HLAA: Complex Number Notes

Introduction to Complex Numbers

Previously we had only considered the set of ‘Real Numbers’, ℝ. Natural numbers, ℕ,
Integers, ℤ, and Rational numbers, ℚ, were all subsets of this set.

Now we introduce a new number set, Complex Numbers, ℂ.

• A number is Complex if it has a component involving the ‘imaginary’ number 𝑖, (𝑖 =

√−1). We use typically use the letter 𝑧 for a complex number.

• Given that 𝑖 = √−1, it is important to see that 𝑖 / = −1

• Rectangular form of complex number:

𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊 = √−𝟏, 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ ℝ

• Components: If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 then ℜ𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑎 Ι𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑏

• Conjugate: 𝒛∗ = 𝒂 − 𝒃𝒊 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

Note that 𝑧 + 𝑧 ∗ = 2𝑎 (i.e. only real)

𝑧 − 𝑧 ∗ = 2𝑏𝑖 (i.e. only imaginary)

𝑧 × 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎/ + 𝑏/ (i.e. only real)

(𝑧G ∗ + 𝑧/ ∗ + ⋯ ) = (𝑧G + 𝑧/ + ⋯ … )∗

• The magnitude of a complex number, |𝑧|, is calculated:

|𝒛| = K𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

• Useful relationship between a complex number and its conjugate:

𝒛. 𝒛∗ = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = |𝒛|𝟐

Argand Diagrams

Complex numbers can be represented on an ‘Argand Diagram’, where the real part is on the
𝑥-axis, and the magnitude of the imaginary part is on the 𝑦 -axis.

Looking at the argand diagram, we can see that

the magnitude is calculated using Pythagoras’
theorem
𝒓 = |𝒛| = K𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
and also that the complex number and its
conjugate have the same magnitude but are either
side of the 𝑥 -axis.
RMS 2020 1
Operations in Rectangular Form

• Complex numbers can be added or subtracted by adding/ subtracting the real and
imaginary parts separately (Note that this is best done in Rectangular form, as
shown).

For example: 𝑧G = 4 + 3𝑖, 𝑧/ = 5 − 6𝑖

𝑧G + 𝑧/ = (4 + 5) + (3 − 6)𝑖 = 9 − 3𝑖

𝑧G − 𝑧/ = (4 − 5) + (3 − −6)𝑖 = −1 + 9𝑖

• Complex numbers can be multiplied (Note this is often better done in other forms,
that we will look at later).

For example: 𝑧G = 4 + 3𝑖, 𝑧/ = 5 − 6𝑖

𝑧G × 𝑧/ = (4 + 3𝑖)(5 − 6𝑖)
= 20 − 24𝑖 + 15𝑖 − 18𝑖 /
= 20 − 24𝑖 + 15𝑖 + 18 [𝑖 / = −1]
= 38 − 9𝑖

For example: 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖

𝑧 × 𝑧 ∗ = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖)
= 𝑎/ − 𝑎𝑏𝑖 + 𝑎𝑏𝑖 − 𝑏 / 𝑖 /
= 𝑎/ + 𝑏/ [𝑖 / = −1]
= |𝑧|/

• Complex numbers can be divided (Note this is often better done in other forms, that
we will look at later).

This involves ‘Realising the denominator’- rather like ‘Rationalising the denominator’

We make use of the fact that 𝑧 × 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎/ + 𝑏 / , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

For example: 𝑧G = 4 + 3𝑖, 𝑧/ = 5 − 6𝑖

[! (\]^_)
["
= (`ab_)

(\]^_) (`]b_)
= (`ab_) × (`]b_) [Multiplying top and bottom by the conjugate of the denominator]

/c]/\_]G`_]Gd_ "
= `" ]b"
[ 𝑧. 𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎$ + 𝑏$ ]

[Note that, unlike in ‘rationalising’ we are ADDING the squares]

$%&'(
= )*
[𝑖 $ = −1]

RMS 2020 2
GDC

Our GDC can carry out a number of useful calculations.

