Notes: Chapter 10.

1 Moving Continents

Continental Drift
German meteorologist, Alfred Wegener proposed a theory (Wegener’s Theory) named continental
drift. Initially, all the continents were connected, forming a large landmass called ‘Pangea’, which
Wegener expressed that the continental landmasses were ‘drifting across Earth’. His evidence was
that the continents looked like a joined puzzle. He also noticed that the fossils of prehistoric
creatures were distributed and found across different continents. Ultimately, the theory of
continental drift is now known as plate tectonics (the process of Earth’s plates and boundaries
moving and interacting).

Seafloor Spreading

Harry Hess, an American geologist, theorised that seafloor spreading was a primary contributor to
ocean ridge movement. Seafloor spreading is a fundamental process in plate tectonics that primarily
occurs at mid-ocean ridges (2 oceanic plates diverging to form new ridges) and divergent plate
boundaries, it is when tectonic plates (in the lithosphere) split apart from each other and form new
oceanic crust through volcanic activity. This process is driven by the slow motion of the Earth’s
mantle, or, mantle convection, where convection currents carry the heat from the lower mantle and
core to the lithosphere, where the tectonic plates are.

- Hess proposed that the crust was sinking downwards into Earth, forming ocean trenches. As
the crust sinks, it melts and is destroyed. This is the process of subduction.
Support and Evidence for Hess's theory.
 Magnetic striping: Magnetic stripping refers to the alternating magnetism shown through
bands in the oceanic crust.

- Scientists discovered that many rocks in the new oceanic crust (formed at mid-ocean ridges
through volcanic activity) contained a magnetic mineral called magnetite. Once the molten
rock is solidified, the magnetite particles line up with the Earth’s magnetic field to point in
the same direction as it.
- In this way, the direction and alignment of these minerals create a record of Earth’s
magnetic field at the time the rock was formed.
- The movement of these magnetic properties generates a magnetic field that surrounds
Earth.
- As magma solidifies into rock, minerals within the magma align with the Earth’s magnetic
field, resulting in the magnetic direction preserved in the rocks during its formation.

- Magnetic reversals- Normal & Reversed Magnetic Polarity:

- The magnetic north and south poles switch periodically over time. This phase is called
‘magnetic reversal’. These magnetic reversals are captured on the solidified rock on either
side of the mid-ocean ridge. Magnetic reversal causes the Earth’s mid-ocean ridges to
produce coloured ‘bands’ which are a record of the Earth’s magnetic field alignment and
direction at the time: ‘Patterns of seafloor magnetism on either side of mid-ocean ridges
match up with one another’. This evidence point further proves that the Earth’s seafloor is
spreading apart.
- TL;DR↑: Magnetic reversals and movement recorded in the mid-ocean ridge and oceanic
crust reveal alternating bands of normal and reversed magnetic polarity, indicating periodic
changes in Earth’s magnetic field over time.
  Age of the sea floor
The age of the seafloor rock increases as it gets further away from the mid-ocean ridge. This
is due to new rocks forming by the mid-ocean ridge, which forces the older rocks to move
outwards away from the ridge.
- The age of the sea floor is also determined by the sediment thickness of the layer of rock.
The thickness of the layer of sediments deposited on the ocean floor increases as it gets
further away from the mid-ocean ridge due to older rocks accumulating more sediment over
large amounts of time.

Tectonic plates
Earth’s outermost solid layer is known as the crust, it makes up for all existing life. The crust is rigid,
inflexible, and is split into tectonic plates. These plates, composed of solid rock, are situated on the
semi-fluid asthenosphere, which allows them to move slowly across the Earth’s surface. This
movement is driven by heat and pressure from the Earth’s interior, known as convection currents.
Over time, these plates slide and act against each other, forming multiple geological landforms and
structures.

Types of Plate Boundaries

The movement and interaction of tectonic plates (caused by convection currents) occur at plate
boundaries, which are classified into three main types:
1. Divergent: At divergent plate boundaries, plates move away from each other,
leading to the upwelling of magma from the mantle to create new rock. This process
primarily occurs at mid-ocean ridges, which is the main contributor to seafloor
spreading. E.g., the Hawaiian Islands were formed through divergent boundaries as
the Pacific Plate moved over a hotspot in the mantle, resulting in a series of volcanic
islands.
2. Convergent: At convergent boundaries, plates move towards each other, resulting in
one plate being forced beneath another. This process is also known as subduction.
This interaction can lead to the formation of volcanoes and mountain ranges.

