Kg/cm2.
Acetylene gas is stored at a
pressure of 16 Kg/cm2. in the
cylinder.
Regulators
A regulator is used to control the working pressure of the gases.
The working pressures of oxygen is 1Kg/cm2 and acetylene
is 0.15Kg/cm2.
Pressure gauges
Two pressure gauges are fitted each on the oxygen cylinder and
on the acetylene cylinder. One of the pressure gauges
indicates the pressure of the cylinder and the other gauge
indicates the working pressure of the specific gas.
Hoses
Separate hoses are used to connect the two cylinders with the
welding torch through regulators. The color of the hose from
the oxygen cylinder is black (copper material used) and the
one from the acetylene cylinder is red (rubber or plastic
material used).
Welding torch
Oxygen and acetylene reach the welding torch through the
passages of hoses from the respective cylinders. These gases
are mixed in the mixing chamber of the welding torch

Fig. welding torch

Goggles
Oxy acetylene flame emits ultraviolet and infrared
rays.
Welding gloves
Spark lighter
Wire brush
 The heat is obtained by combustion of acetylene and
oxygen. Here primary combustion occurring in the
inner zone gives:
C 2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + Heat from torch
and the second reaction in the outer zone gives
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 → 2CO2 + H2O + Heat from atm.
 The maximum temperature at the tip of inner cone.
Therefore, most gas welding is performed by
keeping this inner zone tip just above the metal to
be welded so that maximum temperature is
available for welding.
Types of gas flames
Based on amount of oxygen consumed
from O2 cylinder, the flame is divided
into three types
1. Neutral flame
2. Carburizing flame
3. Oxidizing flame
1. Neutral flame (O2/C2H2)= 1
The supply of equal quantities of oxygen and
acetylene produces neutral flame. There are two
zones in this flame-
1. Sharp and bright inner cone and
2. Bluish outer cone.
The temperature of the inner cone will be around
3260°c
This neutral flame is generally used as it will not
cause any chemical reaction upon the heated
metal.
3. Oxidizing flame (O2/C2H2)˃ 1.15 to 1.5
Oxidizing flame is obtained by supplying more oxygen than
acetylene. It consists of two zones namely bright inner
cone and outer cone. This flame is useful in welding
brass and bronze. Tmax-3380°c

2. Carburizing flame (O2/C2H2)<1 0.85 to 0.95

This flame is also known as reducing flame. The supply of
acetylene will be more than oxygen to produce this
flame. Carburizing flame consists of three zones namely,
Tmax - 3040°c
Carburizing flame is useful in welding high carbon steel and
alloy steels. It is also used to harden the outer surface of
metal parts
Advantages of gas welding
➢ Welding temperature is controlled easily
➢ The cost of the welding unit is less
➢ Both welding and cutting can be done
Limitations of gas welding
➢ Intended for welding thin work pieces only
➢ The process of welding is slow
➢ The time taken by the gas flame to heat
the metal is more when compared with
electric arc
➢ Great care should be taken in handling
and storing gas cylinders
 Welding techniques used in gas welding

Fig a. forehand Fig b. Backhand

welding welding
 Welding techniques used in gas welding.
Forehand welding Backhand welding
1) Focusing the flame towards non 1) Focusing the flame towards
welded part welded part
2) This flame position preheats the 2) This flame position post heats the
edges you are welding just edges you are welding just back
ahead of the molten puddle of the molten puddle
3) The forehand method is used in 3) The backhand method is best for
all positions for welding sheet, welding material more than 4 mm
up to 4mm thick plates thick.
4) Slag inclusion in the weld bead 4) No slag inclusion
Welding positions
 All welding is done in one of four positions: (1) flat,
(2) horizontal, (3) vertical, or (4) overhead.
 Fillet or groove welds can be made in all of these
positions
 The American Welding Society (AWS)- the 1G
position refers to a groove weld that is to be made in
the flat position. Here the 1 is used to indicate the
flat position and the G indicates a groove weld.
 For a fillet weld made in the flat position, the
number/letter designation is 1F (F for fillet).
Welding Position – Groove

1G

3G

2G

4G
In pipe welding, there are four
basic test positions used
 Notice that the position refers to the position of the
pipe, not the position of welding. Test position 1G
is made with the pipe in the horizontal position.
 When you are welding in the 2G position, the pipe
is placed in the vertical position so the welding can
be done in the horizontal position.
 The 5G position is similar to the 1G position in that
the axis of the pipe is horizontal, the pipe is not
turned or rolled during the welding
 When you are using the 6G position for
pipe welding, the axis of the pipe is at a
45-degree angle with the horizontal and
the pipe is not rolled.