The ‘𝒊’ is above the ‘.’ in the bottom middle of the calculator.

For example: If 𝑧G = 4 + 3𝑖, 𝑧/ = 5 − 6𝑖, we can repeat the calculations from the previous
page on the GDC.

More of the complex operations (which we will use later) are found when pressing the
‘math’ key.

Note, however, that many of the complex number questions will come in the NO
calculator test, so must be able to do both ways.

RMS 2020 3
Roots of Polynomials

Previously, there were polynomials which we found did not have any roots. An example
being a quadratic where the discriminant was less than 0.

Now, when considering complex roots, this is no longer the case.

• The Fundamental theorem of Algebra tells us that:

“Any polynomial of degree, 𝒏, has exactly 𝒏 roots, possibly repeated, over ℂ”

Furthermore:

• Complex roots for all polynomials with real coefficients occur in conjugate
pairs.

That is, if 𝑧 = 4 + 3𝑖 is a root, then 𝑧 = 4 − 3𝑖 is also a root.

Note that this would apply to 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 / + 3𝑥 + 6 as the coefficients (5,3, 6) are real.

It would not apply to 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑖𝑥 / + 3𝑥 + 6𝑖 as the coefficients (5𝑖,3, 6𝑖) are NOT all
real. There would still be 2 roots, but they would not have to be conjugate pairs.

Finding Roots- Quadratic Equations using discriminant/ formula

Previously, we said that if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, then if the discriminant, ∆= 𝑏 / − 4𝑎𝑐 <

0 , then there are no solutions to the quadratic.

We now change the statement to say that there are always 2, though they may be repeated or
complex.

Discriminant: ∆= 𝑏 / − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

∆> 0 2 real roots

∆= 0 2 real repeated roots (previously we might have said 1 root!)
∆< 𝟎 2 complex roots

al±√l " a\no

We often need to make use of the quadratic formula: 𝑥 = /n

For example: Find the roots of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 / − 2𝑧 + 5

/±√/" a\×`
𝑧= /×G

/±√aGb
𝑧= /

/±\√aG
𝑧= /

𝑧 = 1 ± 2𝑖
We can see that the 2 roots, 𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖, 𝑧 = 1 − 2𝑖 are conjugate pairs.
RMS 2020 4
Finding Roots- Polynomials using sum and product of roots

From Algebra Unit-

• Sum and product of roots of polynomial equation:

𝑎c 𝑥 c + 𝑎G 𝑥 G + 𝑎/ 𝑥 / + 𝑎^ 𝑥 ^ + ⋯ . . +𝑎p 𝑥 p = 0

an+,! (aG)+ n-
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = n+
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = n+

Quadratics: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽

al o
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 = n
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼. 𝛽 = n

Cubics: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ^ + 𝑏𝑥 / + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾

al o
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = n
and 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 = n
a{
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼. 𝛽. 𝛾 = n

For example:

If two of the roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 ^ + 𝑏𝑧 / + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ , are

5 + 2𝑖 and 3, then find 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.

- Step 1: as the coefficients are real, the conjugate of a root must also be a root.
Therefore the third root is 5 − 2𝑖.

- Step 2:
Option 1: expand

𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − (5 + 2𝑖))(𝑧 − (5 − 2𝑖))(𝑧 − 3)

𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 / − (5 − 2𝑖)𝑧 − (5 + 2𝑖)𝑧 + (5 + 2𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖))(𝑧 − 3)
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 / − 10𝑧 + 29)(𝑧 − 3)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 ^ − 13𝑧 / + 59 − 87 → 𝑏 = −13, 𝑐 = 59, 𝑑 = −87

