Network Layer
Ante Prodan
School of Computing Engineering and
Mathematics
1
Important Concepts
How Routers work – forwarding and Routing
Network Layer Services
Connection oriented and Connection less paths between hosts
IP Packet Structure, IP fragmentation and reassembly
IP Addresses, Class base and Classless
Subnets and Subnet masks
How Computer get an IP address – Static and DHCP
Connecting a computer to a network – Gateway, Subnet mask
and DNS
How Organisations get IP addresses
NAT ; Network Address Translation
ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol – Traceroute and
ICMP
IPv6 – 128 bit address space
2
Network layer
application
transport
network
transport segments from data link
physical
sending to receiving host network
data link
network
data link
network physical
on sending side
physical
data link
physical network network
encapsulates segments data link
physical
data link
physical
into datagrams network network
on rcving side, delivers data link data link
physical
network
physical
segments to transport data link
physical
application
layer network
data link
transport
network
network
data link
network layer protocols in network
data link
physical data link
physical
physical
every host, router physical
router examines header
fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
3
Two Key Network-Layer Functions
forwarding: move analogy:
packets from router’s
input to appropriate routing: process of
router output planning trip from
source to dest
routing: determine
route taken by packets forwarding: process of
from source to dest. getting through single
interchange
routing algorithms
4
Interplay between routing and forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1
3 2
5
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
Example services for Example services for a
individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
guaranteed delivery in-order datagram
guaranteed delivery
delivery
with less than 40 msec guaranteed minimum
delay bandwidth to flow
restrictions on changes
in inter-packet spacing
6
Network layer connection and
connection-less service
datagram network provides network-
layer connectionless service
VC network provides network-layer
connection service
analogous to the transport-layer
services, but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provides one or the
other
implementation: in network core 7
Virtual circuits (VC)
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host address)
every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for each
passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to
VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)
8
Connection setup
3rd important function in some network
architectures:
ATM, frame relay, X.25
before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual connection
routers get involved
network vs transport layer connection service:
network: between two hosts (may also
involve intervening routers in case of VCs)
transport: between two processes
9
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
VC number can be changed on each link.
New VC number comes from forwarding table
10
Forwarding table
VC number
12 22 32
1 3
2
Forwarding table in interface
number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #
1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …
Routers maintain connection state information!
11
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols
used to setup, maintain teardown VC
used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used in today’s Internet
application
6. Receive data application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call transport
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call network
data link
physical
physical
12
Datagram networks
no call setup at network layer
routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of “connection”
packets forwarded using destination host address
packets between same source-dest pair may take different
paths
application
application
transport
transport
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
physical
physical
13
Question 1
What are the service model/s that network
layer can provide?
a) Application and transport service.
b) Connectionless and connection service.
c) Peer to peer service only
d) IP protocol service
14
4 billion
Forwarding table possible entries
Destination Address Range Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000
through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000
through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111
otherwise 3
15
Router Architecture Overview
Two key router functions:
run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
16
Input Port Functions
Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory
goal: complete input port processing at ‘line
speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
17
Three types of switching fabrics
18
Output Ports
Buffering required when datagrams arrive
from fabric faster than the transmission rate
Scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission
19
Output port queueing
buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds
output line speed
queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
20
Question 2
The two main function of a router are?
a) Firewall and Network Address Translation
b) Routing and buffering
c) Forwarding and routing
d) Forwarding and buffering
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The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Routing protocols IP protocol
•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP, OSPF, BGP •datagram format
Network •packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table
•error reporting
•router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
22
IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits total datagram
number length (bytes)
type of
header length ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
fragment fragmentation/
“type” of data 16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to Options (if any) E.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead data taken, specify
with TCP? (variable length, list of routers
20 bytes of TCP typically a TCP to visit.