 Since the pipe is not rolled, welding has

to be done in all the positions

 flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead.

Filler rods used in gas welding
 to supply the additional metal
 melted by the gas flame and deposited over the
parts of the joint
 Made of the same metal as that of the parts of the
joint
 Melting point
 Density
 Easily mixed with parent material
Filler Material- Low carbon steel, medium carbon steel
Flux used in gas welding
-to deoxidized the metal
-to form slag
-to absorb gaseous present weld pool
Borax is commonly used
Electrodes used in welding
Electrode is acting as electrical element
for
1. closing electric circuit or
2. it is melting and supplying molten
metal to welding or both.
Types of electrodes
 Non- consumable- carbon, graphite,
tungsten.
 Consumable- low carbon steel, medium
carbon steel
Electrode coating function
1. Provides a vapor shield to protect the molten metal from
reaction with the oxygen and nitrogen of the air.-
(Ferrosilicon)
2. Provides an ionized path for conducting current from
the electrode tip to the work and for maintenance of an
arc.
3. Titanium oxide coating will be given for producing the
slag in weld material.
4. Provides filler metal in addition to that supplied by the
core wire.
5. Adds alloy materials to the weld deposits where a
particular chemical composition is required.-(Al, Mg,
Ni, Zn etc)
6. Stabiles arc during arc welding- (potassium compound)
7. It provide shielding gaseous- cellulose coating
 Arc welding
 It is a process of joining two metal
pieces by melting the edges by an
electric arc.
 The electric arc is produced between
two conductors.
 The electrode is one conductor and
the work piece is another conductor.
 The electrode and the work piece are
brought nearer with small air gap.
(3mm app.)
Fig. Arc welding
 When current is passed an electric arc is produced
between the electrode and the work piece.

 The work piece and the electrode are melted by the arc.

 Both molten piece of metal become one.

 Temperature of arc is about 4000°c. Electrodes used in

arc welding are coated with a flux.

 This flux produces a gaseous shield around the molten

metal. It prevents the reaction of the molten metal with
oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
Equipments in arc welding
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
 Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
 Electrode holder
 Electrode
 Protective shield
 Gloves
 Wire brush
 Goggles
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
 A non-consumable tungsten rod is used as the electrode with
inert gases shielding both the molten metallic pool and the red
hot filler wire tip.

 Argon or helium gas is used for shielding purposes. Argon is

preferred for a wide range of materials, and as no flux is used,
corrosion due to flux inclusions cannot occur.

 Almost all metals can be welded using TIG process.

Dissimilar metals can also be welded by TIG choosing the
appropriate combinations.
TIG
cont..

Filler rod (used

after 5mm
thickness)

coolant

Fig. Tungsten Inert Gas welding

(TIG)
TIG cont..
 In the case of aluminum alloys a mixture of argon and helium can
be used. TIG welding can be done in almost all positions.
 Metal thickness ranging 1 to 7 mm is generally joined by TIG
process.
 Aluminum alloys are generally welded by TIG welding
 Gas tungsten arc welding produces the highest quality welds most
consistently.
 TIG welding is better suited for metal thickness of 7 mm and
below.
Comparison
TIG MIG

1. Non- consumable electrode 1. Consumable

2. Coolant used 2. Coolant eliminated

3. Up to 7 mm 3. Up to 30 mm thick plate can

be joined
4. Filler rod used separately 4. Electrode is wound to pool
the max size of electrode use
is 3 mm only
5. For Mg, Al, copper
5. For mild steel, Al, stainless
steel
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) is the oldest and most widely used process
being used for fabrication.

 A typical SMAW method is shown in Fig.1.6.

 The arc is struck by short circuiting the electrode with the

work piece.

 Welding current is chosen according to the kind of welding

job.
SMAW
cont..

Shieldin
g
Solidified weld metal

Molten weld metal

Fig. Shielded Metal Arc Welding(SMAW)

 SMAW
cont..
 The content of coating are cellulose powder, carbonates
 The coating is melted due to heat of welding and protective
atmosphere is provided around arc. Slag formed is removed
later.
 The heat of the welding process melts the coating to provide a
protective atmosphere and slag for the welding operation.
 Base metals include steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys
◼ Common applications include
Construction
pipelines,
machinery structures,
shipbuilding,
fabrication job shops,
and repair work.
Submerged Arc Welding Process (SAW)
 Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that
uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode.
 The arc shielding is provided by a cover of granular flux. The
electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc.
 The flux is introduced into the joint slightly ahead of the weld
arc by gravity from a hopper, as shown in the figure.
 The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the arc
welding operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
that are so hazardous in other arc welding processes
 The slag and infused flux granules on top provide good
protection from the atmosphere and good thermal insulation
for the weld area.
 This results in relatively slow cooling and a high-quality weld
joint.
Saw cont..