Option 2: sum and product of roots

Roots: 5 + 2𝑖, 5 − 2𝑖 , 3 𝑎=1

al
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = n
→ 𝑏 = −(5 + 2𝑖 + 5 − 2𝑖 + 3) = −13
o
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾 = n
→ 𝑐 = ( 5 + 2𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖) + 3( 5 + 2𝑖) + 3( 5 − 2𝑖) = 59

a{
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝛼. 𝛽. 𝛾 = n
→ 𝑑 = −3(5 + 2𝑖)(5 − 2𝑖) = −87

RMS 2020 5
********************************************************************************************
Prior Knowledge:

Trigonometry-
• Must know (or be able to quickly work out) exact values for sin, tan and cos of all
ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ
multiples of 𝜋, b , \ , ^ , / , working around quadrants in both

clockwise (negative) and anticlockwise (positive) directions.

• If 𝜃 is a solution, then (𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘𝜖ℤ) is also a solution (if domain is unrestricted)

•
********************************************************************************************
Other forms of Complex Numbers
Given the complex number in its rectangular form, 𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊

With reference to the argand diagram above, we can define the following terms:

- Argument of 𝒛 is the angle that the 𝑧 makes with the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. (Positive
angle is anticlockwise).
𝒃
𝑨𝒓𝒈(𝒛) = 𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏a𝟏 ( )
𝒂

- Modulus of z is the distance from (0,0) to the point z.

𝑴𝒐𝒅(𝒛) = |𝒛| = 𝒓 = K𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

Forms:

Rectangular 𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊

Polar 𝒛 = 𝒓(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) = 𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒔𝜽

l
where r = |𝑧| = √𝑎/ + 𝑏 / , 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛aG (n)
(Be careful that 𝜃 is in the correct quadrant- better to calculate acute and then adjust)!!)

Euler 𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝜽 (can be derived from Maclaurin Series)

l
where r = |𝑧| = √𝑎/ + 𝑏 / , 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛aG (n)

RMS 2020 6
 Converting between forms:

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 _•

Rectangular Polar Polar5 Euler

orm - Polar Form

Hence- 𝒂Euler's
= 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽Form
and 𝒃 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

a complex number in the following ways:

= x + y i = r (cos θ+
For i sin θ) = r cis θ = r e iθ
example:

EXACT: Find the Polar and Euler forms of 𝑧 = 2 − 2𝑖

gular form polar form shortened polar form Euler's form
- Step 1: Draw an argand diagram (Or alternatively use GDC if don’t need exact)

= 2 − 3i .

orm - Polar Form - Euler's Form

ulus Argument
ways: = |𝑧| = 𝑟 = √2 + 2 = √8 = 2√2
- following
Step 2: 𝑀𝑜𝑑(𝑧) / /
a complex number in the
ƒ ”ƒ ƒ ƒ ”ƒ
𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑧) = 𝜃 =−−\ 3= \ (best to use 𝑡𝑎𝑛aG (1) = \ → − \ 𝑜𝑟 \ )
2 2
= tan
=2x ++3 y i = r (cos θ + i sin θ) =θr cis
−1
θ = r e2iθ ( ) 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

13  = −
θ the o
56.3and
NOT EXACT: Find Polar Euler forms of 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖
gular form polar form shortened polar form Euler's form
- Step 1: Draw an argand diagram (Or alternatively use GDC if don’t need exact)
− 3i Rectangular form

13(cos(− 56.3 o) + isin (− 56.3o )) Polar form

=132 cis(−
− 3 i .56.3 o) Shortened polar form
o

13 ei (− 56.3 ) Euler's form

n and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form

ulus - Step 2: Find Argument
the argument, 𝜃, and the modulus, 𝑟.