20 bytes of IP or UDP segment)
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead 23
IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest fragmentation:
possible link-level frame. in: one large datagram
different link types, different out: 3 smaller datagrams
MTUs
large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net
reassembly
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
“reassembled” only at final
destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
24
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
=4000 =x =0 =0
Example
4000 byte One large datagram becomes
datagram several smaller datagrams
MTU = 1500
length ID fragflag offset
bytes =1500 =x =1 =0
1480 bytes in
data field length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =185
offset =
1480/8 length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x =0 =370
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IP Addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
IP address: 32-bit 223.1.2.1
identifier for host, 223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
interface: connection 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
between host/router
and physical link
router’s typically have 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
multiple interfaces
host typically has one
interface
IP addresses associated 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
with each interface
223 1 1 1
26
Subnets
223.1.1.1
IP address:
223.1.2.1
subnet part (high order 223.1.1.2
bits) 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
host part (low order
223.1.2.2
bits) 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
What’s a subnet ? subnet
device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
address
can physically reach
each other without network consisting of 3 subnets
intervening router
27
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
Recipe
To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its host
or router, creating
islands of isolated
networks. Each isolated
network is called a
subnet.
223.1.3.0/24
Subnet mask: /24
28
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits
in subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
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IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?
hard-coded by system admin in a file
Windows: control-panel->network-
>configuration->tcp/ip->properties
UNIX: /etc/rc.config
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
“plug-and-play”
30
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from
network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected an
“on”)
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
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DHCP client-server scenario
A 223.1.1.1 DHCP 223.1.2.1
server
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
B
223.1.2.2 arriving DHCP
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27 E client needs
address in this
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
network
32
DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 arriving
DHCP discover
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
time Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
33
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s
address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23
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Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
35
Hierarchical addressing: more specific route
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23
36
NAT: Network Address Translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or
network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)
37
NAT: Network Address Translation
Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as
outside world is concerned:
range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing addresses of devices
in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible
by outside world (a security plus).
38
NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:
outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address,
port #) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP
address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.
remember (in NAT translation table) every
(source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new
port #) translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address,
new port #) in dest fields of every incoming
datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port
#) stored in NAT table
39
NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
…… ……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
40
NAT: Network Address Translation
16-bit port-number field:
60,000 simultaneous connections with a
single LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer 3
violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into account by
app designers, eg, P2P applications
address shortage should instead be solved
by IPv6
41
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
used by hosts & routers to
communicate network-level Type Code description
information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
error reporting:
3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
echo request/reply (used
3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
4 0 source quench (congestion
network-layer “above” IP: control - not used)
ICMP msgs carried in IP 8 0 echo request (ping)
datagrams 9 0 route advertisement
10 0 router discovery
ICMP message: type, code
11 0 TTL expired
plus first 8 bytes of IP 12 0 bad IP header
datagram causing error
42
Traceroute and ICMP
Source sends series of UDP When ICMP message arrives,
segments to destination source calculates RTT
First has TTL =1 Traceroute does this 3 times
Second has TTL=2, etc. Stopping criterion
Unlikely port number UDP segment eventually
When n-th datagram arrives to arrives at destination host
n-th router: Destination returns ICMP
Router discards datagram “host unreachable” packet
And sends to source an ICMP (type 3, code 3)
message (type 11, code 0)
When source gets this ICMP,
Message includes name of
stops.
router& IP address
43
Question 3
Which of the following are network (Internet)
layer protocols?
a) POP3 and ICMP
b) ICMP and IP
c) IP and DNS
d) Ethernet and 802.11
44
IPv6
Initial motivation: 32-bit address space
already completely allocated so replace it with
128-bit address space.
Additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:
fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
45
Other resources
Internet (IP) layer of TCP/IP
Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_layer
Video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STvq52WOIiw
DHCP (video)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bv1itFPQ7O0&list
=PL547999D71DCAB1D0
ICMP (video)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWX1-QKG-
8Q&list=PL547999D71DCAB1D0
46
Other resources
An introduction to IPv6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLpxn
Hk6q50
47