Fig. Submerged Arc Welding

Process (SAW)
 Saw cont..
Advantages

 Deep weld penetration.

 Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control).

 Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.

 The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance
of spatter of weld.

 50% to 90% of flux is recoverable.

Limitations

 Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions.

 Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems.

 Flux and slag residue can create a health & safety issue.
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
 Like submerged arc and shielded metal arc welding, except
that the flux is encased in a metal sheath instead of being laid
over the wire.
 The weld metal is shielded by the metal flux and by a gaseous
medium, either being externally supplied or evolved from
flux.
 Carbon steel and stainless steel flux cored wires are available.
Since the flux is in the core of the electrode wire itself, it
helps in mechanization of the welding process by introducing
continuous wire feed.
 The flux coated electrode on the other hand fails in a situation
where reeling or coiling of the wire is done. This is the major
constraint in using covered electrodes in shapes of stick form.
FCAW
cont..

Fig. Flux cored arc welding

(FCAW)
FCAW
cont..

 Flux cored wire gives less spatter and improved

weld finish due to arc stabilization and slag-
forming compounds at the core, which leads to
less porosity.
Advantages flux cored arc welding
-The deposition rate is around four times higher
than that of stick electrode welding.
-Mechanized welding is made easy.
- It eliminates stub losses and the time required for
electrode changes.
 Stud welding principle
 stud tip touches workpiece.

 Stud lifts off workpiece,

electric arc is ignited.

 Stud is plunged into welding plate.

Material solidifies and stud is welded
 stud Arc Welding

Advantages
1. A simple, efficient, economical and very fast
method of joining pins, bolts, studs, rivets,
rods etc. to a plate or a structure.
2. Stud welding produces strong joints.
3. Besides flat position, stud welding can be
carried out in vertical and overhead positions
as well.
4. Stud welding helps improving and simplifying
product design.
Electrical Resistance welding (ERW)
 Heat is produced by the passage of electric current across the
interface of the joint
 Like , spot and seam welding where sheet metals are pressed
together at the joint by copper alloy electrodes and, projection
welding where the metal itself is shaped so that local contact at
the joint concentrates the current flow, thereby producing heat.
 Electric resistance welding is a non-fusion welding process.
 Heat is generated when high electric current is passed through a
small area of the two contacting metal surfaces.
 The heat H generated is given by
H = I2 × R × t
Where, I is current, R is resistance of the interface and t is the time
of application of current
 When the rise in temperature is sufficient,
a large pressure is applied at the heated
interface to form a weld joint.
 The process variables are :
◼ current,
◼ time of application of current,
◼ pressure,
◼ duration of pressure applications,
◼ materials to be welded and their thickness.
 Electrode material-Cu, W, copper
tungsten alloy
 Types of resistance welding:
(a) spot welding
(b) seam welding,
(c) projection welding,
Resistance spot welding
 In spot welding the plates to be welded are kept one over the
other, after cleaning the two surfaces in contact.
 Two stick electrodes are kept on both sides of the plate, as
shown in Fig.
 A pressure is applied to the electrodes and maintained for a
particular interval known as squeeze time before starting further
operation.
 Then the current is passed through the electrodes. The time of
application of current known as weld time is measured in terms
of the number of cycles, each cycle corresponds to 20 m.sec.
The pressure is maintained during this time also.
 After the current is cut off, the pressure is maintained for a brief
time known as hold time, so that the heated metal solidifies and
forms a weld nugget.
 After hold time, the pressure will be released and an off-time is
given before starting another spot welding operation.
Fig. Resistance spot welding
 Resistance spot welding is widely used in mass
production of automobiles, appliances, metal
furniture, and other products made of sheet metal
of thickness 3 mm or less.
 They are widely used in automobile final
assembly plants to spot-weld the sheet-metal car
bodies.
 Human workers operate some of these guns, but
industrial robots have become the preferred
technology.
Resistance Seam Welding
 In seam welding overlapping sheets are gripped
between two wheels or roller disc electrodes and
current is passed to obtain either the continuous
seam i.e. overlapping weld nuggets or intermittent
seam i.e. weld nuggets are equally spaced.
 Welding current may be continuous or in pulses.
 In the process of welding, a series of overlapping
spot welds is made along the lap joint.
 The process is capable of producing airtight joints,
and its industrial applications include the production
of gasoline tanks, and various others fabricated
sheet-metal containers
 Roller disc electrode

