ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION
ENGINEERING

FINAL YEAR PROJECT ON SAMIRA SMALL SCALE

IRRIGATION PROJECT

July 6, 1905

JUNE, 2014
 DESIGN ON SAMIRA SMALL SCALE
IRRIGATION PROJECT
A PARTIAL REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN WATER RESOURCES AND
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
AT
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY
BY
ZEMEDE LANDU

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

ATO LEGESSE A.(Msc)
AND
W/RO WOYNISHET H.(Bsc)
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY
JUNE, 2014

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this report entitled design of Samira small scale
irrigation project. Work is done and submitted:
By
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award Degree of
Bachelor of Science, BSc
In
Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering
At
Arba Minch University institute of technology
 UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
ATO LEGESSE ABADI (MSc)________________
W/RO WOYNISHET. (BSc)__________________
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Firstly we would like to give our almighty God who allocates all things to prepare this
project and fulfillment of our wishes.
Secondly, we would like to express our deepest hearted thanks to Arbaminch
University for giving the chance to prepare this final year project. And our thanks are
also for our department water resources and irrigation engineering for the preparation
of advisors to guide ourselves.
Our sincere thanks extends to our advisors to Ato LegesseAbadi(Msc) and
WoynishetHabte(Bsc) for the proper guidance, comments, allocations and suggestions
during our design reports to reach up to the points of goal.
We would like to thanks for Arbaminch university library workers for giving
reference materials whenever we required without any tiredness’s.
Last but not the least our heart full and grand thanks give for our families to help to
prepare this final year project both in their finically and economically and in their
guidance for our life span in our educations from the begging up to the end today
know.

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EXCUTIVE SUMMARY

Samira Small Scale irrigation project is found in Oromia Regional State, Arsi Zone,
Munessa district and 69km from Assela Zonal town. The command area of this
project is 90 ha & the diversion headwork is constructed on Mentana River.
Geographically, the project or weir site is found at 39o16’ East and 8 o 30’ north. And
the average elevation at the site is 2320 m.a.s.l.
The size of the watershed area is 47.7km2, and it has sub division in percentiles like
wood, pasture, cultivate land and etc. The total stream length up to weir axis is
19,000m.
The hydrologic analysis has been done for 18 years of rainfall data from Bokoji
metrological station.The design discharge of peak flood is estimated by rational
formula, flood frequency analysis and also l-moment method. Hence the peak flood
estimated by l-moment i.e. general extreme value method, that is Qd=71.94m3/se.
Irrigation water demand assessment for the selected crops has been computed by the
CROPWAT8 software package and the scheme water supply is 106.875l/se. In this
project surface irrigation method is selected depending on different factors and it has
sub branches, among them we select furrow irrigation. Some of design parameters of
furrow irrigation are furrow slope, furrow length, stream discharge, soil type, crop
type etc.
There are different types of Head work and Depending on different factors vertical
drop weir is selected. This has 1.7m high, 3m and 1.7m of bottom and top width
respectively.
The canal alignment is based on contour, and the canal dimension is calculated by b/d
ratio and tractive force because of the type of soil is clay i.e. non erodible. The canal
alignment contains 1 main canal, 4 secondary canals, one branch canal, 12 tertiary
canals including head regulator drop structure, culvert, division box and transition
expansion, under sluice and retaining wall.
Drainage canal also calculated for sake of safety to remove excess water from a
command area. In generally, designed five main drainage canals and twelve tertiary
drainage canals. At last economic analysis of project was done, that overall cost of
project is 1, 6009,888.85 ETB

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................................................I
EXCUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................II
TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................................III
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................VI
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................................VII
LIST OF ABBRBATION...................................................................................................................VIII
1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1
1.1 PROJECT AREA.............................................................................................................................2
1.1.1 Back Ground of the Project...............................................................................................2
1.1.2 Location and Topography of the Project...........................................................................2
1.1.3 Land Use............................................................................................................................3
1.1.4 Objective of the Project.....................................................................................................3
1.2 GEOLOGY.....................................................................................................................................4
1.2.1 Geotechnical Investigations...............................................................................................4
1.2.2 Scope of Ground Investigation..........................................................................................5
1.2.3 Methods of Ground Investigation......................................................................................5
1.3 WATER QUALITY.........................................................................................................................6
2. HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS...................................................................................................7
2.1 GENERAL......................................................................................................................................7
2.2 DATA AVAILABILITY...................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Data Consistency Test.......................................................................................................7
2.2.2 Test Outlier........................................................................................................................9
2.3 ESTIMATION OF L-MOMENT.......................................................................................................10
2.4 DETERMINATION OF PEAK FLOOD.............................................................................................14
2.4.1 Rational Method..............................................................................................................14
2.4.2 Empirical Formula Method.............................................................................................15
2.4.3 Unit Hydrograph Method................................................................................................15
2.5 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS..................................................................................................15
2.5.1 Gumbel's Equation...........................................................................................................15
2.5.2 General Extreme-Value...................................................................................................18
2.5.3 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution..................................................................................18
2.5.4 Log-Normal Distribution.................................................................................................20
2.6 HYDROGRAPH SYNTHESIS..........................................................................................................20
3. WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT...........................................................................................29
3.1 GENERAL....................................................................................................................................29
3.2 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT.....................................................................................................29
3.3 CROP SELECTION AND CROPPING PATTERN..............................................................................30
3.3.1 Crop Selection.................................................................................................................30
3.4 CROPPING PATTERN...................................................................................................................31
3.5 REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION.................................................................................31
3.5.1 Blaney-Criddle Method...................................................................................................32
3.5.2 Thornthwaite Method......................................................................................................32
3.5.3 Hargreaves Class a Pan Evaporation...............................................................................32
3.5.4 Modified Penman Method...............................................................................................32
3.5.5 Penman–Moteith Method................................................................................................33
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 3.6 CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE RAINFALL (ER)..........................................................................37
3.7 CROP COEFFICIENT (KC)............................................................................................................39
3.8 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES..........................................................................................................41
3.9 NET IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT (NIR)......................................................................................43
3.10 GROSS IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT (GIR)..................................................................................43
3.11 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING..........................................................................................................43
3.11.1 Field Irrigation Schedule.................................................................................................44
3.11.2 Field Irrigation Supply Scheduling.................................................................................46
3.11.3 Method of Water Delivery and Delivery Scheduling......................................................46
4. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS......................................................................................47
4.1 GENERAL....................................................................................................................................47
4.2 CHOICE OFIRRIGATIONMETHOD................................................................................................47
4.2.1 Surface IrrigationMethod................................................................................................47
4.2.1.1 FurrowIrrigation.....................................................................................................48
4.3 DESIGNCONSIDERATIONOFFURROWIRRIGATION.......................................................................49
4.3.1 DesignofFurrowSystem...................................................................................................51
5. DESIGN OF CANALS AND CANAL STRUCTURES............................................................57
5.1 GENERAL....................................................................................................................................57
5.2 CANAL ALIGNMENT...................................................................................................................57
5.2.1 General Consideration for Canal Alignment...................................................................57
5.2.2 Horizontal Alignment of Canals......................................................................................58
5.2.3 The Vertical Alignment of Canals...................................................................................58
5.3 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF THE CANAL..........................................................................................58
5.3.1 Permissible Velocity........................................................................................................61
5.3.2 Tractive Force..................................................................................................................61
5.4 FULL SUPPLY DISCHARGE (FSD)...............................................................................................62
5.5 DESIGN OF MAIN CANAL...........................................................................................................65
5.5.1 Design of Secondary Canal (Branch Canal)....................................................................67
5.5.2 Design of Tertiary Canals................................................................................................68
5.5.3 Intake...............................................................................................................................70
5.6 DESIGN OF CONVEYANCE STRUCTURES....................................................................................70
5.6.1 Expansion Transition.......................................................................................................70
5.6.2 Drop Structure.................................................................................................................72
5.6.3 Culvert.............................................................................................................................73
5.6.4 Division Box....................................................................................................................74
6. DESIGN OF DRAINAGE CANALS..........................................................................................76
6.1 DESIGNOFSURFACE DRAINAGE CANALS...................................................................................76
6.2 ALIGNMENT OFSURFACE DRAINAGE.........................................................................................76
6.3 TYPES OFDRAINAGE CANALS....................................................................................................79
7. HEAD WORK DESIGN...........................................................................................................113
7.1 GENERAL..................................................................................................................................113
7.1.1 Location of Weir............................................................................................................113
7.1.2 Selection of Weir Type..................................................................................................113
7.2 WEIR DESIGN...........................................................................................................................114
7.3 DESIGN OF WEIR WALL...........................................................................................................116
7.3.1 Top Width......................................................................................................................116
7.3.2 Bottom Width................................................................................................................116
7.3.3 Depth of Sheet Piles......................................................................................................117
7.3.4 Impervious Floor...........................................................................................................118
iv
 7.3.5 Downstream Protection Work.......................................................................................118
7.3.6 Up Stream Protection Work..........................................................................................119
7.3.7 Check by Khosla, s Theory............................................................................................120
7.4 ENERGY DISSIPATION...............................................................................................................123
7.5 STABILITY ANALYSIS OF WEIR................................................................................................124
7.6 DESIGN OF UNDER SLUICE.......................................................................................................127
7.6.1 Impervious Floor...........................................................................................................128
7.6.2 Protection Work.............................................................................................................128
7.7 SILT EXCLUDER........................................................................................................................129
7.7.1 Design of Silt Excluder.................................................................................................129
7.7.2 Design of Canal out Let.................................................................................................130
7.8 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL (GUIDE WALL)..........................................................................130
7.8.1 Upstream Retaining Wall..............................................................................................131
7.8.2 Downstream Retaining Wall.........................................................................................133
8. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS..........................................................................................................135
9. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT.....................................................................139
9.1 DESCRIPTIONOF POTENTIALIMPACT........................................................................................139
9.1.1 PositiveEnvironmentalImpactoftheProject....................................................................139
9.1.2 NegativeImpactsoftheProject........................................................................................140
9.1.3 OrganicandInorganic Pollution.....................................................................................140
9.1.4 Pollution ofWaterQuality..............................................................................................140
9.1.5 PublicHealth..................................................................................................................140
9.1.6 WaterLogging................................................................................................................141
9.1.7 Biological & Ecological Changes.................................................................................141
9.2 MITIGATION MEASURES...........................................................................................................141
10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION........................................................................143
10.1 CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................................143
10.2 RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................................144
REFERENCE.......................................................................................................................................146

APPENDIX

v
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: L-moment diagram......................................................................................13

Figure 2: Composite hydrograph..................................................................................28
Figure 3 : Cross-section of the rectangular main canal................................................66
Figure 4 : Cross-section of trapezoidal main canal......................................................67
Figure 5: Expansion Transition....................................................................................70
Figure 6: Drop structure..............................................................................................72
Figure 7: Division box.................................................................................................75
Figure 8: Typical Cross Section of Drainage Canal..................................................112
Figure 9: Cross-section of Weir................................................................................120
Figure10: Khoslas Theory up Lift Pressure..............................................................121
Figure 11: Energ dissipation.......................................................................................123
Figure 12: Forces act on weir.....................................................................................125
Figure 13: Force acting on weir on static case...........................................................126
Figure 14: Upstream wing wall..................................................................................132
Figure 15: Downstream retaining wall.......................................................................133

vi
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Maximum daily rainfall value of 18 years for metrological station of Samira 7
Table 2: Computationof rain fall frequency analysis.....................................................8
Table 3: Calculation of Value of L-Moment................................................................11
Table 4: Calculation of design storm by gumbels distribution....................................16
Table 5: Calculation of design storm by Log-Pearson Type III...................................19
Table 6: SSCS method for Calculation of Design Discharge......................................21
Table 7: Computation of triangular hydrograph For rising limb..................................26
Table 8: Computation of triangular hydrograph For recession limb............................26
Table 9 : Computation of Triangular and Composite hydrographs..............................27
Table10: Proposed cropping calendar for Dry Season.................................................31
Table 11: ETO calculated by cropwat-8 computer program........................................35
Table 13: Growing stage & K C value proposed crop.................................................41
Table 14: Conveyance (Ec), field (Eb) and application (Ea) efficiency criteria..........42
Table 15: Interval (frequency) of Irrigation.................................................................45
Table 16: Furrow infiltration and inflow rate...............................................................49
Table 17: Spacing between rows and plants................................................................49
Table 18: Suggested maximum length of cultivated furrow (m) for different slope and
depth of water to be applied)........................................................................................50
Table 19: Furrow irrigation design for the selected crops...........................................54
Table 20: Modified Furrow irrigation design for the selected crops............................56
Table 21: Permissible Velocity for Unlined Canal.....................................................61
Table 22: Maximum permissible velocity for lined canal............................................61
Table 23 : Critical tractive force for different soil.......................................................62
Table 24: Side Slope for Various Soils.......................................................................63
Table 25: The Value of N for Different Type of Bed Material....................................64
Table 26: Values of design calculation for secondary canals......................................68
Table 27: Design calculation of tertiary canals............................................................69
Table 28: Cross section of transition............................................................................71
Table 29: Drop components tabulated below...............................................................73
Table 30: Amuzumdar’s for drainage coefficient.......................................................78
Table 31 Capacity of Drainage canal:..........................................................................79
Table 32: Hydraulic parameters of drainage canal.....................................................112
Table 33: Stability analysis of dynamic case.............................................................125
Table 34: Forces and moments acting on weir at static case:....................................126
Table 35: Forces and moments acting onUpstream Wing Wall................................132
Table 36: Forces and moments acting on d/s retaining wall......................................134
Table 37: Rate of Cost................................................................................................135
Table 38: Weir Apron and under Sluice portion........................................................135
Table 39: Head Regulator...........................................................................................135
Table 40: Retaining wall............................................................................................136
Table 41: Main Canal.................................................................................................136
Table 42 Secondary and branch canal........................................................................136
Table 43: Tertiary canal.............................................................................................136
Table 44: Culvert........................................................................................................137
Table 45: Drainage Convey........................................................................................137
Table 46: Estimation of Project benefit......................................................................138
vii
LIST OF ABBRBATION

NMSA-------------------------------- National Meteorological Services Agency

SCS------------------------------------Soil Conservation system
CN-------------------------------------Curve number
AMC----------------------------------Antecedent moisture content
PMF-----------------------------------Probable maximum flood
DC-------------------------------------Drainage coefficient
MAR----------------------------------Mean annual rainfall
LDrc-----------------------------------Left drain canal
MDr-----------------------------------Main drain canal
RDrC----------------------------------Right drain canal
FSL------------------------------------Full supply level
TEL------------------------------------Total energy line
HFL -----------------------------------High flood level
D/S-------------------------------------Down stream
U/S-------------------------------------Up stream
CWR-----------------------------------Crop Water requirement
ETo-------------------------------------Reference crop evapotranspiration
FAO------------------------------------Food agriculture organization
NIR-------------------------------------Net irrigation requirement
FIR--------------------------------------Field irrigation Requirement
GIR--------------------------------------Gross Irrigation Requirement
EIA---------------------------------------Environmental impact assessment
CVR--------------------------------------Critical velocity ratio
FSD---------------------------------------Full supply discharge
MC----------------------------------------Main canal
SC-----------------------------------------Secondary canal
TC-----------------------------------------Tertiary canal

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years many parts of the world, especially Africa countries, have suffered
from drought. Hence, to mitigate these problem, and for the general economic growth
of these (developing) countries, the first and the major task to be done is to facilitate
the development of the agricultural sector. It is now realized that the most important
factor in the success of agricultural sector economy is the sustainability of irrigation
project.
In most developing countries, especially like Ethiopia, irrigation engineers observe
that formers are suffering from shortage of water not because of its unavailability, but
mainly because of the lack of skill and economy to make it available at the time and
place required.
But Ethiopia countries its have enough water potential and wide land suitable for
irrigation has long history of recurring drought and suffering from shortage. This self-
insufficiency in food is mainly attributed to faster rate of population growth and
decrease agricultural productivity as a matter of fact that:-
The shortage of water for crop growth due to complete dependence on
rain fed agriculture
The decrease of fertility of the soil as a result of erosion and poor
management of form lands
Absence of traditionally mechanization of the farming system and
dependence of farmers on traditional ways of farming and production.
Depending on the above problem the Oromia Regional State’s it decides the major
policy issues on agriculture drafted is to make the country self-sufficient in food. The
significance of Agricultural activity, for the Region economy gives attention, for the
reason that it is the source of income and means of livelihood for the largest section of
population in the Region.
Therefore, developing this sector means it will bring sustainable food self-sufficiency
in the Oromia Regional State. To meet this objective Small-Scale Irrigation Project is
one of development techniques or interventions. So the Samira Small-Scale Irrigation
Project is one of development intentions to address the self-sufficiency in food in the
project area.

1.1 Project Area

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

1.1.1 Back Ground of the Project

`As in others rural of the country, the livelihood of the surrounding farmers is based
on traditional farming and animal rearing.
Munessa district comprises many peasant Associations, out of which DamuDimbiba
peasant Association is the place where the Samira Small-Scale Irrigation Project is
proposed.
In the land part of the district in general and the Samira project area in particular
widely produces wheat, maize, sorghum, rape seed and Teff under cultivation.
Though there is good irrigation potential in the peasant Association, only small area
of land that is cultivated by traditional irrigation to produce different vegetables like
potato, chilies onion, Tomato, sugar cane and cabbage by diverting Metana River.
However, due to lack of money and experience there is little irrigation practice in the
project area.
Animal husbandry is also another very important activity that supports the
communities in the project area as traction power, means of transporting, for milking
and for other social values. The use of water resource for crop production through
irrigation technology is found to be a solution to overcome the shortage income. So
Metana River is the potential River resource to be used for irrigation purpose to bring
about significant change for the beneficiary farmers in the area.