( )
d z 2 = r 2 cisθ 2 , then: 1 −3
22 + 32 Read straight
θ =from
tan − GDC as above.
2
2 = r 1 . r 2 cis(θ1 + θ2 )Modulus

13 θ = − 56.3o
𝑀𝑜𝑑(𝑧) = |𝑧| = 𝑟 =3.61
r 𝜃 = −0.983
1
cis(θ1 − θ2 )
r 23 i
− - Step 3:
Rectangular form

13(cos(− 56.3 ) + isin (− 56.3o ))

o
Polar form
Polar: 𝑧 = 3.61(cos (−0.983) + 𝑖 sin (−0.983)) = 3.16 𝑐𝑖𝑠(−0.983)
13 cis(− 56.3 o) Shortened polar form
o
Euler 𝑧 = 3.61𝑒 _(ac.™d^)
13 ei (− 56.3 ) Euler's form
CdK - OFS HS - September - 2014 RMS 2020 7
n and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form
For example:

Write the following in Polar and Euler form

a) 𝑧 = 2

𝑟 = 2, 𝜃 = 0 = 0 + 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ (draw on an argand diagram to find 𝜃)

𝑧 = 2𝑒 /šƒ_ = 2𝑐𝑖𝑠(2𝑘𝜋)

b) 𝑧 = −2𝑖
^ƒ ^ƒ
𝑟 = 2 (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝐿𝑊𝐴𝑌𝑆 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) 𝜃 = /
= /
+ 2𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

./
^ƒ
𝑧 = 2𝑒 Ÿ " ]/šƒ _
= 2𝑐𝑖𝑠( / + 2𝑘𝜋)

For example:
0/
Find the Polar and Rectangular forms of 𝑧 = 4𝑒 _ 1

`ƒ `ƒ `ƒ
Polar: 𝑧 = 4𝑐𝑖𝑠 Ÿ b = 4( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 b
+ 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 b
)

Rectangular:
`ƒ `ƒ
𝑧 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 b + 𝑖 Ÿ4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 b
√^ G
= 4 Ÿ− /
+𝑖×4×/ (using exact values from Trig)
𝑧 = −2√3 + 2𝑖

Important to note:

Based on the argand diagram, if 𝑧 is:

• Positive Real number: eg. 𝑧 = 2 → 𝑟 = 2, 𝜃 = 0, 𝑧 = 2𝑒 _/šƒ , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

• Negative Real number: eg. 𝑧 = −2 → 𝑟 = 2, 𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝑧 = 2𝑒 _(ƒ]/šƒ) , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

/
ƒ
• Positive Imaginary number: eg. 𝑧 = 2𝑖 → 𝑟 = 2, 𝜃 = / , 𝑧 = 2𝑒 _( " ]/šƒ) , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

./
^ƒ
• Negative Imaginary number: eg. 𝑧 = −2𝑖 → 𝑟 = 2, 𝜃 = /
, 𝑧 = 2𝑒 _( " ]/šƒ) , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

RMS 2020 8
Operations in Polar and Euler Form:

Adding or subtracting- convert first to rectangular form (as shown on previous page)

Multiplying- In general best to do with Polar or Euler (not rectangular)

Polar: If 𝑧G = 𝑟G 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃G 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧/ = 𝑟/ 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃/ ,

𝒛𝟏 × 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 𝒄𝒊𝒔(𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 )

Euler: If 𝑧G = 𝑟G 𝑒 _•! 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧/ = 𝑟/ 𝑒 _•" ,

𝒛𝟏 × 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏 × 𝒓𝟐 𝒆𝒊(𝜽𝟏 :𝜽𝟐 )

Dividing
If 𝑧G = 𝑟G 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃G = 𝑟G 𝑒 _•! 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧/ = 𝑟/ 𝑐𝑖𝑠𝜃/ = 𝑟/ 𝑒 _•" ,

𝒛𝟏 𝒓 𝒓
𝒛𝟐
= 𝒓𝟏 𝒄𝒊𝒔(𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) = 𝒓𝟏 𝒆𝒊(𝜽𝟏 ;𝜽𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐

