Operating Systems

‫نظم تشغيل الحاسب‬

First Term 2022-2021

Dr. Reda Elbasiony

1
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components:

Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Abstract View of Components of Computer

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
Operating system is a resource allocator and control program
making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user
programs
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor,
optimized for usability and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
Run primarily without user intervention

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Operating System Definition

No universally accepted definition

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is
the kernel, part of the operating system
Everything else is either
a system program (ships with the operating system, but
not part of the kernel) , or
an application program, all programs not associated
with the operating system
Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also
include middleware – a set of software frameworks that
provide addition services to application developers such as
databases, multimedia, graphics

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Interrupt Timeline

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Interrupt Handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Typically random-access memory in the form of Dynamic Random-
access Memory (DRAM)
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and
the computer
Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases, price drops

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage Hierarchy

Storage systems organized in hierarchy

Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Computer-System Architecture

Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specie task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 A Dual-Core Design
Multi-chip and multicore
Systems containing all chips
Chassis containing multiple separate systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Operating-System Operations
Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load
the kernel
Kernel loads
Starts system daemons (services provided outside of the
kernel)
Kernel interrupt driven (hardware and software)
Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service – system call
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiprogramming and Multitasking
Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Dual-mode and Multimode Operation

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system

components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets

it to user
Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes
/ threads

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 File-system Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 19

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018