1.1.2 Location and Topography of the Project

Samira Small Scale irrigation project is found in Oromia Regional State, Arsi Zone,
Munessa district, DamuDimbiba Peasant associate of which at 12km from Kersa
town and 69km from Assela Zonal town. Geographically, the project site is found at
39o16’ East and 8 o 30’ north. And the average elevation at the site is 2320 m.a.s.l.
Munessa district has an area of 47.6 km 2which is located in Central Oromia region
Arsi zone with shares boundary lines of ArsiNegele, L/Bilbillo, Kofele, Tiyo,
Z/Dugda and D/Tijo districts. The topography of the project area is Undulating plains,
rift valleys, hills and mountains characterize the districts.
The approximate area of the catchments is 47.6 km2Out of the total catchments area
approximately 15 % covered by grazing & wood land, 75% shrubs, 10 % is
cultivated.
Climate

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The Agro Ecological Zone of the area is almost warm temperate humid highland. The
average altitude is 2350 m.a.s.l. Annual rainfall ranges from 1100 – 1200 mm while
the annual temperature of the area is 13oc
The main rainy season lies between may-September the short rainy season between
march-mid of May. Although the change is recent uneven distribution of rainfall is the
main problem related to rain fall as the main reason for expansion of traditional
irrigation.
Soil
The textural classes of the soil of the project area are clay which is easy to till but has
medium fertility level and also suitable for different crops.

1.1.3 Land Use

The present land use pattern of PA is, farmlands accounts 77.2% of total area, the
grazing land 17.4 %, and forest land accounts 3% of the total area.
According to the data obtained from Agriculture and Rural Development Office of the
district, the total land area of the project area PA is about 1800 ha. The land use
classification indicates that the project area is used for agriculture, forest, grazing.

1.1.4 Objective of the Project

Samira small scale irrigation project is constructed at a river of Metanawhichproposed

to irrigate a total net area of 90ha by constructing of head work, canal, and irrigation
structure.
Generally the main objective of this project:-
To avoid the dependence of crop production on the seasonal rain-fed.
To utilize the existing potential resource.
To increase productivity by effective utilization resources, i.e. water
and land.
To apply the strategies of poverty reduction of the government in
securing food self-sufficiency.

1.2 Geology

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Geology is a field of earth science concerned with the history and makeup of the earth
and material like soil and rock.it is very important field to understand the nature of the
underlying rock strata and the near surface material. Soils are derived from geological
materials which may be consolidated or unconsolidated by the action of climate and
vegetation as modified by topography.
The basic objective of the geology and geo-technical study of the project is to provide
data that enable to decide the engineering geological feasibility. This achieved
through providing qualitative and quantitative engineering geological information that
are related to the stability, workability, water tightness and bearing capacity of the
various foundation materials encountered in the irrigation system of Samira traditional
irrigation scheme.
Moreover, the targets to for cast risks and provide possible mitigation measures that
will have to be considered in the detail design and in the implementation of the
scheme. Further, it is aimed to assess the exact location of quality, quantity and
proximity of naturally occurring construction materials that are conforming to the
magnitude and type of structures to be constructed.
The most important aim of the subsurface investigation is to establish the soil, or soil
and rock, profile at the site. Which means?
The soil and rock exist in the foundation and the reservoir areas
To know engineering properties
To assess ground water conditions
To know the suitable sources of construction materials in the vicinity of site

1.2.1 Geotechnical Investigations

Geotechnical investigations are carried out to provide geotechnical data representative

of the ground conditions at the site and, of relevance, to the development under
consideration. The main purpose of Geotechnical investigations is:-

to assess the suitability of the site and its environment for the proposed works
to enable an adequate and appropriate design to be prepared, including the
design of temporary works
to plan the best method of construction and to explore sources of indigenous
construction materials

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

to determine the changes to the site and its environment that may arise as a
result of the works

1.2.2 Scope of Ground Investigation

The technical scope, or extent, of the ground investigation is controlled by different

such as, the character and variability of the ground, the nature of the project,
topography and its implications for access by mechanical equipment, the local
availability of certain types of investigation equipment, the confidence in the quality
and represent ability of information that has become available as a result of desk study
and geomorphological (surface) mapping, and the available funding.
The character and variability of the ground should be established in outline terms
during the desk study and reconnaissance survey i.e. they are an essential first part of
any investigation. If they are carried out well they not only help to save costs by
contributing towards an efficiently planned subsurface investigation, but help to
reduce the risk that unexpected problems may become apparent at later stages in the
project.

1.2.3 Methods of Ground Investigation

In the Samira small scale irrigation project ground investigation is studded by the
method of trial pit. Because of Trial pits are an economic method for shallow
exploration and for inspecting in-situ soil conditions and they allow a relatively large
face in the in-situ material to be inspected.
At this scheme some trial pits have been excavated at weir site, along main canal and
pond site. The geomorphologic setting, workability stability and water tightness of the
weir site & main canal route, Pond, Construction Materials, Masonry rock and
concrete work are among the major areas of engineering geological focus relating to
the scheme under consideration

1.3 Water Quality

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

The qualities of available water more desirable than soil characteristics in determine
the suitability of lands for irrigation. So quality of Mentana River is good for
irrigation and salinity problem of the water is expected free. This may concluded that
the area selected for irrigation project.
The various types of impurity which the water unfits for irrigation area
classified us;
Sedimentation concentration in water.
Total concentration of soluble salt in water.
Proportion of sodium ions to other cation.
Concentration of potentially toxic element present in the water.
Bacteria contamination

2. HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS

2.1 General

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

Hydrology is defined as the science that deals with the occurrence, distribution,
movement and quality of water on the earth including that in the atmosphere in the
form of vapor, on the surface as water, snow or ice, and beneath the surface as ground
water. It is very much dependent on many other natural science, geology, and soil
science, oceanography and hydraulics.

2.2 Data Availability

All water resources system must be planned for future event for which exact time of
occurrence can be forecasted. In order to for caste hydrological event data will be
necessary.so it is having daily maximum rain fall for 18 years flow of the river of
Samira which is called Metana.
Table 1: Maximum daily rainfall value of 18 years for metrological station of Samira
Station bokoji
Year RF(mm) Year RF(mm)
1969 51.1 1978 45..6
1970 62.9 1979 38.3
1971 57.1 1980 36.3
1972 40.4 1981 39.2
1973 34.7 1982 57
1974 44.5 1983 22
1975 43 1984 23.3
1976 35.5 1985 57.4
1977 56.6 1986 57.4

2.2.1 Data Consistency Test

The daily heaviest rainfall data of Bokoji metrological station for 18 years is used for
the design. Hence, 18 years heaviest rainfall data is available the data should be
checked for consistency.
To compute for the consistency test the following parameters have to be calculated
and availed from table below.
Table 2: Computationof rain fall frequency analysis

daily
s no Year maximum rain y=logx y-ym (y-ym)2 (y-ym)3 (x-xm)2
fall(X)

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 Final Year Project On Samira Small Scale Irrigation Project 2014

1 1970 62.9 1.79865 0.16665 0.02777 0.0046 335.916

2 1985 57.4 1.75891 0.12691 0.01611 0.0020 164.558
3 1986 57.4 1.75891 0.12691 0.01611 0.0020 164.558
4 1971 57.1 1.75664 0.12464 0.01553 0.0019 156.951
5 1982 57 1.75587 0.12387 0.01534 0.0019 154.455
6 1977 56.6 1.75282 0.12082 0.01460 0.0018 144.673
7 1969 51.1 1.70842 0.07642 0.00584 0.0004 42.615
8 1978 45.6 1.65896 0.02696 0.00073 0.0000 1.057
9 1974 44.5 1.64836 0.01636 0.00027 0.0000 0.005
10 1975 43 1.63347 0.00147 0.00000 0.0000 2.471
11 1972 40.4 1.60638 -0.02562 0.00066 0.0000 17.406
12 1979 39.2 1.59329 -0.03871 0.00150 -0.0001 28.858
13 1980 38.3 1.5832 -0.04880 0.00238 -0.0001 39.338
14 1976 36.3 1.55991 -0.07209 0.00520 -0.0004 68.426
15 1973 35.5 1.55023 -0.08177 0.00669 -0.0005 82.301
16 1981 34.7 1.54033 -0.09167 0.00840 -0.0008 97.456
17 1984 23.3 1.36736 -0.26464 0.07004 -0.0185 452.498
18 1983 22 1.34242 -0.28958 0.08386 -0.0243 509.495
802.3 29.3741 0.29101 -0.0299 2463.036

Using the above table they can calculateStandard deviation (Xi), δn−1 and Skewness

coefficient (cs)
∑Y=29.374mm,Ym=29.374/18=
∑Xi=802.3mm 1.632mm
Xm=44.572mm
∑(X-Xm)2=2463.036 ∑(Y-Ym)2 =0.2910142
N=18 ∑(Y-Ym)3= -0.029912821

Standard deviation (Xi), δn−1 x=√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿= 12.036

Standard deviation (Yi),δn−1 y=

√ ∑ (Y −Ym)2 =¿0.13084
N −1

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N ∑ (Y −Ym )
3

Skewness coefficient, Cs= =−0.8837

( N −1 )( N −2 ) Sy 3
Before proceeding to the other analysis the adequacy of rainfall data series should be
checked and it should be realized. The data series should be considered and adequate
if relative standard error, δe ≤10%, where δe is the relative standard error.
Se 2.837 δn−1 12.036
δe= = ∗100=6.36 % Where, Se= = =2.837
Xm 44.572 √N √ 18
6.36 % ≤ 10 % (ok!). Therefore the data is reliable and adequate.

2.2.2 Test Outlier

Outliers are data points that depart from the trend of the remaining data. The detention
or retention of these outliers can significantly affect the magnitude. As shown from
the above calculations the station skew is less than -0.4, so based on the following
principle the Cs value falls in the first case. Therefore, it needs checking for lower
outlier.
Case1:If skewness(Cs) < -0.4 check for lower outlier
Case2:If skewness(Cs) > +0.4 check for higher outlier
Case3:If skewness(Cs) -0.4<Cs<+0.4 check for both outlier

Since it is stated that the skewness coefficient is less than -0.4, our data recorded with
respect to higher outlier is within reasonable range. So, there is no higher outlier.
Thus, the data is only checked for lower outlier.
Lower outlier determination
To detect the outlier the following frequency equations are applied.
Lower outlier, Yl=Ym-Kn*Sy
Where Ym=mean of data in log unity
Kn=from table for sample size N, From above calculated value for data (N=18,
Kn=2.335, refer appendix A, table=1.4), Ym=1.632, Sy=0.13084, and Cs=-0.8837
Lower outlier Yl =Ym - Kn*Sy=1.632-2.263*0.13084=1.3265mm
Antilog (yl) =21.207mm
The lowest record daily heaviest rainfall data is 22mm in the 1983 which is higher
than the threshold value of lower outliers. Hence the daily heaviest rainfall data
recorded with respect to lower outlier is within reasonable range. Hence, there is no
lower outlier.
Higher outlier determination
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To detect the outlier the following frequency equations are applied.

Higher outlier, Yh=Ym + Kn*Sy
Where Ym=mean of data in log unity
Kn= from table for sample size N, From above calculated value for data(N=18,
Kn =2.335refer table 1.4), Ym=1.694, Sy=0.13084, and Cs=-0.8837
Higher outlier Yh=Ym +Kn * Sy
=1.632+2.335*0.13084 =1.9375mm
=antilog (1.9375) = 86.598mm
The highest record daily heaviest rainfall data is 62.9mm in the 1970 which is lower
than the threshold value of higher outliers. Hence the daily heaviest rainfall data
recorded with respect to higher outlier is within reasonable range. Hence, there is no
higher outlier.
To analyze the maximum discharge expected in T years we can use the frequency
distribution function listed below, but the data in hand may fit to only one of them.
Therefore, before employing the methods it have to be checked for the fittest one.
Among the distribution systems, the following are the commonly known

2.3 Estimation of L-moment

L-moments are ways of summarizing the statistical properties of hydrologic data. The
first L-moment estimator is the mean:
L- Moments are linear combinations of the ranked observations, and thus do not
involve squaring or cubing the observations as do the product moment estimators. As
a result L- moment estimators of the dimension less coefficients of variation and skew
ness are almost unbiased and have very nearly a normal distribution. In a wide range
of hydrologic applications, generally, L- moment provides simple and reasonable
efficient estimators of the characteristics of hydrologic data and distribution’s
parameters.

L =E ( X )
1

Let X (i/n) is the Ith largest observation in a sample of size n (i=1 corresponding to the
largest). Then, for any distribution the second L- moment is a description of scale
based on the expected difference between two randomly selected observations.
L-Moment estimator: L-moment can be written as function of probability-weighted
moments (PWMs), which can be defined as:

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b =E { X [ F ( X )] }
r
r

When unbiased ness is important one can employ unbiased PWM estimator.
n−1 n−2
∑ ( n− j ) ( X 1 ) ∑ ( n− j )( n− j−1 )( Xi )
b =X o mean
,b =
1
n=1
n ( n−1 ) b=
2
1
n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ;
n−2
∑ ( n− j )( n− j −1 ) ( n− j−2) ( Xi )
1
b 3=
n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) ( n−3)
For any distribution L-moment are easily calculated in terms of PWMs from and
computation of bo, b1, b2& b3 tabulated in table using the formula of:-
Table 3: Calculation of Value of L-Moment
rank(j) Year daily maximum xm=bo b1 b2 b3
rain fall(X)
1 1970 62.9 44.572 3.494444 3.49444 3.49444
2 1985 57.4 3.001307 2.81373 2.62614
3 1986 57.4 2.813725 2.46201 2.13374
4 1971 57.1 2.612418 2.12259 1.69807
5 1982 57 2.421569 1.81618 1.33186
6 1977 56.6 2.219608 1.52598 1.01732
7 1969 51.1 1.836928 1.14808 0.68885
8 1978 45.6 1.490196 0.83824 0.44706
9 1974 44.5 1.308824 0.65441 0.30539
10 1975 43 1.124183 0.49183 0.19673
11 1972 40.4 0.924183 0.34657 0.11552
12 1981 39.2 0.768627 0.24020 0.06405
13 1979 38.3 0.625817 0.15645 0.03129
14 1980 36.3 0.474510 0.08897 0.01186
15 1976 35.5 0.348039 0.04350 0.00290
16 1973 34.7 0.226797 0.01417 0
17 1984 23.3 0.076144 0 0
18 1983 22 0 0 0
Sum 802.3 25.76732 18.25735 14.16525

The value of bo, b1, b2, and b3 summarized below

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Bo=44.572mm, b1=25.7673206mm, b2=18.25735294mm and b3=14.16525mm

L 1 =b o =x m =44 .72 mm
L 2 =2b 1 −b o =6 . 963 mm
L 3 =6b 2 −6 b 1 +b o =−0. 4878 mm
L 4 =20b 3 −30b 2 +12b 1 −b o =0.2296mm
L2 6.963
L-coefficient of variation , Z2= = =0.1562
L1 44.572
L 3 −0. 4878
Z3= = =−0 .07
L-coefficient of skew ness , L2 6. 963

L 4 0. 2296
Z4= = =0. 0329
L-coefficient of kurtosis L 2 6 . 963

To select the type of distribution which best fit to the given data are computed as
follows;
a) Uniform distribution
Z3=0 Z4=0
b) Exponential distribution
Z3=1/3 Z4=1/6
c) Normal distribution
Z3=0 Z4=0.1226
d) Gumbel distribution
Z3=0.1699 Z4=0.1504
e) Log normal distribution
Z4=0.12282+0.77578(Z3)2+0.12279(Z3)4-0.13638(Z3)6 +0.113638(Z3) 8 =0.1266
f) General Extreme Value (GEV)
Z4=0.1070+0.1109 (Z3)2 -0.0669 (Z3)3 + 0.60567(Z3)4 - 0.04208(Z3)5 +0.03763(Z3)6
Z4 (0.36447) = 0.1076

g) Pearson distribution

Z4=0.1224+0.30115(Z3)2+0.95812(Z3)4- 0.57488(Z3)6 + 0.19383(Z3)8 = 0.1239

The calculation l-moment ratio diagram is refer annex A

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l-moment ratio digram

0.25

0.2
uniform distrbution
exponential
Kurtosis(Z4)

0.15
normal distrution
Gumbel
0.1 log normal
GEV
G. pearson
0.05 weir site

0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Skweness(Z3)

Figure 1: L-moment diagram

As it can be seen from the figure above, the value of the sample Z 4 is almost close to
the value of the computed Z4 for GVE. Therefore, the best probable parameter
distribution for our 18 years stream flow data is the General extreme value method is
more applicable and best fit for design of weir. The graph is sketch by skweness (z3)
in the x-axis and kurtosis (z4) in the y-axis.

2.4 Determination of Peak Flood

The maximum design discharge is the peak river discharge that corresponds to a
certain returned period which has an importance in the practical design of all
irrigation and hydraulic structure. To estimate the magnitude of flood peak the
following alternative method are available such as: -
1. rational method
2. empirical methods
3. unit hydrograph techniques
4 flood frequency studies

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2.4.1 Rational Method

One of the most commonly used for the calculation of peak flow for small areas i.e.
<50km2of catchment area. Hence the Samira catchment area of 47.7 km, then the
formula is applicable to estimate peak discharge.
The rational formula given as: QP=CIA

Where, Qp = peak flow (m3/s)

C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
I (tc,p) = the mean intensity of precipitation (mm/h) for a duration equal to tc and an
exceedence probability p
A = drainage area in Km2

Before calculating the discharge first it should be calculate the value of runoff

coefficient, intensity of precipitation, drainage area and time concentration.