For example:
ƒ [!
If 𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧/ =3cis( ^ ) find 𝑧G + 𝑧/ ; 𝑧G × 𝑧/ 𝑎𝑛𝑑
["

a) 𝑧G + 𝑧/
For addition or subtraction, it is generally best to work in Rectangular form
𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖
ƒ ƒ ƒ ^ ^√^
𝑧/ =3cis( ^ ) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 ^ + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛 ^ 𝑖 = /
+ /
𝑖

^ ^√^
𝑧G + 𝑧/ = Ÿ−3 + / + Ÿ3 + /
𝑖
^ b]^√^
= −/ + /
𝑖 Rectangular form

RMS 2020 9
 b) 𝑧G × 𝑧/
For multiplication, it is generally best to work in Polar or Euler form
^ ^ƒ
𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 -> 𝑟 = √3/ + 3/ = √18 = 3√2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛aG Ÿa^ = \
[using unit circle]

^ƒ
->𝑧G = 3√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 \
ƒ
𝑧/ =3cis( ^ )

^ƒ ƒ
𝑧G × 𝑧/ = 3√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 \
×3cis( ^ )
^ƒ ƒ
= 9√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠( \ + ^ )
G^ƒ
= 9√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠( G/ )
!./
= 9√2 𝑒 _ !"

[!
c) ["

For division, it is generally best to work in Polar or Euler form

^ƒ
𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 = 3√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 \
[as in b)]
ƒ
𝑧/ =3cis( ^ )

./
[! ^√/ o_¢ ^ƒ ƒ `ƒ
["
= /
2
= √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 Ÿ \ − ^ = √2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 Ÿ G/
^£¤¥( )
.

De Moivre’s Theorem
An extension of the rules for multiplying leads us to ‘de Moivres Theorem’.

𝒛𝒏 = 𝒓𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒔(𝒏𝜽) = 𝒓𝒏 𝒆𝒊(𝒏𝜽)

This rule holds for all values of 𝒏, not just natural numbers.

RMS 2020 10
For example:

If 𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 , find 𝑧G \

./
^ƒ
From the previous example, 𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 = 3√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 \
= 3√2𝑒 _( 2 )
./ \
𝑧G \ = Ÿ3√2𝑒 _Ÿ 2
./
= ( 3√2)\ 𝑒 _Ÿ 2 ×\

= 324𝑒 _^ƒ
= −324 [from unit circle]

For example:

If 𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 , find the smallest positive value of 𝑛 such that 𝑧G p ∈ ℝ

./
From the previous example, 𝑧G = −3 + 3𝑖 = 3√2𝑒 _( 2 )

We know that if 𝑧G p ∈ ℝ, then there is no imaginary component. As such, the argument must
be a multiple of 𝜋 (from the argand diagram).

^ƒ
The argument of 𝑧G is 𝜃 = \
.
^pƒ
The argument of 𝑧G p is 𝜃 = \
.
^pƒ \
Hence, if \
= 𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ, then the smallest value of 𝑛 = ^.

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Roots of Complex Numbers

From the fundamental theorem of algebra, we know that if 𝑧 = 𝑤 p , then 𝑧 will have 𝑛 roots.

If we drew the roots on an argand diagram, they would be even placed around the origin,
/ƒ
with an angle of p
between each.

For example: If 𝑧 = −8, find the cubed roots of 𝑧.

Step 1: get 𝑧 into Polar or Euler form
𝑧 = −8 = 8𝑒 _ƒ [from unit circle, remember ‘r’ must always be positive]
But, each time we add 2𝜋, we get another correct solution
è 𝑧 = 8𝑒 _(ƒ]/šƒ) , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ [Note that this is a VITAL step, must be done here]