+
P
S
-

Roller disc electrode

Fig. Resistance Seam Welding

 In the usual method of operation, called
continuous motion welding, the wheel is rotated
continuously at a constant velocity
 The process is capable of producing airtight
joints, and its industrial applications include the
production of gasoline tanks, automobile
mufflers, and various others fabricated sheet-
metal containers
Projection Welding
 Projections are little projected raised points which offer
resistance during passage of current and thus
generating heat at those points.
 Projection welding may be carried out with one
projection or more than one projections
simultaneously.
 No consumables are required in projection welding. It
is widely being used for fastening attachments like
brackets and nuts etc to sheet metal which may be
required in electronic, electrical and domestic
equipment.
Weld
nugget Upper platen

Lower platen

Fig. Projection Welding

Application of resistance
welding
 Construction of aircraft body
 Mfg. household furniture
 Joining of fuel tank to automobile
body
 Joining of boilers, pressure vessel
 For joining through away type of tip
of tools
Soldering, Brazing and Braze welding
large diff in mp, thin to thick, ic engine
cyl fins,
Points to remember in non-fusion.
 Mechanism-
 Temp-
 Heat source-
 Filler rod-
 Application
Soldering, Brazing and Braze welding

 Soldering
 Two parts made of similar or dissimilar metals are joined by
a solder made of a fusible alloy.
 The solder is melted by the heat provided by the soldering
iron and filled between the metal parts. The solder solidifies
and joins the metal parts.
 Mechanism- wetting and surface alloying
 Temp < mp
 < 427°C
 Heat source– air acetylene flame, electric resistance.
 Filler rod - Tin and Lead- soft soldering
 Silver (40%)+ lead (30%)+ tin(30%)- hard
soldering
 application -joining wires in radio ,TV , ckt board etc
Fig. Soldering
Brazing
 In brazing, filler metal in molten state is filled between
the metal parts of the joint.
 The parts to be joined are cleaned and the molten filler
metal is applied between the parts to make the joint.
 Mechanism- wetting and surface alloying
 Temp- >427C and < MP
 Heat source – oxy-hydrogen flame, electric resistance
 Filler rod- Cu+Zn -high capillary action
 Application – kitchen appliances joining copper pipe in
refrigeration system
clip

Fig. Brazing
Advantages of Soldering and Brazing
 Low temperature
 Permanent or Temporary Joining
 Dissimilar materials can be joined
 Speed
 Less chance of damage
 Slow rate of heating/cooling
 Parts of varying thickness can be joined
 Easy realignment
Braze welding
 It is very similar to fusion welding with the
exception that the base metal is not melted.
 The filler metal (Cu+Tin) is distributed onto the
metal surfaces.
 Braze welding often produces bonds that are
comparable to those made by fusion welding without
the destruction of the base metal characteristics.
Braze welding is also called bronze welding.
Fig. Braze welding
 Braze welding has many advantages over fusion
welding.
 It allows you to join dissimilar metals, to minimize
heat distortion, and to reduce extensive preheating.
 This is extremely important in the repair of large
castings
 The disadvantages are the loss of strength when
subjected to high temperatures and the inability to
withstand high stresses.
Defects in welding
Residual Stresses and Warpage
 Rapid heating and then uncontrolled cooling result in uneven expansion
and contraction in the work piece and weldment.
 This causes development of residual stresses in the weldment. Distortion
and warpage may also be there. Sometimes wrong selection of filler metal
and welding technique may also be the cause of residual stress and
warpage.
Cracks
 This is a serious welding defect appears as fracture type interruptions in
the weld. Crack works as a point of stress concentration so reduce the
strength of the joint
Cavities or Porosity
Porosity consists of small voids in
weld metal formed by gases
entrapped during solidification.
Shape of the voids may be spherical
holes or elongated holes.

Solid Inclusions
This is the entrapped non-metallic solid
material. It may be the inclusion of
slag generated in a welding process.

Incomplete Fusion Slag

It is also called lack of fusion. It is a inclusion
weld bead in which fusion has not
occurred throughout the entire cross-
section of the joint. In other words it is
a lack of penetration. That is molten
metal has not penetrated up to root of
the joint.
Overlap
Undercut
Excessive concavity
Excessive convexity

74
Resistance Welding
Resistance Spot Welding
cycle
 Seam
Welding
Seam Welding application

Projection welded wheel

rim
Electron Beam
Welding
Laser Beam
Welding
Stud Welding
Soldering
Brazing
Welding Defects
THANK YOU

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