Time of Concentration
Time of Concentration is the time required for rain falling at the farthest point of the
catchment to flow to the measuring point of the river. Thus, after time tc from the
commencement of rain, the whole of the catchment is taken to be contributing to the
flow.
Tc=0.2L0.77*S-0.385, Tc=0.02*(1900m) 0.77*(0.6956)-0.385 =0.13hr
0.2
60 T
Intensity of rainfall (I) = 1.5
=3.4 mm/hr
(tc+10)
C 1 A 1 +C 1 A 2 +C 3 A 3 0. 5∗67 .5+0. 3∗9+0 . 16∗22. 5
C= = =0 . 445
Q=CIA, Where, AT 90

Runoff coefficient’=0.445, Q= (0.445*3.4*47.6)/3.6=19.97m3/se

2.4.2 Empirical Formula Method

The empirical used for estimation of flood peak are essentially regional formula based
on statistical correlation of the observed peak and observed catchments parameters.
The formula is safely adopted for most Ethiopia basins under the given area range,
however; the basin area under our consideration is not in the domain and hence we
can’t use this method to estimate the peak discharge

2.4.3 Unit Hydrograph Method

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A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of direct run-off resulting from one-unit
depth (1cm) or rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the basin and at a uniform rate
for specified duration in hours, (Subramanya, 2000). This method requires a large number
of observed data, for which more number of gauging stations required to install in the
watershed. The unit hydrograph method is not convenient for the determination of peak
flood of Samira River.

2.5 Flood Frequency Analysis

Flood frequency analysis is a hydrologic term used to describe the probability of

occurrence of a particular hydrologic event (example rainfall, flood drought etc.).
Therefore, frequency analysis is usually needs recorded hydrological data. In the
analysis of rain fall frequency, the probability of occurrence particular extreme
rainfall (24hrs maximum rainfall) is important. Based on the above guide line, a
recurrence interval of 50 years for diversion weir is selected. In Samira it’s have 18
years record data maximum daily rainfall from bokoji metrological station.
The prediction of peak flow over a catchment involves estimation of daily maximum
rainfall for a given return period conversion of the daily maximum rainfall to runoff
hydrograph at the desired location.

2.5.1 Gumbel's Equation

It is one of the most widely used probability-distribution functions for extreme values
in hydrologic and meteorological studies for prediction of flood peaks, maximum
rainfalls, and maximum wind speed. Therefore, this extreme value theory of Gumbel
is only applicable to annual extremes. In the Gumbel method the data are ranked in
ascending order and it makes use of the probability of non-exceedence q=1-P (the
probability that the annual maximum flow is less than a certain magnitude). The
return period T is therefore given by T = 1 / P = 1 / (1-q).
The Gumbel'sdistribution is expressed by an equation
Where,
X T =X m +K T ∗σ N −1 ................................................(***)
Where Xm =mean of the annual maximum daily rainfall
T= Annual maximum rainfall of T years return period (design storm)
KT= Frequency factor expressed as;

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Y t −Y n
KT=
S n ----------------------------------------------------- (**)

Yt = be a reduced variant, a function of T and is given by

T
)]
Yt =-ln [ln ( T −1 -------------------------------------------------------------- (*)
Where, Yn= reduced mean in Gumble’s extreme value, distribution for sample size
from table1.1,Appendix A
Sn =reduced standard deviation in Gumble’s extreme value distribution for sample
size from table: 1.2, Appendix A
σ n−1=standard deviation of annual rain fall.

σ n−1 =
√ ∑ ( X −X m )2
N−1
To determine the distribution parameters when it is applied to asset of data
distribution the following steps are followed in table below
Table 4: Calculation of design storm by gumbels distribution
Year daily rank(m p=(m/ T=(N+1/ lnT y=-ln(- −
(X- X )2
maximum ) N+1) m) ln(1-1/
rain fall(X) T))
in mm
197 62.9 1 0.053 19 2.944 2.9175 335.916
0
198 57.4 2 0.105 9.5 2.251 2.1962 164.558
5
198 57.4 3 0.158 6.333 1.846 1.7611 164.558
6
197 57.1 4 0.211 4.75 1.558 1.4423 156.951
1
198 57 5 0.263 3.8 1.335 1.1862 154.455
2
197 56.6 6 0.316 3.167 1.153 0.9689 144.673
7
196 51.1 7 0.368 2.714 0.999 0.7775 42.615
9
197 45.6 8 0.421 2.375 0.865 0.6041 1.057

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8
197 44.5 9 0.474 2.111 0.747 0.4434 0.005
4
197 43 10 0.526 1.9 0.642 0.2914 2.471
5
197 40.4 11 0.579 1.727 0.547 0.1450 17.406
2
197 38.3 12 0.632 1.583 0.460 0.0015 39.338
9
198 36.3 13 0.684 1.462 0.379 -0.1421 68.426
0
197 35.5 14 0.737 1.357 0.305 -0.2889 82.301
6
197 34.7 15 0.789 1.267 0.236 -0.4435 97.456
3
198 39.2 16 0.842 1.1875 0.172 -0.6129 28.858
1
198 23.3 17 0.895 1.118 0.111 -0.8115 452.498
4
198 22 18 0.947 1.056 0.054 -1.0799 509.495
3
802.3mm 2463.036mm

∑X
Xm= N =44.572mm

σ n−1=√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿=12.037mm

Yt=- ln [ln(50/49)] =3.902

For N=18, source from table (S.K.Garg, 1994),Yn=0.520 and Sn=1.0492

3.902−0.520
¿ =3.223
1.0492

X T =X m +K T ∗σ N −1 =44.572+3.2234*12.037=83.37mm

Therefore, the maximum probable point rainfall of 50 year return period analyzed in
Gumbel method is=83.37mm
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2.5.2 General Extreme-Value

This extreme value distribution was introduced by Gumbel (1941) and is commonly
known as Gumbel's distribution. It is one of the most widely used probability-
distribution functions for extreme values in hydrologic and meteorological studies for
prediction of flood peaks, maximum rainfalls, and maximum wind speed, etc.
Therefore, this extreme value theory of Gumbel is only applicable to annual extremes.
In addition our record data’s are yearly as a result it is best to design the weir site.to
estimate the maximum rain fall that occurred after 50 year is using the formula by
XT=Xm + KT*σ n−1
Where, the value of standard deviation and mean rain fall is calculated in the above
table

∑X
Xm= N =44.572mmYt=- ln [ln(50/49)] =3.902
YT −0.577 3.902−0.577
σ n−1 1= √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿=12.037mm , KT = = =2.5926
1.2825 1.2825
Therefore, X50 =44.572+ (2.5926*12.037) =75.78mm
Normal Distribution Method
XT=Xm +KT* σ n−1
Where, XT=Annual Maximum rain fall T years return Period.
Xm=Mean rain fall data
KT=Frequency factor
σ n−1 =Standard deviations
2
2.51517+ 0.01033 w
KT =w− 2 3
1+1.143279 w+0.1992 w +0.00131 w

( )
0.5
1
w=(ln 2 ) , p=1/p=1/50=0.02
p
w =2.797 then, KT=2.348
XT=Xm + KT*σ n−1
=44.572+2.348*12.036
X50=72.83mm
2.5.3 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution

This distribution is suitable for both annual non extreme series and the extreme flood
frequency analysis. In this distribution the variety is first transformed into logarithmic
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form (base 10) and the transformed data is then analyzed. If X is the variate of a
random hydrologic series, then the series of Z varieties where
Z = log x, are first obtained. For this z series, for any recurrence interval T,

ZT=Zmean+KZ σN-1, Kz=F (Cs, T)

Where, K = a frequency factor, a function of recurrence interval T and the

coefficient of series CS,

σn−1=
√ ∑ ( Z−Zm) 2 CS=
N−1
∑ ( Z−Z m )3
(N −1)∗( N −2)∗σn−1 3
Table 5: Calculation of design storm by Log-Pearson Type III
Year Rank daily maximum rain Z=logx (Z-Zm)2 (Z-Zm)3
fall(X)
1970 1 62.9 1.7986506 0.0277724 0.0046283
1985 2 57.4 1.7589119 0.0161066 0.0020441
1986 3 57.4 1.7589119 0.0161066 0.0020441
1971 4 57.1 1.7566361 0.0155342 0.0019361
1982 5 57 1.7558749 0.0153450 0.0019009
1977 6 56.6 1.7528164 0.0145966 0.0017635
1969 7 51.1 1.7084209 0.0058402 0.0004463
1978 8 45.6 1.6589648 0.0007271 0.0000196
1974 9 44.5 1.6483600 0.0002676 0.0000044
1975 10 43 1.6334685 0.0000022 0.0000000
1972 11 40.4 1.6063814 0.0006563 -0.0000168
1981 12 39.2 1.5932861 0.0014988 -0.0000580
1979 13 38.3 1.5831988 0.0023816 -0.0001162
1980 14 36.3 1.5599066 0.0051975 -0.0003747
1976 15 35.5 1.5502284 0.0066866 -0.0005468
1973 16 34.7 1.5403295 0.0084035 -0.0007704
1984 17 23.3 1.3673559 0.0700365 -0.0185347
1983 18 22 1.3424227 0.0838550 -0.0242825
SUM 29.3741253 0.2910142 -0.0299128

Standard deviation of the Variant sample, σ N −1=

√ ∑ (Z−Zm )2
N −1
= 0.13084

N ∑ ( Z−Zm)
3

And, Cs=coefficient of skew of variant Z,Cs= =¿-0.8837

( N −1 )( N −2 ) σ N−13

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Zm=∑Z/N=1.632 where, N=sample size =number of year of recorded =18

The variation of kz=f (Cs, T) is given in table (VenTe chow Applied hydrology page-
393). After finding for ZT by equation… (**), the corresponding value of X T is
obtained by equation … (*) as for recurrence interval T=50
Kz = f (Cs, T) =f (-0.8837, 50) =1.563, refer to table: 1.3, appendix A
ZT=Zm+ kz*σ n−1= 1.632+1.563*0.13084=1.8365mm
Then, antilog (ZT) = antilog (1.8365) = 68.63mm
Therefore the minimum probable point rainfall of 50 years return period analyzed in
log Pearson type III distribution method is=68.63mm

2.5.4 Log-Normal Distribution

The estimation of peak storm using this method is the same as to that ofLog-Pearson
Type III Distribution, but what the difference between them is the coefficient of
skewness, Cs=0 for Log-normal distribution. All calculation is calculated in table of
log Pearson type three distributions.
From table (VenTe Chow) for Cs=0, T50, kz=2.054
Z50=Ym + kz*Sy
=1.632+2.054*0.13084=1.901mm
ZT=Antilog (ZT) =antilog (1.901) =79.62mm
Therefore the minimum probable point rainfall of 50 years return period analyzed in
log normal distribution method is 79.62mm.

2.6 Hydrograph Synthesis

This method of hydrograph synthesis used by united states; under a department of

agriculture and soil conservation service originated from conservation that a
hydrograph could be represent in a simple geometric form as a triangle. The design
flood, which occurs during period of the diversion scheme, is therefore determined by
USSCS method to this end the storm that is estimated by general extreme value is
adopted. Because of general extreme value method is the best fit to near weir site and
more economical when compare with different method of peak flood estimated.

Table 6: SSCS method for Calculation of Design Discharge

Step designation/formula Symbol Unit Value
1 Area of catchment A Km2 47.7

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2 Length of main water course from L M 19000

watershed divide to proposed diversion or
storage site
3 Elevation of watershed divide opposite to H1 M 3660
the head of the main water course

4 Elevation of stream bed at proposed or H2 M 2325

storage site
5 Slope of main water course ; S=(H1- S m/m 0.07026
H2)/L
6 Time of concentration Tc Hr 1.83
1 L
( ) .^ 77
Tc=3000 √ S
7 Rain fall excess duration D Hr 0.3
D=Tc/6 ; if, Tc<3hrs
D=1hr.if, Tc>3hrs
8 Time to peak Tp Hr 1.25
Tp=.5D+.6Tc
9 Time base of hydrograph Tb Hr 3.33
Tb=2.67Tp
10 Lag time TL=.6Tc TL Hr 1.09
11 Peak rate of discharge M3/s.mm 8.03
created by 1mm run off qp
excess of whole of the
catchments qp=(.21A)/Tp

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
duration Daily point rainfall Rainfall rain Areal Areal Increment Descending
for return period of Ratio as fall to rain al Order
50 year daily Rain fall

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rainfall Fall
Ratio

Hr Mm % mm % Mm Mm Number
0-0.3 75.78 25.5 19.324 57.6 11.13 11.13 (1) 11.13

0.3-0.6 32.2 24.4 65.2 15.91 4.78 (2)6.112

0.6-0.9 41.7 31.6 69.7 22.025 6.112 (3)5.18

0.9-1.2 45.9 34.78 72.95 25.37 3.345 (4)4.78

1.2-1.5 52.3 39.63 74.98 29.71 4.34 (5)4.34

1.5-1.8 59.8 45.32 77.01 34.89 5.18 (6) 3.345

13 Determine the magnitude of the daily rain fall with the given recurrence interval by applying
statistical method
14 Read from Appendix A ----fig---,the rain fall profile (%) occurring in D, 2D, 3D, 4D, 5D,
6Dhrs and put in 14.
15 Multiply col.13 and col.14 to find the rainfall profile (mm) enter in 15.
16 Read from table appendix A ----area to point rainfall ratio for different duration in particular
catchments.
17 Multiply col.15 and col.16
18 Calculate incremental rainfall by deducting the current Arial rainfall from the preceding Arial
rainfall as written in 18.
19 Assign order to the rainfall depths in ascending order 1-6
20 21 22 23 24 25
Rearrange Rearranged Cumulative Time of incremental hydrograph
d order incremental rain rainfall
fall (precipitation)
Time of beginning(hr) Time to Time to
peak(hr) end(hr)

1 3.345 3.345 0 1.25 3.33

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3 5.18 8.525 0.3 1.55 3.63

6 11.13 19.655 0.6 1.85 3.93
5 6.11 25.765 0.9 2.15 4.23
4 4.78 30.545 1.2 2.45 4.53
2 4.34 34.885 1.5 2.75 4.83
20 From 19 mention the rearranged order as6,3,1,2,4,5 (arbitrary but considering ascending
and descending feature of hydrograph ordinate where peak value is middle of the
hydrograph).
21 Fill in the corresponding incremental rain fall value to the rearranged order of 20 from
17.
22 Fill in the cumulative rainfall value of 21 by adding with the rainfall value in preceding
duration.
23 Fill in the time of beginning of the hydrograph 0,D,2D…,5Dhr
24 Fill in the time peak as Tp, D+Tp, 2D+Tp,…, 5D+Tp or add Tp in every value of 23 and
mention in24.
25 Fill in the time of end as Te,D+Tb,2D+Tb,…5D+Tb
26 27 28 29 30
Land use Area ratio “CN” Weighted”CN” “CN”
(%) Hydrological soil AMC CN
Group “C”
Wood land 0.75 70 52.5 II 72.65
Good
Cultivated 0.1 83 8.3
Good
Pasture land 0.15 79 11.85 III 86.1
Faire
26 Identify all type of land cover such as cropped area, woodland, fallow land, pastures, meadow,
etc...From catchments map or aerial photo.

27 Find ratios of each type of land use cover to the total catchments area is and enter 27.

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28 As certain hydrological soil groups each types of land use cover as below.
Group A: low run off potential
Group B: moderate run off potential
Group C: moderate high run off
Group D: high run off potential
Find the corresponding curve number(CN) From table 2.6 Annexe- B
29 Multiply column.27 and col.28 and inter in col. 29

30 Add col. 29 the CN is corresponding to antecedent moisture condition III (AMC-III). Find CN
for AMC-III =(CN2)/(0.43+.0057CN2
No Description/Formula Symbol Unit Example

31 Find the maximum potential deference b/n rainfall (P) S M CN=86.1

and direct run off (Q), which is given by the following
S=41
formula.

25400
−254
CN
S=

CN= value of corresponding to AMC III

32 Substituting the value of “S” in the following formula, giving the relation b/n direct run off
(Q) and rainfall (P).

( P−0. 2 S ) 2^
Q= ( P+0 . 8 S )

33 22 33

Substituting the value of P as mentioned in col.20, in the P(mm) Q(mm)

above formula and find the corresponding value of Q (33)
3.345 0.652
enter; Enter the value of Q in col. 35.
8.525 0

19.655 2.5

25.765 5.268

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30.545 7.88

34.885 10.52

34 35 36 37 38 39

Duration Value Increme Peak Time of Time to Time to Comp

of Q ntal run runoff for beginnin peak end osite
off incremen g hydrog
Col.(24) Col.(25)
t raph
Col.(23)

Hr Mm Mm M3/s Hr Hr Hr

0-0.3 0.652 0.652 5.24 0 1.25 3.33 Triangular

0.3-0.6 0 0 0 0.3 1.55 3.63 Hydrograp

h
0.6-0.9 2.5 2.5 20.1 0.6 1.85 3.93
Synthesis
0.9-1.2 5.268 2.768 22.23 0.9 2.15 4.23

1.2-1.5 7.88 2.62 21.04 1.2 2.45 4.53

1.5-1.8 10.52 2.64 21.2 1.5 2.75 4.83

34 Enter the same time as in col.12, 0-D, D-2D, 2D-3D,…,5D-6D.

35 There are the value of Q as found out in col.33 corresponding to the value of P

36 F incremental runoff by reducing the value of col;35 by preceding value.

37 Multiply col. 36 and peak rate of runoff corresponding to 1mm run off excess as
found incol.11
38 Plot triangular hydrograph with time of beginning, peak time and time to end as
mentioned in 23,24,25 and peak run off as mentioned in col.37
39 Plot composite hydrograph by adding all the triangular hydrographs .The resultant
hydrograph will be composite hydrograph of desired return period. The coordinate of
the peak of hydrograph will give the peak run off with desired return period.