Step 1: let the roots equal 𝑤

!
𝑧 = 𝑤^ → 𝑤 = 𝑧.
! !
𝑤 = 𝑧 . = (8𝑒 _(ƒ]/šƒ) ).
! /3"4/
𝑤 = (8). (𝑒 _Ÿ . )
/3"4/
𝑤 = 2(𝑒 _Ÿ . )
/
ƒ ƒ
𝑘 = 0 𝑤c = 2(𝑒 _Ÿ . ) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ^ + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ^ 𝑖 = 1 + √3𝑖 [rectangular]
/3"/
𝑘 = 1 𝑤G = 2 Ÿ𝑒 _Ÿ . = 2𝑒 _(ƒ) = −2 [rectangular]
/32/ 0/
`ƒ `ƒ
𝑘 = 2 𝑤/ = 2 Ÿ𝑒 _Ÿ . = 2𝑒 _Ÿ . = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ^
+ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ^
𝑖 = 1 − √3𝑖 [rectangular]

So, the 3 roots are :

/ 0/
Euler: 𝑤c = 2 Ÿ𝑒 _Ÿ . ; 𝑤G = 2𝑒 _(ƒ) ; 𝑤/ = 2𝑒 _Ÿ .

Rectangular: 𝑤c = 1 + √3𝑖; 𝑤G = −2; 𝑤/ = 1 − √3𝑖

Note that they all have the same radius (2) and that they are evenly distributed
/ƒ
around the circle, with an angle of ^
between each root.
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Sum of Roots of Complex Numbers equal 0.

Proof:
If 𝑧 is an 𝑛¦§ root of (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖), then (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) = 𝑧 p and hence 𝑧 p − (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) = 0
an+,!
From the sum of roots, we know that 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = n+
.

In this case, 𝑎p = 1, 𝑎paG =0, so 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0.

Specific Case where complex number equals 1 “Roots of Unity”

If the complex number equals 1, (1=𝑤 p ) then, from de Moivre’s theorem, the roots will be:
1, 𝑤, 𝑤 / , 𝑤 ^ … 𝑤 paG

Proof 1:
If 𝑤 is an 𝑛¦§ root of 1, then 𝑤 is a solution 𝑜𝑓 1 = 𝑧 p and hence 𝑧 p − 1 = 0
an+,!
From the sum of roots, we know that 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = n+
.

In this case, 𝑎p = 1, 𝑎paG =0, so 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0.

Proof 2:
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 1 + 𝑤 + 𝑤 / + 𝑤 ^ … 𝑤 paG
(1 − 𝑤) × (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 1 + 𝑤 + 𝑤 / + 𝑤 ^ … 𝑤 paG − 𝑤 − 𝑤 / − 𝑤 ^ … 𝑤 p
= 1 − 𝑤p
(1 − 𝑤) × (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑛 = 1

As 𝑤 ≠ 1, 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0

Proof 3:
Sum of roots=1+ 𝑤 + 𝑤 / + 𝑤 ^ … 𝑤 paG
We can see this is a geometric series, 𝑢G = 1, 𝑟 = 𝑤
G(¬ + aG)
Therefore 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝑆p = ¬aG

And we know 𝑤 p = 1
G(¬ + aG) G(GaG)
Therefore 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = ¬aG
= ¬aG
=0

RMS 2020 13
Geometric Interpretations of Complex Numbers

If 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 _• , then, on an argand diagram, we could think of it as a vector with has a lenght of

𝑟, and an angle of 𝜃.

From De Moivre, 𝑧 / = 𝑟 / 𝑒 _/• , which has a length of 𝑟 / , and an angle of 2𝜃.

Going from 𝑧 to 𝑧 / , we could say is the same as a rotation of 𝜃 and a stretch of 𝑟.

/ / ./
For example, if 𝑧 = 3𝑒 _ 2 then 𝑧 / = 9𝑒 _ " and 𝑧 ^ = 27𝑒 _ 2

We can see from 𝑧 → 𝑧 / → 𝑧 ^ , each time we have stretched the length by a scale factor of 3,
ƒ ƒ
and increased the angle by \ (45o) which is effectively a rotation of \ .

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