3. Transform: At transform boundaries, plates horizontally slide past each other. The
friction between the sliding plates can cause earthquakes along faults, e.g., the San
Andreas Fault. These boundaries do not create or destroy lithospheric material but
rather cause significant seismic activity.

Structure of the Earth (already studied previously)

-contract, expand,

Why do plates move?

There are two main ways in which plates move on the asthenosphere.
1. Convection Currents
Convection currents are the process of heat transfer of magma in the mantle. These
currents are caused by the heating of the magma in the mantle near the core-mantle
boundary and its cooling near the Earth's surface.
in our atmosphere, there are large convection cells called Hadley cells.
 Process: Hotter, less dense portions of the magma rise upwards, while cooler, denser
portions sink downwards in a circular motion. This rising and sinking movement creates
circular convection currents in the mantle.

Effect on Tectonic Plates: These convection currents cause tectonic plates to slowly move
and drift in different directions. The rising currents (hot) push and drag the plates
horizontally while the sinking currents (cool) pull the plates downwards.

Example: At mid-ocean ridges, the upwelling convection currents force the tectonic plates to
spread apart at divergent boundaries, creating new lithospheric material. Conversely, at
subduction zones (convergent boundaries), the downward motion of the sinking currents
pulls the denser plate beneath the less dense one.

2. Slab Pull
A slab pull is the gravitational force exerted by a sinking tectonic plate as it subducts
into the upper mantle, pulling the rest of the plate along. This force is generated by a
dense oceanic plate subducting under a continental plate.

3. Ridge Push
A ridge push occurs when newly formed rock at the mid-ocean ridge is warmer and
less dense than the older rock. The less-dense rock rests upon the older ones,
resulting in the older rock sloping downwards and away from the ridge. It is the force
exerted by the creation of new lithospheric crust at mid-ocean ridges, pushing the
plates apart.

At subduction zones, the denser tectonic plate will sink and subduct beneath the less
dense plate. The leading edge of the subducting plate sinks into the mantle and pulls
the rest of the plate with it.
Rifting and continental drift
What is Convection?
Convection is the heat energy transfer mechanism resulting from the bulk movement of
fluids.
- Example: In a pot of boiling water, the heat from the stove (source) warms the water
molecules, causing them to gain energy move rapidly, and become less dense, this results in
the heat rising to the top. As these less dense particles rise, they displace the denser particles
at the surface, which then drop to the bottom. Convection is driven by differences in density
due to temperature changes.
-As the heat energy increases, the kinetic energy increases, so the molecules move and
separate, leading to the content being less dense.
-Cooling has the opposite effect: molecules contract,
because it has been increasing the energy but then as it cools the opposite will happen pulled
up become denser so that they'll end up contracting a bit denser and will end up sinking right
because it's denser than the actual water as well the rest of warmer less dense material is
rising and cooler more dense material is sinking under the influence of gravity convection
doesn't just happen in pots of water either
in our atmosphere, there are large convection cells called Hadley cells.
-magmas moves up to the earth's surface, cools, and drops back down, creating convection
currents. This movement consistently moves the Earth's crust and its continents.

**Mechanism:**
- Increase in heat energy leads to an increase in kinetic energy of fluid molecules, causing
them to spread out and reduce density.
- Cooling causes the opposite effect: molecules contract, becoming more dense and sinking.
- Warmer, less dense material rises, while cooler, denser material sinks due to gravity.

**Examples Beyond Pots of Water:**

- Convection occurs in Earth's atmosphere, manifesting as large convection cells known as
Hadley cells.

- In the Earth's mantle, magma rises towards the surface, cools, and then descends back
down, generating convection currents. This movement continuously shifts the Earth's crust
and its continents.

**Implications for Plate Tectonics:**

- Convection currents in the mantle play a significant role in the movement of tectonic plates.
- The upward movement of magma creates divergent boundaries, where plates move apart,
while the downward movement forms convergent boundaries, where plates collide.

**Conclusion:**
Convection currents serve as a fundamental mechanism driving the movement of Earth's
tectonic plates, with implications for geological processes and the shaping of the Earth's
surface.