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Computation of triangular hydrograph

Sample calculation, from step 38 and 39, for example, for duration of( 0-0.3) hr,
peak runoff increment is 5.24 m3/se
For the same duration
Time of beginning Tb =0 hr
Time of peak, Tp=1.25hr
Time of end, Te= 3.33hr
First calculate the slope, m=change discharge/change time …..For rising limb,
3
change dischharge 5.241−0 m
m= = =4.2 , hence the equation is Q =4.2 t , where .t
change time 1.25−0 se
Table 7: Computation of triangular hydrograph for rising limb
t(h) 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Q=5.61t 0 1.26 2.52 3.78 5.04

0−5.24
M¿ =−2.52 , then Q=mt+b where b=5.24m3/se, using this equation
3.33−1.25
Table 8: Computation of triangular hydrograph for recession limb
t(hr) 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 3.3
Q(m^3/se) 4.61 3.854 3.05 2.292 1.54 0.78 0

These ordinates with the corresponding time (T) are included in the following table.
(Column1). other calculations were done with similar. The last column belongs to
composite hydrograph, which is the super imposition or addition of triangular
hydrograph.

Table 9 : Computation of Triangular and Composite hydrographs

Time Column1 Column Column Column Column Column Total
2 3 4 5 6 ordinate
hydrogra
ph(m3/se)
(hr) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total
0 0 0
0.3 1.26 0 1.26

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0.6 2.52 0 0 2.52

0.9 3.78 0 4.82 0 8.6
1.2 5.04 0 9.65 5.34 0 20.03
1.5 4.61 0 14.5 10.668 5.05 0 34.83
1.8 3.854 0 19.3 16 10.1 5.1 54.35
2.1 3.05 0 17.49 21.34 15.15 10.2 67.23
2.4 2.292 0 14.594 19.558 20.2 15.3 71.94
2.7 1.54 0 11.696 16.35 18.515 20.35 68.45
3 0.78 0 8.79 13.15 15.49 18.51 56.72
3.3 0 0 5.89 9.94 12.46 15.65 43.94
3.6 0 3 6.733 9.43 12.62 31.78
3.9 0 3.5 6.4 9.585 19.49
4.2 0 3.365 6.55 9.92
4.5 0 3.63 3.63
4.8 0 0

80
peak discharge
71.94
=71.94m^3/se
70
67.23 68.45
discharge(m^3/se)

60
56.72 column 1
54.35
50 column 2
43.94 column 3
40
column 4
34.83
30 31.78 column 5
column 6
20 20.03 19.49 composite triangular hydrograph

10 8.6 9.92
3.63
0 0 1.262.52 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

duration (hr)

Figure 2: Composite hydrograph

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From the composite triangular hydrograph the maximum peak flood is 71.94 m 3/s.
therefore, Design Flood with a return period of 50 years is Qd=71.94

3. WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT

3.1 General

Every plant or crop requires a certain quantity of water for maturity. No other need is
more essential to the plants than water. As human beings need water so do plants?
Water requirement may be defined as “the quantity of water regardless of its source,
required by a crop or diversified pattern of crops in a given period of time for a
normal growth under field condition at a place”. It includes the losses due to
evapotranspiration (ET) or Consumptive use (Cu) plus the losses of water during
irrigation (unavoidable losses) and the quantity of water required for special operation
such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching, etc
It may be defined as
CWR = ET or Cu + application losses + special needs
Where; CWR=crop water requirement
Cu = consumptive use
ET = evapotranspiration
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Application losses: are the amount of water required to replenish the soil moisture
deficit back to field capacity (FC) in the root zone of a crop; cannot be applied exactly
by means of irrigation. Some losses of water are, therefore, unavoidable under field
conditions. These unavoidable losses are called application losses.
Special needs: depending up on the field conditions and soil characteristics, extra
water is needed to meet purposes like leaching of excess salts, pudding-pre planting
irrigation, etc

3.2 Crop Water Requirement

The crop water requirement is the total quantity of water that a crop requires from the
time of sowing to maturity continuously. The rate of use of water is not the same for
all crops.
The rate of use water varies depending on the kind of crops due to:-
-the time taken by the crop to mature
-the temperatures and
-the weather conditions
Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration from large vegetation of short
height covering land surface with adequate moisture at all time and the crop
characteristics on crop water requirement.
CWR = ETc = Kc * ETo
Where; ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration
Kc = crop coefficient
Etc = evapotranspiration of crop
3.3 Crop Selection and Cropping Pattern

3.3.1 Crop Selection

When someone or any governmental organization want to design any irrigation

project in a given area, the types of crops which are grown in that area must be given
a great attention. If an engineer designs an irrigation project without the consideration
of the types of crops grown in that surrounding, it is a great crisis for a given country
as well as for the engineer, economically, morally and socially. So that engineers must
give a great attention for the selection of crop during reconnaissance study of the
project.
Selecting suitable crop type and area coverage, in relation to the available water
supply and climatic condition of the area, is very essential step in crop water demand
assessment. When available water supply adequately meets the crop water
requirement, there will be maximum production. The required water supply is

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dependent on different conditions such as type of crop, growing season and the area
irrigated acreage.
In selecting the type of crop to be grown on a given command area with a given
adequate water supply, the following varied determinants should be studied
thoroughly.
Climatic condition is a requirement in adoption of the crops to be grown in the
project area.
Marketability: During the selection of crops priority is given to those crops
with a higher market value.
Popularity: when selecting crops, the need of the local people must be
considered; such as staple food for the local people.
Water requirement: it is known that different crops have different water
requirement. Therefore, during the selection of crop the availability of water
and the water requirement of the selected crop must be considered.

3.4 Cropping Pattern

Cropping pattern is the sequence of different crops growing in regular order in any
particular field. To determine the irrigation requirement of the project area, an
assessment should be for different crops grown under irrigation; moreover,
information about the crop characteristics such as length of growth cycle, rooting
depth, crop factor etc. should be collected.
In Birr irrigation project there is one commends Samira command and have clay soil.
The cropping patter is calculated based on the type of soil on command .For
calculating cropping pattern we need different data’s such as crop coefficient (K c)
crop yield reduction factor (KY) growing stage of the crop and other data, most of
these data are taken from FAO books but there are some crops which are not state in
the FAO books.
Table10: Proposed cropping calendar for Dry Season
No Crop type Area covered Base period Sowing date Harvesting
(ha) (%) ( days) date
1 Potato 25.2 28 140 Nov.10 March 30
2 Pepper 22.5 25 120 Nov.20 March 20

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3 Tomato 18 20 140 Nov.10 March 30

4 Onion 15.3 17 140 Nov.10 March 30
5 Sugar cane 9 10 360+ June 1 -
X 90 100

3.5 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration

It is the rate of evaporation from an extensive surface 8 to 15 cm tall, green cover of

uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not in shortage
of water. Estimation of the potential evapo-transpiration for irrigation project depends
on the metrological and climatic data of nearby station, which has nearly the same
latitude and longitude to the commend area used. The widely used methods to
estimate reference crop evapotranspiration are:

3.5.1 Blaney-Criddle Method

This method is suggested where only temperature data are available.

ETO = C*P*(0.48Tm+8) mm/day
Where; Tm = mean daily temperature in 0C over the month
ETO=reference daily crop evapotranspiration in mm/day for the month considered.
P = mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours.It depends on month and
latitude.
C = adjustment factor which depends on minimum relative humidity, sunshine hours
and daytime wind speed.
Limitations: this method is an approximate method, since it doesn't consider a
number of important factors such as humidity, wind velocity and altitude.

3.5.2 Thornthwaite Method

10∗T m
a
PET = 1.6*b*( I ) , cm/month
12
Tm
∑i ¿
)¿¿ 1.514 ¿ ¿¿
I = n=1 and i = ( 5
−8 3 −6 2
a = (67.5*10 )*I - (77.1*10 )*I + (0.01791)*I + 0.492
b = (maximum no. of sunshine hours in the month)/ (12*30)

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Where; Tm = mean monthly temperature in °c

I = annual heat index, obtained from monthly index i in the year
i = monthly heat index

3.5.3 Hargreaves Class aPan Evaporation

ETo or Cu is related to pan evaporation (EP) by constant Kc called consumptive

use coefficient.ETo = Kc*Ep
Where: Kc = pan evaporation coefficient
Ep = evaporation

3.5.4 Modified Penman Method

For areas where measured data on temperature, humidity, wind speed and sunshine
duration or radiation are available, the penman method is suggested. It consists of two
terms:
-the energy (radiation) terms and
-the aerodynamic (wind and humidity) terms
The modified penman equation is
ETo = C * [W*Rn + (1-W)*f (u)* (es-ed)]
Where; ETo = reference crop evapo transpiration, mm/day
W = temperature related weighted factor
Rn = net radiation in equivalent evaporation, mm/day
f (u) = wind related function
ed = mean actual vapor pressure of the air, mbar
ea = saturation vapor pressure at mean air temperature, mbar
c = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather conditions

3.5.5 Penman–MoteithMethod

The Penman–Moteith equation becomes the new standard for estimating potential
ETo according to 1990 FAO’s meeting. The method is suitable to directly estimate the
potential ET if the crop resistance is known, (principles of hydrology, DELET 1992).
And this approach is proved to be superior in lysimeter experiments (Jonsen et-al
1990) that give close result with the actual value.

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900
0 . 408∗Δ∗( Rn−G )+γ∗( )∗U 2∗( es−ea )
T m+237. 3
ETo = Δ+γ∗(1+0 . 34∗U 2 )

Where; ETo = reference evapotranspiration, mm/day

2
Rn = net radiation at the crop surface, Ms/m /day
2
G = soil heat flux density, MJ/m /day
Tm = mean daily air temperature at 2m height, °c
U2 = wind speed at 2m height, m/s
Es = saturation vapor pressure, kpa
ea = actual vapor pressure, kpa
Δ = slope vapor pressure curve, kpa/ °c
γ = psychometric constant, kpa/°c

Steps used to calculate Penman-Moteith method

Wind speed at elevation given
2 0. 143
)
U2 = U z *( z , UZ = wind speed in km/day
z = elevation from sea level, m
2. Atmospheric pressure
293−0 .0065∗Z 5 .26
)
P = 101.3*(293 , kpa
z = elevation above sea level, m

3. Mean temperature
T max+T min
Tm = 2 , °c
17 . 27∗T max
)
4. emax = 0.6108*exp ( T max +237 . 3 , kpa
17 . 27∗T min
)
5. emin = 0.6108*exp( T min+237 .3 , kpa
e max + e min
6. es = 2 , kpa

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4098∗es
2
7. Δ= (T m+ 237 .3 ) , kpa/° c
RHm∗es
8. ea = 100 , RHm = relative humidity in %
−3
9. γ = 0.665*10 *p
10. Ra = extra-terrestrial radiation in mm/day
11. N = maximum possible sunshine, hr
n
)∗¿ ¿
12. Rs = (a + b* N Ra, a = 0.62 & b = 0.66, refer appendix B
13. Rns = (1-α)*Rs, mm/day, α = 0.23i

14. Net log wave radiation

n
√
Rnl = δ*Ta *(0.34-0.14* ea )*(0.1+0.9* N )
4

δ = Stefan boltzman constant

−9
= 2.01*10 mm/day
Rns−Rnl
15. Rn= 0. 408 , MJ/m /day
2

16. Sun shine heat exchange from the surface to the soil
17. G month i = 0.07*(Tm monthi+1 -Tm monthi-1), MJ/m2/day
Table 11: ETO calculated by cropwat-8 computer program
Min Max Rad
Temp Temp Humidity Wind Sun MJ/m²/ ETo
Month °C °C % km/day hours day mm/day
January 3.2 21.1 66 78 9.8 22 3.46
February 5.3 21.4 67 78 9.3 22.6 3.7
March 6.4 21.5 67 78 8.4 22.3 3.81
April 7.5 20.9 66 78 7.2 20.6 3.65
May 6.8 19.9 73 78 7.9 21.1 3.58
June 6.5 18.7 79 95 7.3 19.8 3.26
July 7.2 17 90 52 4.7 16.1 2.64
August 6.9 16.9 92 35 5.1 17.1 2.77
Septembe 6.9 17.7 88 69 5.3 17.4 2.83

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r
October 5.6 18.9 80 69 8.2 21.1 3.33
November 4.1 19.5 70 86 9.1 21.2 3.35
December 2.1 20.1 68 86 9 20.4 3.2
Average 5.7 19.5 76 74 7.6 20.1 3.3

Manual calculation of ETO by penman-monteith method

Month - December a = 0.62
Latitude = 8.5°N b = 0.66
z = elevation=2320 α =0 . 23 for most crop
Tmax = 20.1°c Ta = Tm + 273 = 284.1°k
Tmin = 2.1°c RHm = 68%
Tm = 11.1°c U2 = 0.98m/s
N = 9.0 hr
1. Wind speed, U2 = 0.98m/s
2. Atmospheric pressure = 101.3 * {(293 - 0.0065 * z)/293} ^5.26, kpa
= 101.3 * {(293 - 0.0065 * 2320)/293} ^5.26
= 76.72 kpa
T max +T min
3. Mean temperature, Tm = 2 =11.1°c
17 . 27∗T max
T +237 .3 ) = 2.35 kpa
4. emax = 0.6108*exp ( max
17.27∗20.1
emax=0.6108*exp( ¿=¿ 2.35kpa
20.1∗237.3
17 . 27∗T min
5. emin = 0.6108*exp ( T min+237 .3 ) = 0.15 kpa

Emin=0.6108*exp ( 17.27∗2.1
2.1+237.3 )
=0.711kpa

e max + e min 20.1+ 2.1

=11.1
6. es = 2 = 2 kpa
4098∗es 4098∗11.1
7.  = = 2
=0.687 kpa/°c
¿¿ (20.1+237.3)

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RHm 0.68∗11.1
8. ea = = =0.075Kpa
100 100
9. = 0.665*103*Pa = 0.665*10-3*76.72 =0.051 Kpa/oC
10. Ra = 20.4 mm/day……………………………from table
11 N = 9.8 hr…………………………………...from table
n
12 Rs = (a + b N )*Ra = 8.53 mm/day
Rs= (0.62+0.66*
13 Ras = (2.1 -  )*Ra = 6.57 mm/day
n
14 Rnl = ðTa *(0.34-0.14*ea1/2)*(0.1+ 0.9 N ) = 2.73 mm/day
15 Rn = Rns – Rnl = 9.41 MJ/m2/day
0.408
16. G = 0.07*(Tmin (i+1) - Tmin (i-1)) MJ/m2/day
June T max =22.4 oc, Tmin=19.1 oc Tmean = 20.75 o
August Tmax =23.3 oc Tmin=18.6 oc& Tmean = 20.95 oc
G June = 0.07*(Tmean (Aug) –Tmean (jun)) = 0.014 MJ/m2/day
γ∗900
0 . 408∗Δ∗( Rn−G )+ ∗(e s −e a )∗U 2
T m+ 237 .3
17. ETO = Δ+γ∗(1+0 .34∗U 2 )

0 .5904 +0 .24
= 0. 2308 =3.45 mm/day

3.6 Calculation of Effective Rainfall (ER)

It is that part of rainfall which is effectively used by the plant to meet its
consummation need. The rainfall that stored in the root zone and can be utilized by
crops is said to be Effective rainfall. As the total amount of rainfall varies, so does the
amount of useful or effective rainfall. In the case of light rainfall, the entire rainfall
may be effective; of course, it depends on the initial soil moisture content. But when
the rainfall is heavy, only a fraction of it will be effective, as a substantial part of the
rainfall is lost through runoff and/or deep percolation.
Some of the methods of estimating effective rainfall are:
1. Fixed percentage effective rainfall
2. Dependable rain empirical rainfall

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3. Empirical formula for effective rainfall

4. Soil conservation service (USDA)
1. Fixed percentage effective rainfall method
ER = K.P
Where: K - fixed percentage to account the use full or effective rainfall
P - Mean monthly rainfall.
FAO recommended: K = 0.8, by considering 20% of rainfall loss.
2. Dependable rainfall method
Dependable rainfall (dependable level) is a rainfall which can meet the crop water
need out of given years. A short level below the dependable level during the dry year
may significantly affect the project economy. A higher level of dependable rainfall
may need to be selected during the period that crop are germinating and most
sensitive to water stress and yields are severely affected.
Selection of dependable levelProcedures:
1. The total annual rainfall is determined for each year
2. Arranged in descending order
3. Rank number (m), is given for each
4. The plotting position or probability, P is computed using
P = (M/N+1) *100, Where:
P - Probability exceedence
N - Total number of yearly data
M - Is the rank number m = (1- highest value)
5. Rainfall versus probability exceedence (P) graph is plotted in; logarithmic paper.
The calculation is according to FAO (25).and recommended 80% probability
execcedence.
ER = 0.6pd - 10; for Ptol< 70 mm
= 0.8Ptol - 24; Ptol> 70 mm
Where Pd = the 80% dependable rainfall (mm)
A rainfall value corresponding to 80% probability exceedance is read, which 80%
dependable rainfall level is.
3. Empirical formula for effective rainfall
In this method the parameters may be determined from the analysis of local climatic
records.

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ER = a * P t + d; Pt < z mm
FR = c *pt + d; Pt > z mm
Where a, b, c, d and z are correction coefficients
In cropwat.window version 8 program, a = 0.5, b = -5
c = 0.7, d= -15, z = 50mm
4 USDA soil conservation service
ER = p/125 * (125 - 0.2) for, P < 250 mm
ER = 125 + (0.1* P) for, P > 250 mm
Where: ER – effective rainfall
P –total rainfall
From the above four method of calculating, adopt the one with smallest value. That is
dependable ER method. From irrigation point of view the crop is not stressed due to
shortage of water. Therefore, the safe side is the smallest effective rain fall.

Table:Comparisons of effective rainfall by different methods.

Month Mean Empirical Dependable USDA Fixed
precipitation method method method
Jan 41 15.5 14.6 38.3 32.8
Feb 82 77.4 41.6 71.2 65.6
Mar 108 95.6 62.4 89.3 86.4
Apr 146 122.2 92.8 111.9 116.8
May 131 111.7 80.8 103.5 104.8
Jun 130 111 80 103 104
Jul 191 153.7 128.8 132.6 152.8
Aug 187 150.9 125.6 131 149.6
Sep 189 152.3 127.2 131.8 151.2
Oct 84 78.8 43.2 72.7 67.2
Nov 30 10 8 28.6 24
Dec 14 2 0 13.7 11.2
Total 1333 1081.1 805 1027.8 1066.4

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We adopted the effective rainfall calculated by using Dependable rainfall method.

This is because Dependable method gives conservative value of effective rainfall data.
In addition to this it estimate Peff based on the intensity i.e as high rain fall more will
be runoff and less will be reach root zone.

3.7 Crop Coefficient (Kc)

The crop coefficient is used to relate the potential evapotranspiration (ETo) to the
evapotranspiration of crop (ETc).
ETc =Kc*ETo
The crop coefficient varies according to crop characteristics date of planting, stage of
growth and other climatic conditions.
The growth period of the crop is divided in into four stages.
1. Initial stage: germination and early growth when the soil surface is not covered by
the crop (ground cover less than 10%).
2. Crop development stage: from end of initial stage to attainment of effective full
ground cover (ground covers approximately 70 to 80%).
3. mid –stage: from attainment of effective full ground cover to start of maturity.
4. Late stage: from end of mid –stage until maturity of harvest.
Procedure steps needed to arrive at KC value for different growing stage are as
follows
1. Establish planting or growing date from locale information or from principal
climate zone.
2. Determine total growing season and length of crop development stage from local
information or literatures.
3. Initial stage predication irrigation and rainfall frequency for predetermined
4. ETO obtained KC value from graph &ETO verses assumed irrigation interval
and plot KC value may be selected from table known humidity and wind value
FAO,33)& (FAO,24)
5. Mid-season stage for given climate (humidity and wind) select KC value (from
table FAO,24)
6. Late season stage for time of full maturity or harvesting with a few day, select
KC value from table (FAO, 24) & plot value at end growing season & full

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maturity. Assume straight line between KC values at mid -season period at the
end of growing
7. Development stage: Assume straight line between KC values at end of initial to
start of the mid-season.

Table 12: Growing stage & K C value proposed crop.

Growing stage &KC value & proposed KC Base
period
Crop Area Planting initial dev Mid Late initial mid late
% date
Potato 28 10-nov 30 35 45 30 0.5 1.15 0.75 140

Pepper 25 20-nov 25 35 40 20 0.6 1.05 0.9 120

Tomato 20 10-nov 30 35 45 30 0.6 1.15 0.8 140

Onion 17 10-nov 30 35 45 30 0.7 1.05 0.95 140

Sugarcane 10 1-june 30 60 180 95 0.4 1.25 0.95 360+

Source (FAO. 24) (FAO irrigation and drainage paper 24 and FAO irrigation and
drainage paper 33) from appendix crop wat, the total amount of water that to divert to
crops at field level. Samira small scale irrigation project has one seasons, the
maximum field water supply of the seasons is selected for design, because the
maximum field water Supply obtained satisfied for one seasons.
Field water supply= 0.38l/s/ha *90 ha= 34.2l/s

3.8 Irrigation Efficiencies

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The amount of irrigation water supplied to the land is not fully utilized for the
growing of crops .this due to various losses now the ratio of the amount of water
available (output) is as irrigation efficiency .it expressed in percentage to accurate the
losses of water increased during convergence and application to the field an efficiency
factor should be included when c/c voting the project irrigation requirement project
efficiency sub divided on to the following stages.
1. Conveyance efficiency (Ec)
It is the ratio between the amount supplied water to the land, amount of water
supplied from reservoir.
waterdeliverdtofar min let
∗100
Ec = waterdivertedfromsource
2. Field canal efficiency (Eb)
It is the ratio between water received at the field inlet and received at the inlet of
block.
waterrecivedatfieldblock
∗100
Eb= waterdiverttofar min let
3. Field application efficiency (Ea)
It is the ratio between water directly available to the field inlet.
waterstoredinrootzoneduringirrigation
∗100
Ea= waterrecivedatinlettofieldblock
4. Project efficiency (Ep)
It is the ratio between water made directly to the crop that release at the head work.
Ep=Ea*Eb*Ec
Conveyance and field canal efficiency are sometimes combined as distribution
efficiency (Ed)
Ed =Eb *Ec
Table 13: Conveyance (Ec), field (Eb) and application (Ea) efficiency criteria
ICID/ILRI Efficiency
1. Conveyance efficiency
Continuous supply with no substantial change inflow 0.9
Rotational supply in project of 3000-7000ha and rotation areas
70-300ha, with efficient management 0.8

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Rotational supply in large schemes (>10000ha) and small

Schemes (<1000ha) with respective problematic
communication
And less effective management
-Based on predetermined schedule 0.7
-Based on advance request 0.65
2.Field canal efficiency
Blocks larger than 20ha
-unlined 0.8
-lined or piped 0.9
Blocks up to 20ha
-unlined 0.7
-lined or piped 0.8
3. Field application efficiency
-light soil 0.55
-medium soil 0.7
-heavy soil 0.6
(Source: Varsheny,R. 1992)
For Samira small scale irrigation project, has been selected
Eb=0.8 for unlined &
Ea= 0.6 for heavy soil
EC=0.8, for area 70-300hectar with efficient management
EC=0.8
Project efficiency (EP) =0.80*0.8*0.6=0.384

3.9 Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)

After the exact evapotranspiration of crops has been determined the NIR should be
determined. Carry over soil moisture and ground water.
NIR = WR – ER – S - GW , Where: WR-crop water requirement
ER- effective rainfall
S- Carrying over soil moisture
GW- ground water contribution

3.10 Gross Irrigation Requirement (Gir)

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Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate
for the unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known
as gross irrigation requirement (GIR).
NIR
GIR = Ea ; where: Ea - application efficiency

3.11 Irrigation Scheduling

Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth and
maturity. Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity. Irrigation
scheduling is schedule in which water is applied to fulfill crops’ requirements. It is an
important aspect of an efficient operation of an irrigation system and fixing of the
depth, interval and time of irrigation. In our project the irrigation scheduling
calculation is based on cropwat 8 window programming

3.11.1 Field Irrigation Schedule

It is practiced at the field. The two parameter of irrigation scheduling are a, Root
depth (D) Rooting depth is that depths of soil in which plant root penetrate & extract
moisture& nutrient for its growth rooting depth increasing with increasing in the age
of the plant crop water requirement are largely govern by the root zone depth.
The depth irrigation (d) is given by
Dnet = As*D (FC-Pwp) *P
Where, Dnet=net depth (m)
AS=apparent specific gravity of soil
D=effective root zone depth (m)
FC=water content of soil at FC
Pwp= water content of soil at Pwp
P=depletion factor
Due to the application losses such as deep percolation and run off losses, the total
depth of water to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.
The gross depth of application (dgross)
AS∗D( FC−PWP)∗P d net
d gross= ∗
Ea Ea
Where Ea=field application efficiency and other are as defined above.
a) Depletion factor (P)

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Depletion factor is the fraction of available soil water that can be depleted with
Out Causing, soil water deficiency.
Yield response factor (KY)
The response of yield, to water supply in quantity through the yield response Factor
this related yield decrease (1-ya/ym) to relative evapotranspiration deficit
(1-ETa/ETm).
Where ETa=actual evapotranspiration
ETm=maximum evapotranspiration
Ya=actual yield
Ym= maximum yield
Ya ETa
)=KY (1− )
(1- Ym ETm
b) Irrigation interval (I)
The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation
applications. It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. This
interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount
of readily available moisture in the crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the
crop varies from crop to crop and also during different stages of the crop. The RAM
moisture also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water constant. The interval
(frequency) of irrigation is given by:
TAM∗MAD∗Dr
I days =
ET crop
Where: ETcrop-peak = is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in mm/day
ETcrop-peak =ETO *Kc
Table 14: Interval (frequency) of Irrigation
Eto Etc TAM Ii=TAD/
Crop (mm/ (mm/ (mm/ MAD Dr(m TAD ETc
name day) Kc day) m) (mm) ) (mm) (days)
1.0
Onion 3.3 5 3.465 200 0.3 0.6 36 10
1.1
Potato 3.3 5 3.795 200 0.25 0.6 30 7
Tomato 3.3 1.1 3.795 200 0.3 1 60 15

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5
1.0
Pepper 3.3 5 3.465 200 0.2 0.8 32 9
Sugarcan 1.2
e 3.3 5 4.125 200 0.35 1 70 17

Sample of calculation for Interval (frequency) of Irrigation

Crop name – Onion MAD =0.3mm
ETO =3.3mm/day Dr =0.6m
Kc = 1.05 TAD =MAD*Dr*TAM =36mm
TAM = 200 (mm/m)
ETcrop-peak =ETO *Kc =3.465mm/day
TAM∗MAD∗Dr
I days = =10 days
ET crop

3.11.2 Field Irrigation Supply Scheduling

This is the schedule of water supply to individual field. It is the schedule of the total
volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation is expressed that
10∗AS∗D (FC−PWP )∗P∗A
q∗t=
Ea
Where q=application rate l/sec
t=application time
Ea= application efficiency
P=depletion factor
AS=application specific gravity
A=area of field
D=effective root zone depth (m)
Qt= indicate the total volume of water applied to field during irrigation at the head of
the field. But the total volume water diverted at head work will absolutely be greater
than this value since there is loss of water during Conveyance and Distribution
channel.
The volume of water to be diverted is given by

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10∗AS∗D( FC−PWP )∗P∗A

Q∗T =
Ep
Where Q=flow rate at head work/sec
Ep=project efficiency

3.11.3 Method of Water Delivery and Delivery Scheduling

The objective of water delivery and distribution system is to deliver water adequately,
efficiency and reliably to the required farm level. The system must deliver the
required water that comes sustain the field crop with irrigation interval (T).

4. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS

4.1 General

Irrigationwatermaybeappliedtocropbyloadingitonthefieldsurface,byapplying
itbeneaththesoilsurface,bysprayingitunderpressureorbyapplyingitindrops. The
common methods ofirrigation aresurface, subsurface, sprinklerand drip.
Thewatersupply,thetypeofsoil,thetopography ofthelandandthecroptobe
irrigateddeterminethecorrectmethodofirrigationtobeused.Whateverthemethod
ofirrigation,itisnecessary todesignthesystemforthemostefficientuseofwaterby the crop.
(Michael, 1997)

4.2 Choice ofIrrigationMethod

Thechoiceofsurfaceirrigationmethodhasmany reasonsinitsfavor;themore important

ones aresummarized below
Surfaceirrigationsuitableforanareaunderstudy,being withintheMarginof
slop for anyof surfaceirrigation methods.
It is a proven techniquecurrentlyusedin Ethiopiaand also in the
Studyarea.
The proposedcrop (sugarcane) tobecultivatedinthe

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projectareaalsosuitable forsurfaceirrigation.
Capitalcostthanothermethodswhichcanmanagewithlocally available
materials,butforpressurizedirrigationtechnique,thematerialsare tobe
importedfromthefivemainsurface irrigationmethods,furrowandbasin
irrigation method is proposed underSamira irrigation project.

4.2.1 Surface IrrigationMethod

In surfaceirrigation,waterisapplieddirectlytothesoilsurfacefromachannel
locatedattheupperreachofthefield.Gravity providesthemajordrivingforceto
spreadwater over theirrigatedfield.Once distributedoverthesurfaceof the fieldand
after it has entered the soil, wateris often redistributed byforces other thangravity.

Generally, ina surface irrigationeventhasfour distincthydraulic phasescanbe discerned:

Advancephase:thetimeintervalbetweenthestartofirrigationandarrivalof the
advancing(wetting) front at thelowerend ofthe field.
Ponding(wetting storage or continuing) phase: the irrigation time extending
betweenthe endofadvanceandinflowcut-off.Theterm“Wetting” phaseisusually
usedforfurrowandborderwheretail waterrunoff can occur,
whereaspondingisthepreferredtermforbasinirrigation(notailwater runoff)
Depletion(verticalrecession)phase: i s thetimeintervalbetweensupply c u t - off and
the timethat waterdries up at theinlet boundary.
Recession(horizontalrecession)phase:thetimerequiredforthewaterto
recedefromallpointsinthe channel,starting from theendofthe depletion
phase.Thetimedifferenceateachmeasuringstationbetweentheclocktime
orcumulativetimefor advanceand recession is theopportunitytime, Infiltration to
occur.

4.2.1.1 FurrowIrrigation

Furrow irrigationreferstowater thatisdischargedintoandrunsdownsmallsloping

channels(calledfurrowsorcorrugations)whichare cutorpressedintothesoil.The
twomostcommonfurrow irrigationsystems arethe straightfurrow irrigationand graded
furrowirrigation. Waterinfiltrates fromthebottom and sides offurrows
movinglaterally downwardtowetthesoilandtomovesolublesalts,fertilizersand
herbicides carried in thewater.

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As compared to other methods, the furrowmethodhas several distinct advantages.

Waterinthefurrowscontactsonlyone-halftoone-fifthofthelandsurface,
therebyreducingpudding, andcrustingof thesoil, and evaporation losses.
Earlier cultivation is possiblewhich distinct advantagein heavysoils is.
Themethodreduceslaborrequirementsinlandpreparationandirrigationso economical.
Furrowcan be adopted touse, withouterosion, on wide rangeof natural sloped lan

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4.3 DesignConsiderationofFurrowIrrigation

Thedesignofasurfaceirrigationsystemfirstinvolvesassessing thegeneral
topographicconditions,soils,crops,farming practicesanticipatedandfarmoperator’s
desiresandfinanceforthe fieldor farminquestion.Moreover, thefirstprioritiesin
agriculturetodayisthedevelopmentofirrigationdesignthataremoreefficientintheuseof both
water and energy resources for the varieties of crops and farming practices.
One ofthepurposesofdesignofsurfaceirrigation systemsisto facilitateoperational
practicessothatthesystemcanbemanagedandoperatedaccordingtotheplanand the
desiredgoalcan be achieved.
Furrowspacing
Furrowcanbespacedtofitthecropsgrownandthetypeofmachinesusedfor
plantingandcultivation.Croplikepotatoes,maize,cottonandsugarcaneareplanted
60- 90cmapart spacingbetweenallfurrows.Furrowsshouldbe spacedcloseenoughto ensure
thatwater spreadstosidesintoridge andthe root zone of the crop toreplenish the soil
moistureuniformly.
Table 15: Furrow infiltration and inflow rate
Soiltexture Infiltration rate(mm/hr) Furrowinflow (l/s/1000m length)

Clay 1-5 0.03-0.15

Clayloam 5-10 0.15-0.3

Table 16: Spacing between rows and plants

Crop Suggested spacebetweenRows and plants(cm)

Sugarcane 90x40
Potato 80 x30
Tomato 150 x20
Pepper 60 x40
Onion 60 x40
Source(Micheal, 1997

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Furrowslope
The slopeorgrade of the furrow isimportantbecause itcontrolsthe speedatwhich water flows
down the furrow.
Aminimum furrowgradeof0.05%isneededto ensuresurfacedrainage.Inour case we adopted
that thefurrow slopeis 0.25%the studyarea.
Asthefurrowgradeincreases,therangeofinfiltrationslowsdownandtheside
spreadofwaterintothecropridgedecreases,sothatwastagemay occurattheendof the furrow.
FurrowLength
Theoptimumlengthofthefurrowisusuallythelongestfurrowthatcanbesafely and efficiently
beirrigated.Longfurrowareanadvantageintercultivation.
The optimum length of the furrows is usually the longest furrow that can be efficiently
irrigated.Itmay beasshortas45monsoilswhichtakeupwaterrapidlyor asmuch as300mor longer
onthe soilswithlow infiltrationrate. The lengthof the furrowmayoften belimited bythesize and
shapeofthe field.
Table 17: Suggested maximum length of cultivated furrow (m) for different slope and depth
of water to be applied)
Furrow Average depth of water applied(mm)
slope 75 150 225 300 50 100 150 200 50 75 100 100
(%)
Clay Loam Sand
0.05 300 400 400 400 120 270 400 400 60 90 150 190
0.1 340 440 470 500 180 340 440 470 90 120 190 220
0.2 370 370 530 620 220 370 470 530 120 190 250 300
0.3 400 500 620 800 280 400 500 600 150 220 280 400
0.5 400 500 560 750 280 370 470 530 120 190 250 300
1.0 280 400 500 600 250 300 370 470 90 150 220 250
1.5 250 340 430 500 220 280 340 400 80 120 190 220
2.0 220 270 340 400 180 250 300 340 60 90 150 190

Source (Cuenca, 1989

FurrowStream
The size of the furrowstreamisthe onefactorwhich canbevariedafterthe furrow
irrigationsystemhasbeeninstalled.Thesizeofthestreamusuallyvariesfrom0.5to2.5lit/se.
Toobtainthemostuniformirrigation,thelargeststreamof

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waterthatwillnotcauseerosionisusedineachfurrowatthebeginning ofirrigation.
Itspurposeistowettheentirelengthofeachfurrowasquickly aspossible,thus
enablingthesoiltoabsorbwaterevenly throughtheentirefurrowlength.
The maximum sizeofirrigationstreamthatcanbeusedatthestartofthe irrigationlimited
byconsideration oferosion in furrows, over toppingoffurrowsandprevention of run- off at
thedown steam end.
Themaximum non-erosive flow rateis estimated bythe followingempirical equation.
Qm= 0 . 6 l /s (Micheal, 1997)
As we select furrow slope is 0.25%
Qmax =0.6/0.25 (l/s)
=2.4l/s, it is ok.
Where: Qmax-maximum discharge of furrow
S-slope furrow (%)

4.3.1 DesignofFurrowSystem

The followingparameters areusedfordesign ofthe furrow system.

The parameter of the intakefamilies: soil with similar infiltration characteristics isbased
on one– dimensioninfiltration families. The classificationisbasedonone–
dimensioninfiltrationfurrowirrigation by taking intoaccountthewettedperimeter
ofthefurrowandthefurrow spacing.This purposethe adjusted wetted perimeter is used
fordesign.
Reducedinflowperimeter(P2):Thisisthefurrowperimetercorresponding to cut –back stream.
Advancedtime(Ta):Thetimeatwhichtheadvancewaterfront(runinstream) reaches a particular
point.
Opportunitytime(To):It is thedifferenceof between thewaterfront’sreachesa particular
pointalongthefurrowand thetime atwhich the tail recordsfromthe same point.
Recessiontime(Tr):The time for outflow ofwatertostopafterinflowatthe head of thefurrowhas
ended in recession time.
Infiltrationinfurrow systemandcalculationof requiredinfiltrationtime must
behandleddifferently thanforothertypesofsurfacesystem.Thisisbecause infiltrationtakesplace
onthewettedperimeter of thefurrow andtheadjusted wetted perimeter is given bythe
followingequation
p=0.2659 ¿

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Where: -Q -volumetricinflow rate, l/s

n -Manning roughnesscoefficient
s - Furrow slop or hydraulicgradient (m/m)
Inmostcases,after theflow hasstabilizedandgetsuniform,the hydraulicgradientis
equaltothefurrowslop.Aroughnesscoefficientof0.04isnormallyusedfordesign of
furrowirrigation system.(Cuenca, 1989)
Theadvancedtime(Ta):forastreamofwatermovingdownthefurrowis given by
L
T a = exp
f (gL
Q S 0 .5 )
L-Distancedown thefurrow(m) Q -Volumetric inflow rate (l/s)
S-Slope, m/m
Thenet infiltrationtimeoropportunity time(Tn):
1

(( w
Tn= dn∗( −c )∗
p
1
a )) 6 , dn=RAM∗P∗D

WhereRAM-readilyavailable moisturefrom CROPW 8 at

P-Depletion factor ofsugarcane
D -Root depth dn -net irrigation depth
Cutoftime(Tco): Tcoreflectsanirrigationmanagementdecisionmadeby
theformeranddesigner.Itshouldbe anadequatelength oftimetoinfiltrate a satisfactory
depthofwateroverthelengthofthefurrowwithoutcausing excessivedeep percolation.
Tco =Ta+Tn-Tr,min
WhereTrisrecession time is assumed zeroforopen–endedgradientfurrow (i.e. for furrows
whoseslope is notequal to zero)withoutlossof accuracy.
TherebeforeTco =Ta+Tn
The averageinfiltration opportunitytime
Toavg=Tco– 0.0929/f(L)(0.305/L)2*((β-1)exp(β)+1)
Where: β=gL/Qs0.5
( Q )∗Tco
Gross application depth (dg)dg=60
w∗l
( aToavgb+c ) p
Averageinfiltration depth (davg),davg=
w
Surfacerun off(dro) dro=dg−davg
Deep percolation (Dp) Dp=davg−dn

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DP
DP= ∗100 <10 %
Percentageof, dn

Distribution patternefficiency, Ed Ed=dn /dg∗100 , ( ¿ 50 % )

Ifthevalueofdeeppercolationanddistributionefficiency isgreaterthanthestandard
specificationvalue,cut-backconditionisnecessarytominimizethedeeppercolation ofthe water
.In this condition some formulais modified
Sample of calculationsforonion:
Parameters neededfurrow design
Soiltype-clay
Intakefamilyfor thegiven soil type,IF=0.15, (refer appendix B)
ForIF=0.15;
A =0.711 f=7.34
B=0.683 g=1.414*10-4
C=7
Furrowspacing, W=35cm
Furrowslope, S=0.25% (0.05 to 0.5% is recommended) Furrowlength,L=185m (max. is 385m
for clayofs=0.25%) Manning’sroughness coefficient, n=0.025
Net irrigation depth, dn=36mm
Design parameter
L
Advanced timeTa= exp
f
gL
(
Qs 0.5 )
185
exp ( .0001414∗185 )
7.34
¿ =31.34 min
2.4∗( .005 ) 0.5
Adjusted wetted perimeter
n
p=0.265(Q )0.425 +0.227
s 0.5
=0.513, substituting Q=2.4l/s, n=0.025
Netinfiltration depth
dn =RAM*P*D RAM=200mm, p=0.3, D=0.6m
Dn=200*0.3*0.6=36
WhereRAM-readilyavailable moisture fromCROPWAT8windowversion
P-Depletion factor
D -Root depth ofthe sugarcane dn -net irrigation dep

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Netinfiltration time:

(( ( ) ))
1
w 1 b
Ta= dn −c
p a

Where: Dn=36, w=35cm, p=0.513, c=7, a=0.711, b=0.683

Then; Tn=107.19mim
Designcutofftime
Tco=TA+Tn=31.34+107.19 =138.53min
Averageinfiltration opportunitytime
Toavg=Tco– 0.0929/f(L)(0.305/L)2*((β-1)exp(β)+1)
Where: β=gL/Qs0.5 =0.454
THEN, Toavg=134.99min
( Q )∗Tco
Gross application depth (dg)dg=60 =308.08mm
w∗l
( aToavgb+c ) p
Averageinfiltration depth (davg)davg= =40mm
w
Surfacerun off(dro), dro=dg−davg =268.18mm
Deep percolation (Dp), Dp=davg−dn =40-36=4
Percentageof Dp/dn* 100 (<10%), %Dp/dn =11.1%,not ok
Distribution pattern efficiency, Ed, Ed=dn /dg∗100 , ( ¿ 50 % )
=36/308.08*100=11.7%
This is not ok, so it needs some modification.
Table 18: Furrow irrigation design for the selected crops
Crops Potato Tomato Sugarcane Pepper Onion
L(m) 142 308 385 165 185
S% 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Dn(mm) 27.6 60 195 32 36
W(m) 0.8 0.36 0.9 0.35 0.35
P(m) 0.513 0.513 0.513 0.513 0.513
TA(min) 22.86 60.32 82.56 27.3 31.34
Tn(min) 305.7 294.21 7887.8 83.79 107.19
Tco(min) 328.56 354.53 7970.98 111.1 138.53
Tav(min) 328.28 350.99 7962.98 110.6 134.991

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dg(mm) 416.09 460.43 3312.35 277.03 308.08

dav(mm) 28.34 65.453 191.26 36.19 40
dro(mm) 387.75 394.97 3121.08 240.84 268.18
dp(mm) 0.74 5.453 -3.74 4.19 4
dp (%) 2.68 9.08 1.9 13.09 11.1
Ea (%) 13.6 13.03 5.8 11.55 11.7

NB:Ifthevalueofdeeppercolationanddistributionefficiencyisgreaterthanthe
Standardspecificationvalue,cut-backconditionisnecessarytominimizethedeep percolation of
thewater.In this condition some formulais modified.
The distribution patter efficiency is less than 50%, therefore we use cut back condition.
Modification
Q1 2. 4
Q 2= = =1 .2 L/se
Cut back stream, Q2 2 2
1 . 2∗0 . 025 0. 45
n =0. 265[ ] +0 . 227=0 . 440
0.265(¿ )0.425 +0.227 0. 00250 . 5
s 0.5
Reduced perimeter, P=

Modified thenet infiltrationtime

w 0 . 35
dn∗( )−c 1 36∗( )−7 1
pr 0 . 44
T n =( ) =(b
) 0. 686 =145
a 0. 711
Time of cut back
T Cb =T a=31 . 34
T CO=1451+31 .34=176 . 6
Toavg=Tco– 0.0929/f(L)(0.305/L)2*((β-1)exp(β)+1) = 176.59
gl
B= =0 . 435
Where: QS0 . 5
Modified averageinfiltration depth (davg)
p2 p1 −p 2
davg=a (T CO −T b +c ) + a(T b+ c ) =8 . 8=31=38 .8
avg w avg w

Gross application depth

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60 60
dg= (Q (T CB )+Q 2 (Tn)= (2. 4∗31 . 34 )+(1. 2∗145)=42 .720
w 0 . 35
Surfacerun off(dro) dro=dg−davg = 42.72-38.8=3.92mm
Deep percolation
dp=d avg −dn=2 . 8
dp
∗100=7 .7 %
dn It is less than 10%, since it is ok
Distribution efficiency
dn
Ed= ∗100=85 %
dg , greater than 50%, since it is ok
Table 19: Modified Furrow irrigation design for the selected crops
Crops Potato Tomato Sugarcane Pepper Onion
L(m) 142 308 385 165 185
S% 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Dn(mm) 27.6 60 195 32 36
W(m) 0.8 0.36 0.9 0.35 0.35
P(m) 0.513 0.513 0.513 0.513 0.44
TA(min) 22.86 60.32 82.56 27.3 31.34
Tn(min) 305.7 294.21 7887.8 83.79 145
Tco(min) 328.56 354.53 7970.98 111.1 176.6
Tav(min) 328.28 350.99 7962.98 110.6 176.59
dg(mm) 41.09 90.43 312.35 47.03 42.721
dav(mm) 28.34 65.453 191.26 36.19 38.8
dro(mm) 387.75 394.97 31.08 240.84 3.92
dp(mm) 0.74 5.453 3.74 3.19 2.8
dp (%) 2.68 9.08 1.9 9.9 7.7
Ea (%) 67.3 66.03 62.4 68 85

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5. DESIGN OF CANALS AND CANAL STRUCTURES

5.1 General

Irrigation scheme which utilize weir a barrage or a storage reservoir necessitates the
construction of network of canals. The entire system of canals (main and branches)
distributed over the field are to be designed properly for certain realistic value of maximum
discharge, that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command
area; the success of the flow irrigation depends on the perfect design of the network of canals.
The design of canals is carried out in considerations of Kennedy‟s and Lacey‟s theory which
are based on the characteristics of sediment load i.e. (silt) in canal water.
The design consideration of irrigation canals naturally varies according to the type of soil,
again the velocity of flow in the canal should be critical (i.e., none silting and scouring).

5.2 Canal Alignment

A canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to be irrigated.
It is clear that irrigation water, (in flow type) should reach the field by gravity to accomplish
the requirement. Irrigation canal is always aligned in such a way that the water gets proper
command over the whole irrigable area. (Sahasrabudhe, 1994)

5.2.1 General Consideration forCanal Alignment

The following points should be kept in mind in alignment of canal

The alignment should not pass through the valuable lands, religious places,
villages, etc. to avoid unnecessary compensation and unwanted conflict.
The alignment should be short as far as possible, but to make it short the
alignment should not be taken through the area where irrigation is not yet all
possible.
The alignment should be straight as far as possible.
The alignment should cross the natural stream, drainage, etc. approximately at the
right angles. At the crossing point, the width of the drainage should be minimum
and the banks should be well defined.
The alignment should not involve heavy cutting or banking.
The alignment along the ridge line or water shade line is very good as the water
shed canal can irrigate the area on both the side. Moreover, cross drainage work
may be avoided.

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The alignment should be such that the maximum area may be irrigated with
minimum length of the canal.
The alignment should not pass through the water logged area because the canal
may be collapsed due to the heavy moisture in the area.
The alignment should not pass through the sandy soil as the percolation in the loss
soil will be more and the duty of the soil will be less. (NNBasak, 1999)

5.2.2 Horizontal Alignment of Canals

The horizontal alignment of irrigation and drainage canals generally follow the topography of
the terrain. Primary canals are in general are located along the contour till it meets ridges
Branch and secondary supply (irrigation canals) are preferably located on the high grounds
such as ridges or water sheds;
The main drainage canals are located in the valleys or along the natural drainage lines.

5.2.3 The Vertical Alignment of Canals

The vertical alignment is compromise between the following.

1. The water level in the supply canals should be sufficiently high to the highest for main
canal irrigation in envisage; in drains the level should be low enough to drain the lowest area
that are to be drained.
2. The maintenance cost should as possible as low.

5.3 Hydraulic Design of the Canal

Canal is designed in a way which, it’s longitudinal and cross section is fixed out to suit
requirements; thus various canals dimension like bed width, depth, side slope, longitudinal
slope, etc. are to be fixed in the design of irrigation canal. Irrigation canals are designed to
take the maximum discharge safely which is called full supply discharge.
Regime channels
While design a properly functioning channel, one must think to design such a channel in
which neither silting nor scouring take place, such channel is known as stable channel or
regime channel, so whatever silt has entered in to the channel at its head it keeps in the
suspension so that it doesn’t it settle down and deposited at any point of the channel. I.e. the
velocity of the channel should be such that, it doesn’t produce local silt by erosion of channel
bed and side slope.
1. Kennedy’s theory

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He defined the critical velocity (VO) in a channel as the mean velocity which will just keep
the channel free from silting or scour and related it to the depth of flow by the equation by
introducing factor m, up on the type of the soil, m which is called the critical velocity ratio.
(C.V.R)
VO = C1*MYC2 = 0.55my0.64
Where, C1 & C2 are constant depend up on silt charge.
C1 = 0.55 & C2 = 0.64 = in SI units (Garg page 91)
2. Lacey’s theory
Lacey argue that a channel showing no silting no scouring may actually not be in regime and
he classify in to three regime conditions.
a) True regime
Artificially constructed channel having a certain fixed section and a certain fixed slope and
only full filling the requirements of, Q is constant, flow uniform, silt charge amount is
constant, silt grade is constant, type and size of silt is always the same and channel is flowing
through a material which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited, but in practices all
the above listed condition can never be satisfied.
b) Initial regime and final regime
When only the bed slope of the channel varies and its cross section or wetted perimeter
remains unaffected , even the channel is can exhibit no silting no scouring properties called
initial regime. they can be achieved only a working stability due to the rigidity of their
banks, their slope and velocities are higher and cross sections narrower than what would have
been, if the side where not rigid. And regime theory is not applicable to them, as they are in
fact not the channel in alluvium.
If there is no resistance from the sides and all the variable such as perimeter depth, slope etc.
are equally free to vary and finally gate adjusted according to Q and silt grade then the
channel is said to have achieved permanent stability called final regime. Regime theory is
applicable to such a channel in which all variable are equally free to vary, has a tendency to
assume a semi-elliptical section.
Lacey‟scalculation procedure.

V = 140
( )
Qf 2 1/6

[m/s]…………………………(*)

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( )
2
5 v
R = 2 f [m] ……………………………(**)

( )
5
f3
1
. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. ***
6
3340∗Q

Bed slope, S=

Where, Discharge Q – (m3/se)

Area A = Q/V [m2]
Velocity V - [m/s]
Wetted perimeter, p = 4.75√Q [m]
f – Silt factor, f = 1.76√dmax
dm - average particle size [mm]
Criteria’s for Selecting Canal Design Theory
Design of channel by Kennedy‟s theory vary depending up on selecting bed slope s , to fit the
topographical slope & B/D ratio, he doesn’t fix regime slope for irrigation channel as that of
the lacey‟s theory. Lacey indicated that the true regime shape of the channel is semi
elliptical, but he did not give any equation for its shape
The true regime condition defined by lacey are hypothetical not real in practice.
Since the canal passes through the different bed of soil it is difficult to use single
lacey‟s factor, f
Lacey did not consider silt charge rather silt grade
Lacey did not take in to account the increase in silt concentration due to loss of water
evaporation and seepage. (Arora K , 2002)
Hence the lacey‟s equations are Empherical and highly specific for channels flowing in
particular regions.i.e. This equation cannot be universally applied. Moreover the value of silt
factor is required in the use of lacey‟s theory, since information on particle size; it is
preferred to use Kennedy‟s theory for the design of channels.

5.3.1 Permissible Velocity

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Depending on whether there is a non-erodible or an erodible canal, a permissible velocity can

be used as criteria for a design of the canal. A minimum permissible velocity is that which
will not start sedimentation. It is determined by sediment transport capacity of the flow. A
maximum permissible velocity is that which will not cause erosion of the canal. This velocity
is very uncertain and variable and can be estimated only with experience and judgment.
(Chow, 1983)
Table 20: Permissible Velocity for Unlined Canal
Type of soil Maximum permissible velocity

Loam clay soil or loam 0.38-1.37

Clay soil 0.41-1.67

Heavy clay 0.45-1.7

Sandy clay 0.52-1.83

Ordinary 0.6-0.9

Moorum 1.5

Gravel hard rock >3

Source; (Arora K, 2003)

Table 21: Maximum permissible velocity for lined canal

Type of lining Maximum permissible velocity(m/s)

Boulder lining 1.5

Brick tile lining 1.8

Cement concrete 2.7

5.3.2 Tractive Force

Tractive force or shear force is the force applied by the flowing water on the canal bed and
the sides in the direction of flow. This force per unit area is called a unit tractive force or
shear stress.
Consider a canal reach of length L and canal cross sectional area A, the volume of water
stored in the canal reach is, V = gAL = AL . The component of this weight in the direction of

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the flow direction is AL sin = ALS where S is the canal slope. This component is tractive
force.
The concept of the tractive force method originates primarily from the work done by the US
Bureau of reclamation.
The design of canal on tractive force approach is based on the fact that the actual shear stress
on the bed and the sides of the canal should be less than the critical (maximum allowable
shear stress). Critical shear stress is the stress on the bed of the canal at which the bed
material starts to move with the flowing water.
For design τo<τcrt
Where; τo- the actual bed shear stress
τcrt - the critical allowable shear stress
Table 22: Critical tractive force for different soil
Soil type crt (kg/m2) Soil types crt (kg/m2)
Medium sand 0.17 Stiff clay 1.12
Fine gravel 0.37 silt loam 0.25
Sandy loam 0.2 Coarse gravel 1.47
Volcanic ash 0.37 Coarse sandy 0.25
Alluvial silt 0.25 Shale and hard pan 3.18

5.4 Full Supply Discharge (FSD)

The maximum discharge capacity of the channel for which it is discharged, is known as full
supply discharge the water level of the canal corresponding to full supply discharge in full
supply level (FSL). (Basak, 1999)
The capacity of the canal should be such as to full fill the max peak demand of all the crops
that are required to be irrigated at any one time amongst all the season. (Garge, 2003)
In this project, the irrigated crops are and the net crop requirement which obtained from the
CROP WATT 8.0 software result is 0.38l/s/ha.

Design Input data’s

a) Command area

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The main project activities include construction of about 2.1 km main canal, Construction of
headwork & other farm structures. Each participating member shall have a maximum of
about 0.3ha of land in the command area for irrigation.
The source of the project is Metana streamproposed to irrigate a total net area of 90ha in
which 122 households are supposed to be direct beneficiaries.
b) Time factor
A time factor is a factor used to calculate design discharge for specific area which obtained
by dividing the actual flow hours required for irrigation along the main canal to one day
(24hrs)
24
Time factor =
ti ( hr )
c) Canal side slope
I .Side slope for unlined canal
The slope to be given to the sides depends on the angle of the internal friction for a particular
soil .in other word the slope adopted should also be remembered that the side slopes adopted
in cutting and filling are not the same.
Table 23: Side Slope for Various Soils
Soil type Side slope (Horizontal: vertical )
Cutting Embankment
Sound rock 1/8 :1 1:1
Poor rock 1/2: 1 1:1
Gravelly soil 3/4 : 1 1:1
Compact clay soil 1:1 1:1
Clay soil 11 : 1 111 : 1 2:1

Loam soil 1:1 2:1

Sandy loam soil 2:1 to 3:1 2:1 to 3:1

Sandy soil 3:1 4:1

Source; (Sahasrabudhe, 1994)

II. Side slope for lined canal

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The canal can be made fairly water tight by limiting the canal section with various materials.
In ordinary lined canal, the steepest satisfactory side slope from construction point of view is
ranging from 1.25:1 to 1.5:1
d) Longitudinal slope
Canal bed slope depends up on the slope of the natural ground for economy in the earth work
and bed slope should be the same as the ground slope as in the case of contour canal because
it affects the velocity of flow.
Large canals, Q > 15 m3/s …0.10 to 0.30 ‰
Intermediate canals …0.20 to 0.40 ‰
Small canals, Q < 0.3 m3/s,………..0.30 to 0.50 ‰
e) Roughness Coefficient
The roughness of the canal bed affects the velocity of the flow. The roughness is caused due
to the ripple s formed on the bed of the canal. So the roughness coefficient was introduced by
the R.G Kennedy to calculate the mean velocity flow.
The value of „‟n' depends on the type of the bed material of the canal (Basak, 1999)
Table 24: The Value of N for Different Type of Bed Material
Material Coefficient(n)
Wood 0.013-0.165
Steel 0.0125-0.018
Concrete 0.013-0.018
Masonry 0.02-0.036
Earth 0.0225-0.035

f) Free board
The gap between full supply level and the bank level of the canal is known as free board
The amount of free board depends up on.
Canal size
Discharge and Wave action etc
According to the lacey free board is given by formula.
Fb = 0.20 + 0.15Q1/3, where, Q is canal capacity [m3/s]

Summary of Input data’s

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Net irrigation requirement=0.38l/sec/ha

Total command area =90ha
Conveyance efficiency, Ec=80% see chap 4
Application efficiency, Ea=60% see chap 4
Field canal efficiency, Eb =80% see chap 4
24
Time factor = =2
12
Design discharge of total command area (Qd)
Qd =
Net irrigation req t*time factor*area} over {project efficiency } = {0.38*2*90} over {0.8*0.8} = 106.875l/
Qd =0.106875m3/s
Design discharge, Qd=0.106875 m3/sec
Roughness coefficient, n=0.0225 for earth material and n = 0.013 for concrete (table 25)
Canal side slope, Z =0.5(for unlined canal on clay soil (table24)
Free board, FB=0.20+0.15Q1/3
Critical velocity ratio the velocity should be non-sliding and non-scouring that the actual
should almost equal to permissible velocity according to Kennedy theory
Permissible velocity, Vcr =0.41 to 1.67 from table 5.2
Tractive force limit, τcr =1.12 for stiff clay soil Table 5.2
B/D ratio for Q < 0.2 m3 /s B/D = 1
Q > 0.2 m3/s B/D = 1.75Q0.35Longitudinal slope of main canal (S =0.003 to 0.005)from the
given topography.

5.5 Design of Main Canal

In Samira small scale irrigation project a given main canals are unlined which is 2000m long
and the first reach of the lined rectangular main canal 100m long which is directly off taking
from the head work.
Lined rectangular canal
Data available;
Length of main canal=2100m, Peak net discharge =106.875 l/sec.
N=0.013 (Basak, 1999), bed slope of the main canal (s), S=0.003
Since our canal is aligned in alluvial soil from 0 to 100m to be minimize loss of water lining
is provide and the type of canal is rectangular.
A=db, P=2d+b

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For best economical section b/d =2 from this:

b=2d, A=2d2,P=4d
R=A/P=2d2/4d=d/2
Q=AR2/3S1/21/n
0.106875m3/s =2d2*(d/2)2/3*√0.003*1/0.013
d=0.23m, b=2d=2*0.23=0.46m
V=Q/A, =0.106875/0.148, V = 1.01m/s; (accepted) …………< 2.5m/s)
1
3
F=0.2+0.15Q =0.2+0.15(0.106875)1/3=0.22
Free board = 0.22m, Here total d=0.45m
The cross section of the main canal from 0-100m

Fb

d
b

Figure 3 : Cross-section of the rectangular main canal

Unlined trapezoidal main canal
Available data;
Discharge (Q) =0.106875m3/s
Roughness coefficient (N) = 0.0225 from table
Bed slope of the canal (S) =1:333.333
Side slope of the canal (m) =2:1(recommended value for clay soil)
By using manning formula;
1 2 1
Q = A × n × R ×S2
3
Manning’s Formula
Take b/d ratio =1for discharge less than 0.2m3/s (from Garg 2003)
A=d (b + md) =bd+md2, P=b+2d√ 1+m 2
2
A bd+ md
R= =
P b+2 d √ 1+m2
By taking the value of m=2
A =3d2
P =d (1+2√ 5) =5.47d

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R = 0.548d;
Where d is flow depth, b is bottom width, m is side slope, A is the area of flow and P is the
wetted perimeter.
2
1 2 2 1
3 d ∗( 0.548 d ) /3∗( 0.003 ) /2
Q= A∗ ∗R 3 ∗S 0. 5
n ; 0.106875m3/s = 0.0225

1
3
d=0.24m, F=0.2+0.15Q =0.2+0.15(0.106875)1/3=0.22m
b=0.24m
A =3d2 = 0.173m2
Total d=d+F=0.46m
Check whether the flow velocity is within the permissible limit on range 0.41 to 1.67for clay
soil.
V=Q/A=0.106875/0.173=0.62m/s; this implies that our canal does not cause either silting or
scouring.

FB

B
Figure 4 : Cross-section of trapezoidal main canal
Loss at transition from lined rectangular to trapezoidal earthen canal section was ignored, as
it does not have much influence on the flow hydraulic.

5.5.1 Design of Secondary Canal (Branch Canal)

Secondary canal are the branch of main canal in either direction taking off at regular interval.
In general secondary do not carry out any direct irrigation, but at a times direct out let may be
provide. Secondary canal usually feeder channel for tertiary and field channel. In this project
there is four secondary canals and one branch canal.
Available data:
Command area for Sc1 =15ha, Qd =0.106875m3/s, Total command area =90ha
15 ha∗0.106875 m3/ s
Discharge (Q) in m3/s = =0.018m3/s
90 ha
Roughness coefficient (n) =0.0225, Bed slope (s) =0.003, Side slope (m) =2:1

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Permissible velocity 0.41 – 1.67 m/s [Arora 2000]

By taking b/d ratio 1when the discharge is less than 0.3m3/s
From the above b=d
For trapezoidal canal A=d (b+md) =3d2, by taking m =2
P=b+2d (√m2+1) =5.472d
R =A/P=2d2/5.472=0.548d
By using manning equation
2
1
Q= A∗ ∗R 3 ∗S 0. 5
n ,0.018m3/se=2d2*(0.548d)2/3*0.0031/2*1/0.0225
By solving the above equation we get;
b=0.123m, d=0.123m
V= Q/A=0.396m/s (accepted)
Table 25: Values of design calculation for secondary canals
Canal Discharge Bed Side Water Bed width Velocity Free board
(m3/sec) slope slope depth(m) (m) (m/sec) ( m)
MC-sc1 0.018 0.003 2:1 0.123 0.123 0.396 0.201
MC-sc2 0.0137 0.003 2:1 0.111 0.111 0.373 0.236
MC-BRC 0.0754 0.003 2:1 0.21 0.21 0.572 0.263
BRC-SC3 0.055 0.003 2:1 0.186 0.186 0.529 0.257
BRC-SC4 0.02 0.003 2:1 0.128 0.128 0.41 0.241

5.5.2 Design of Tertiary Canals

These irrigation canals take their content of water directly from the main canal or from the
secondary canal to irrigate the land or to feed field distributaries. In this project there are 12
tertiary canals are exist to feed field canal. These are designed as unlined earth canals. To
precede with the design of unlined canals Kennedy’s method is applicable with respect to
available data. This method involves predetermined values of
Discharge (Q), Roughness coefficient (N), Bed slope(S)
Sample calculation for tertiary canals
Available data: Command area for Tc1-1 =2ha
Qd =0.106875m3/s, Total command area =90ha

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2ha∗0.106875 m 3/s
Discharge (Q) in m3/s= =0.0024m3/s
90 ha
Permissible velocity 0.41 – 1.67 m/s [Arora 2000]
By taking b/d ratio 1when the discharge is less than 0.3m3/s
From the above b=d
For trapezoidal canal A=d (b+md) =3d2, by taking m =2
P=b+2d (√m2+1) =5.472d
R =A/P=2d2/5.472=0.548d
By using manning equation
1 2 1
Q = A × n × R × S 2 , 0.03 69m3/s =2d2*(0.548d)2/3*0.0151/2*1/0.0225
3

By solving the above equation we get;

b=0.052m, d=0.052m
V= Q/A=0.445m/s (accepted)
By using the same procedure fill the following table.
Table 26: Design calculation of tertiary canals
Canals Q in(m3/s) Irrigable n m S d ( m) b ( m) V( m/s)
area(ha)
Tc1-1 0.0024 2 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.052 0.052 0.445
Tc1-2 0.0024 2 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.0424 0.064 0.445
Tc1-3 0.00713 6 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.064 0.064 0.58
Tc1-4 0.00594 5 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.0596 0.0596 0.56
Tc2-1 0.0089 7.5 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.069 0.069 0.62
Tc2-2 0.00475 4 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.055 0.055 0.53
Tc3-1 0.00772 6.5 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.066 0.066 0.59
Tc3-2 0.0095 8 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.071 0.071 0.63
Tc3-3 0.0089 7.5 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.069 0.069 0.62
Tc3-4 0.0077 6.5 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.066 0.066 0.59
Tc3-5 0.0095 8 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.071 0.071 0.63
Tc3-6 0.0118 10 0.0225 2:1 0.015 0.077 0.077 0.66

5.5.3 Intake

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The capacity of intake structures is determined using the orifice formula:

Q=Cd*A (√2gH);
Where, A=area of pipe
Cd=discharge coefficient (0.6 for concrete pipe)
H=the d/c b/n the u/s & d/s water level
Assuming concrete pipe width diameter of 30cm used

d
2

A= л 4 =л (0.3)2/4 =0.071m2
H=weir level - level of the center of the pipe=1.5-0.3/2=1.35m
Thus Q=Cd*A (√2gH)
=0.6*0.071(√2*9.81*1.35), Q=0.219m3/s
Since Q>Qd that means 0.219m3s>0.106875m3/s, hence ok!!
Q 0.106875
Velocity through pipe opening = = =1.505m/s
A 0.071
2 2
0.5∗V 0.5∗1.505
Loss of head at entry = = =0.058 m
2g 2∗9.81

5.6 Design of Conveyance Structures

5.6.1 ExpansionTransition

A canal transition is a gradual change in the cross section of a canal flow from one uniform
state to another. After the end of rectangular canal expansion transition is provided to join
trapezoidal unlined canal. There are three types of design method. Among these Hindus
design method is recommended for deferent depth of flow. Where,
Bt=width of trapezoidal
Br=width of rectangular

BrBt

Figure 5: Expansion Transition

Design of expansionTransition parameters
Available data:

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FSL at exit=2326.25m
Bt=0.24m, Dt=0.24m
Br=0.46, Dr=0.23m
Q=0.106875m3/s
Splay in expansion 3:1, Z=2:1
Design Procedure
a) velocity at exit area of flow
A= (Bt+ZDt) Dt = (0.24+2*0.24)0.24 =0.1728m2
V =Q/A =0.106875/0.1728 =0.6185m/s
Velocity head Hv, Hv =V2/2g =0.61852/2*9.81 =0.0195m
TELexit =FSL+hv=2326.5+0.0195 =2326.52m.
Beginning of expanding transition, A= (Bf*Df) =0.46*0.23 =0.1058m2
V =Q/A =0.106875/0.1058 =1.01m/s
Hv =V2/2*g =1.01/2*9.81 =0.051m.
Loss of head in expansion transition =0.3(V32 - V42)/2g=0.3(1.012 -0.61852)/2*9.81=0.00975m
TEL3-3=TEL4-4+hL =2326.52+0.00975=2326.53m
Water surface and bed level, WS3-3=TE3-3 – v2/2g =2326.53-1.012/2*9.81 =2326.58m
BL3-3=2326.58-0.23 =2326.35m
WS4-4=2326.5-0.6185m2/2*9.81 =118.55m
BL4-4=118.55-0.24= 118.31m
Water surface profile Expanding transition
L=3(Bn-Bf)/2=3(0.46-0.24)/2 =0.3m
2x=0.3, X=0.15
2y=FSL-WSL3-3=2326.5-2326.35=0.15m, Y =0.075
C=Y/X2=0.075/0.152 =3.33
Y=3.333X2
Table 27: Cross section of transition
X 0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15
Y 0 0.0021 0.083 0.0187 0.033 0.052 0.075

5.6.2 Drop Structure

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Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the
channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing vertical falls or drops in the canal bed at
suitable interval. (Garge, 2003)
Canal drop is a structure Constructed on a channel to lower down the water level and the bed
level of the channel. Because of the drop of the water at the fall, the potential energy of the
water is converted in to the kinetic energy, which may damage the D/S portion of the canal
by scouring action. (Arora K.2002)
For discharge less than 8m3/s vertical drop is best and economical.
Sample calculation of Drop structure on main canal:
Available data:
Q=0.0889m3/s, B=0.24m, Hl=1m, D1=D2=0.24m
Design
q= Q/B =0.889/0.24 = 0.37m3/s, V=q/D =0.37/0.24 =1.54m/s
Yc= (q2/g)1/3= (0.372/9.81)1/3=0.62m, ha=v2/2g =1.542/2*9.81 =0.1208m
E=D + ha-p = 0.1208m + 0.24m -0.2m =0.1608
The dimension of the cistern is determined as, X= Yc/2 = 0.62/2 = 0.31m
Lc= 3*(H*E)1/2 = 3*(1*0.1608)1/2 = 1.203m
W= 18.46Q1/2/(q + 9.91) =18.46*0.08891/2/ (0.37 + 9.91) =0.53m
Where X =depth of cistern, Lc = length, H = drop height, W = width

E= 0.1608
Yc
D1
P

Z=1 D2=0.24

X=0.31

Lc=1.203
Figure 6: Drop structure
Table 28: Drop components tabulated below
Q m3/s D (m) B (m) P (m) H (m) X (m) Lc (m) W (m)

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0.0889 0.24 0.24 0.2 1 0.31 1.203 0.53

0.0137 0.111 0.111 0.2 1 0.058 0.48 0.22

0.0754 0.21 0.21 0.2 1 0.12 1.196 0.49

0.055 0.186 0.186 0.2 1 0.11 1.016 0.424
0.02 0.128 0.128 0.2 1 0.068 0.19 0.26

5.6.3 Culvert

Culverts are the structures constructed at the crossing of roads, drainages & irrigation
Canals for Making the water flow freely .It consists of a barrel which can be circular or
Rectangular on entrance and exit flow in culverts can be either free flow (open
Channel) or pipe flow (pressure flow).
Whenever road has to cross on existing drain or canal or some times when a drain has
To cross an existing road small bridge, culvert is constructed at the point of crossing.
Design of Culvert along branch channel.
Q=Cd*A*√ 2 gh
Where, A=Cross sectional area of the pipe.
Cd=coefficient of discharge, (=0.8 for submerged flow)
H=head available, (assumed H=0.21m)
0.0754=0.8*A* 2*9.81*0.21
A= 0.673 m2

D=
√ 4∗0.673
3.14
=0.93m

Q 0.0754
V2 = = = 1.12m/s
A 0.673
u 64
F =. = ℜ (for laminar flow)
DV
Let, r =1000kg/m3, µ =1*10-3kg/m.s
1000∗0.0754∗4
Re = =¿327818.96
1∗10−3∗0.293∗3.14
64 64
F= ℜ = = 0.000195
327818.96
2
0.000195∗6∗1.12
Hf = = 0.00051m
0.293∗2∗9.81
He=0.5(v21-v22)/2g=0.0236m

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Ho=0.5(v23-v22)/2g=0.0236m
Total head loss=hf+ho+he=0.00051+0.0236+0.0236=0.0477m
Q=Cd*A*√ 2 gh
0.0754=0.8*0.0673 *√ 2∗9.81∗H
H=0.099<0.1& V2=1.12(1<V2<2m3/s) which is recommended for culvert.
Then similar procedures follow for the entire remaining culvert.

5.6.4 Division Box

Division structures or boxes regulate the flow from one canal to another or several others.
They usually consist of a box with vertical walls in which controllable opening are provided.
Metal or wooden sluice gates or stop logs are usually installed to regulate the division of
flow of all times and to shut off in any branch when desired.
The width of each out-let is generally proportional to the division of water to be made.
The division of flow can be on continuous basis or rotational basis.
a) Continuous: the flow will be proportionally divided into two or more small canals. This
can be achieved by providing width of the openings in proportional to the discharge
required.
b) Rotational: in this case the opening should be equipped with gates to close and open the
opening on turn.
Design of division boxes
Sample calculation:
Station at end BRC-SC3
To provide SC3 –TC2 and SC3- TC4
Available data;
QO= BRC-SC3 =0.055m3/sec
Q1= SC3 –TC2 =0.0095m3/sec
Q2= SC3-TC4 =0.0077m3/sec
A broad crest formula to divide proportionally is used.
Q=C*L*H
Where, Q=discharge over rectangular weir sill (m3/s)
C=discharge coefficient, use 1.77
H=over flow depth (m)
Assuming that:

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Crest level and crest form are in the same direction

Equal coefficient of discharge & sill height for the divided canal
Assuming sill height s=0.20 & dead height=0.20
H=0.40m, Then Q=C*L*H2/3
Q1 0 .0095
L1= 3 /2
= =0 . 0212 m
C∗H 1. 77∗0 . 4 3/2 , And from proportion
Q1 L1 Q2∗L1 0.0077∗0.0212
= , This implies L2 = = =0.0172m
Q2 L2 Q1 0.0095
L=effective length of crest (openings in meter)

Gate

Qo

TC3-2 TC3-4

Figure 7: Division box

6. DESIGN OF DRAINAGE CANALS

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Excessrainfallliesonthegroundsurfaceinfiltratestitletheground.Sincethemean annual rainfall in

the area is 1150mm.
When this rainfallexceeds the crop water requirement drainagehas to beapplied. There aretwo
types of drainagesystem
1. Surfacedrainage
2. Sub-surfacedrainage
Surface drainage is needed for project area to remove excess rainfall where sub-
surfacedrainageisnoteconomicallyfeasibleandtocollectanddisposeofsurface irrigation runoff.
Inourproject,surfacedrainagesystemhasbeenfoundtobeverysuitableduetoits lesser cost
andeasyconstruction and feasiblemanagement condition.

6.1 DesignofSurface Drainage Canals

Surfacedrainageproblemoccurinnearly flatarea,unevenlandsurfacewith
depressionorridgespreventing naturalrunoffandinareaswithoutoutlet.Soilswith
lowinfiltrationrates aresusceptibletosurface drainage problem.Surfacedrainage is intendedfor
safe removalofexcesswater fromthelandsurface throughlandshaping and canalconstruction.
Function ofthe system maybeconsidered as:
Collection systems
Conveyingsystems
Outlet system
Waterfromtheindividualfieldiscollectedandisthenremovedthroughasystemto the outlet.
Generally, surfacedrainageis requiredfor:-
The removalof storm rainfallwhere the subsurface drainage isnot
economicallyfeasible.
T h e collection and disposal of surfaceirrigation runoff.
Thecollection and disposal of drainagein deltaicare

6.2 Alignment ofSurface Drainage

The following pointsshouldbe givengreatconsiderationinmarkingan alignmentof drain.

Firstly,alignmentshouldfollowanaturaldrainagelinethatisthelowestcontouring
inthevalley.Toreducethecostof drainage schemethedrainshouldhave minimum length.It can
beachieved bytakingalignment straight ratherthan zigzag.
Secondly,alignmentof drainshouldnotpassthroughpondsormarshes.The reasonis
thatsuchdrainmayactasfeederlinetothemarshandthepondwillgoonexpanding. Thesolution

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toalign thedrain clears off thepond.

Thirdly,sofaraspossibledrainsshouldnotcross irrigationcanals.Thereasonisthat some
expensive structures will have to be constructed at the crossing point. It increases the cost
of drainagescheme.
Whenwe designsurfacedrainage for agiven irrigable commandarea,thefollowing parameters
areto be considered.
Capacityof drainage: Drainageshould bedesigned to carrythe maximum anticipated
flood efficiently.
Permissiblevelocity
Thevelocityofthedrainwatershouldbesuchthattheditchiskeptcleanby the
flow.Inotherwords,ditchshouldbeself-cleaning forthedesignvelocity.Itshould
alsobeseenthatnoscouring ofbedandsidescour.Themaximumvalueofmean velocity
mustbesafeagainsterosion.Basedonsoiltype,whichfoundintheirrigable areafor claythe
permissiblevelocityrangesfrom0.41 to 1.67m/sec.
Sideslopeof drain
Sideslopeofdrainisobtainedfromtablebasedonthesoiltype.Thus, the side slopeH/V ratio
0.5:1 because, itis claysoil.
Manningcoefficient (n)
Manningcoefficientofthedrainagecanaltobeadopteddependsonthetypeofthe soilformation of
theproject area.It is averaged is 0.0225
Longitudinal(bed) slope
Longitudinalslopeofthedrainisgivenby thegeneralslopeofnaturalground;of course
slopeshouldbefixedincorrelationtothepermissiblevelocity.Anefficient
drainisone,whichissodesignedasnottoproducevelocity,whichmayinduceeither
siltingorscouring.Economyandefficiencyshouldbethemainconsiderationsin

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Designingdrainagesystems.Generally,thebedslopeisdeterminedfromTopmapof the irrigable

area.
Drainage coefficient (DC)
Thedrainagecoefficientistheamountofwaterthatmustberemovedfromsoil surface
inordertohavesustainable agriculture.Itdependsondepthofirrigations,
methodofirrigation,leaching requirementandsoilcharacteristics.
There aredifferent methods for estimatingdrainagecoefficient. Those are:
a)1 %MARmethod
Where: MAR=mean annual rainfall
ForSamirairrigable area,MAR =1150mm.
DC =1 %*1150mm
DC=11.50mm
b ) H u d s o n 1983 ‟smethod

In this method the followingtwoconditions are considered

IfMAR<1000 mm, DC =10 mm/day
IfMAR>1000 mm, DC =MAR/100 mm/day
SinceMAR= 1150 mm, DC =11.50mm/day
C) Muzumdars (1983’s) method.
Table 29: Amuzumdar’s for drainage coefficient.
MAR(mm) <750 750-1000 1000-1250 1250-1500 >1500
DC(mm/day) 5-7.5 7.5-9.0 9.0-12 12-25 >25

From the above two methods thevalueofthe drainage coefficient (Dc) for the maximum one
istaken for design of thedrainage canal. DC=11.50mm/day
In this project areawedesign one main canal & one branch canal, which feeds to secondary
canal and then to tertiarycanal.
In ordertopreventour commandareafromwaterlogging,wedesigntertiarydrainage canal on each
tertiaryunit on theleft side&right sidethe command area.
Thecapacityofthedrainagecanalisdeterminedbasedontheareacoverageof tertiarycanals.

Table 30 Capacity of Drainage canal:

drainage A DC(mm Qdr(m3/sec) drainage A (ha) DC(mm /day) Qdr(m3/sec

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Canals (ha) /day) Canals

S1DrC1 2 11.5 0.00266 S3DrC2 8 11.5 0.01065
S1DrC2 2 11.5 0.00266 S3DrC3 7.5 11.5 0.00998

S1DrC3 6 11.5 0.00799 S3DrC4 6.5 11.5 0.00865

S1DrC4 5 11.5 0.00666 S3DrC5 8 11.5 0.01065
S1MDr 15 11.5 0.01997 S3DrC6 10 11.5 0.01331
S2DrC1 7.5 11.5 0.01302 Mdr(s3)1 22 11.5 0.02928

S2DrC2 4 11.5 0.00532 Mdr(s3)2 24.5 11.5 0.03226

MDr(s2) 11.5 11.5 0.01531 S4DrC1 17 11.5 0.02263
S3DrC1 6.5 11.5 0.00865

6.3 Types ofDrainage Canals

From different types of drainage canals, the trapezoidal drainage canal is

selected.Thereasonisthattrapezoidalcanalismore stable thantheotherchannels.In addition, it
is more economical. (Source, Drainage engineeringhand out)
Sample calculation
Data available: forleft side drain canal
Drainage coefficient (Dc)=11.50mm/day
Drainagearea (A, total)=15ha
Drainagedischarge (Qdr)=DC*A=11.50mm/day*15ha=0.01996m3/s
Longitudinal slope, S= H/V=60/641=0.09375

Manning’s roughness coefficient

Take, n =0.0225

m=V/H= 1 ⁄2 =0.5

Q=1/n*AR2/3S1/2
AR
2/3
=(Qn)/ s1/2 =0.001466754

Fortrapezoidal canal
-Theareaof thedrain section is given by

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A 2
=BD +mD

-Wetted perimeterof thedrain section

P = B+2 D √ 1+m 2
-R is hydraulicradius of thedrainagecanal
A BD +mD 2
R= =
P B+2 D √ 1+m 2
Where:-
B-Thebottom width of thedrainage canal D -Thedepth of water in
thedrainagecanal m-Theside slope ofthe drainagecanal
R-Themean hydraulicradius ofdrainagecanal
A -The areaof drainagesection.
P-Thewetted perimeter ofthe drain section
S-Thebed slopeof thedrain.

However, for efficient and economical design of trapezoidal drainage canal the
followingequation is true.
D
R=
2

A BD +mD 2
R= =
P B+2 D √ 1+m 2
Equatingby equating both equation weget thefollowingrelation betweenD &B.
A BD +mD 2 D
R= =
P B+2 D √ 1+m = 2
2

Sincem=0.5
-Bysolvingthe above equation, B=1.236D
-bysubstitutingthis valuein above equations, A=BD+m D2
A=1.236D*D+D2, A=2.236D2
P=B+2D√1+m2 , P=3.472D

AR2/3=0.0014667

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2.236D2* (0.5D)2/3=0.00146675
BySolve the equation, D =0.076m
Form equation B =1.236D
Bysolving B=1.236*0.076mB=0.094
ThehydraulicradiusR, R=0.5D
Thewetted perimeter (p)
Areaof cross-section, AR=0.5*0.076= 0.038m
P=3.472D=3.472*0.076 = 0.264m
Thevelocityof flow v, in thedrain can bedetermined from Manning’sequation
V=1/n*R2/3S1/2
V=1.538m/sec (its range is b/nin permissiblevelocity)
Thedischargeof flow(Manning)
Q =A*V=15ha*1.538m/s=2.67m3/s
Q ≥ Qd , 2 . 6 7 m 3 / s ≥ 0.01996m3/sok
FreeBoard (FB)

Thetopofcanalbankshastobemaintainedhigherthantheleveltoallow forwaves andpossible

fluctuationinsupply.The verticaldistance betweenthe topof drainage
canalbanksandthefullsupply levelofdrainagecanal,knownasfreeboard.Forthis case,
takeafreeboard of0.1m.
DT=D+FB
DT=0.076+0.1= 0.176m
Top width (T)
T=B+2*m*D 0.094m+2*0.5*0.0.076m=0.17m

Table 31: Hydraulic parameters of drainage canal

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3
Drain Qdr(m /sec Slope N m B(m) Area( P(m) D(m) FB
Type
S1DrC1 0.002662 0.072 0.0225 0.5 0.039 0.0023 0.111 0.032 0.1
S1DrC2 0.002662 0.091 0.0225 0.5 0.045 0.0029 0.125 0.036 0.1
S1DrC3 0.007986 0.005 0.0225 0.5 0.117 0.0199 0.28 0.0194 0.1
S1DrC4 0.006655 0.070 0.0225 0.5 0.066 0.0063 0.184 0.053 0.1
MDrC(S1) 0.019965 0.094 0.0225 0.5 0.204 0.1699 0.264 0.076 0.1
S2DrC1 0.013020 0.024 0.0225 0.5 0.0788 0.0092 0.222 0.064 0.1
S2DrC2 0.005324 0.081 0.0225 0.5 0.0589 0.0052 0.166 0.048 0.1
MDrC(S2) 0.015306 0.093 0.0225 0.5 0.085 0.0106 0.239 0.069 0.1
S3DrC1 0.008652 0.073 0.0225 0.5 0.072 0.0075 0.201 0.058 0.1
S3DrC2 0.010648 0.195 0.0225 0.5 0.056 0.0047 0.159 0.046 0.1
S3DrC3 0.009982 0.141 0.0225 0.5 0.067 0.0066 0.188 0.054 0.1
S3DrC4 0.008652 0.065 0.0225 0.5 0.073 0.0079 0.206 0.059 10.
S3DrC5 0.010648 0.059 0.0225 0.5 0.049 0.0036 0.139 0.040 0.1
S3DrC6 0.013310 0.0559 0.0225 0.5 0.089 0.0116 0.249 0.072 0.1
Mdr(s3)1 0.02928 0.2401 0.0225 0.5 0.0791 0.0920 0.222 0.064 0.1
Mdr(s3)2 0.0326 0.072 0.0225 0.5 0.0964 0.0136 0.271 0.078 0.1
MDr(S4) 0.022627 0.0724 0.0225 0.5 0.1035 0.016 0.291 0.084 0.1

FB

Figure 8: Typical Cross Section of Drainage Canal

7. HEAD WORK DESIGN

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7.1 General

Diversion head work are those works which are constructed at the head of a canal to divert
the river towards the main canal, so as to ensure a regulate continuous supply water free from
silt. Weir is an obstruction or a barrier constructed across a river. The obstruction is of
smaller in comparison with the dam. It raises the water level and supply water to off take
canal.

7.1.1 Location of Weir

When selecting location of weir the following consider

1. From the counter map of state farm, the location where the required Head to irrigate the
farm is develop.
2. The selecting site should be economical
a) Having short main canal
b) River bank should stable
c) Should be in straight reach
d) Good foundation available at the site
e) Site easily accessible by road

7.1.2 Selection of Weir Type

The weir may be broadly divided in to three:

1. Vertical drop weir:-this type of weir was used in most case, particularly suitable for
consolidated gravel foundation.
2. Rock fill weir: - is suitable for fine sandy foundation. Such weir requires huge
quantity of stone and is economical only when the stone is easily available.
3. Concrete glacis or sloping weir:-
This type of weir is used on permeable foundation and is generally provided with low
crest. In deciding the type of the weir, the following conditions should be considered.
Economy of construction
Foundation condition
Size of the project
Head across the weir and practically during implementation taking all the above factors &
the case for construction & suitability of foundation masonry weir of vertical drop is
selected for this particular irrigation project.

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7.2 Weir Design

Available Data:
m3
Q =71.94 s (refer data from hydrology, Chapter three)
River bed level=2325.m a.s.l (given)
Assumed data:
Afflux=1.0m
Retrogression=0.5m
Hydraulic Design of Weir
Determination of the crest level
Average level of highest field = 2323.7m from the top map
Head loss across the field = 0.1 m (assumed)
Head loss at the turn out = 0.15 m (assumed)
Head loss at the head regulator = 0.32 m (assumed)
Water depth required = 0.23m (data from canal design part)
Slope of the canal * distance of the highest point from the weir = 0.003 * 555.86m =1.67m
Therefore, the crest level of the weir=2323.7+0.1+0.15+0.32+0.23m +1.67 = 2326.17m
Weir height = Crest Level of the Weir – River Bed Level

=2326.17m -2325
H=1.17m take 1.5m for safe design.
Water Way, L
It should be adequate to pass the design flood safely and the length of water way is given by.
L=4.75√ Q=4.75√ 71.94 =40.29m
Since our water way gained above is very wide it should be multiplied by factor 0.45
(boulder, gravel foundation (Arora, 1988).
Hence, Le=0.45*40.29=18.13m
Q 71.94
q= = =3.97m2 /se is anoverflow rate over the weir.
¿ 18.13

Normal scour depth

2
q 1/3
R=1.35( )
f
Take Lacey’s silt factor f=1

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( )
1/3
q2
( )
2
3.97
R=1.35 f = 1.35 1 1/3
=3.4m
Regime velocity, V
q 3.97 m2 /se
V= = = 1.17 m/se
R 3.4 m
Velocity head, ha
2 2
V 1.17 m/s
Ha= = =0.07m
2 g 2∗9.81
ENERGY LEVEL
Upstream (U/S) TEL=Crest level of weir +He
Where He=Head over the crest
Now, q=1.705 He3 /2 or, He= (q/1.705)2/3 ,He =1.76m
U/S TEL=2326.17m +1.76m =2327.93m
U/S HFL =U/S TEL – ha=2327.93m – 0.07 =2327.86m
Downstream (D/S) HFL =U/S HFL – Afflux=2327.86– 1.0 =2326.86m
D/S HFL before construction = D/S HFL – Retrogression
=2326.86 – 0.5=2326.36m
The crest level of under sluice is equal to the river bed level=2325m
Head regulator=is kept 1.2 to 1.5m higher than the crest level of the under sluice (say 1.5m),
therefor the crest level of head regulator=2325+1.25=2326.25m
Bed level of canal=crest level of head regulator-canal flow depth
=2326.25-0.23=2326 .02m, which means crest level of head regulator is
equal to full supply level=2326.25m,
Pond level= full supply level + modular head=2326.25m +0.5m=2326.75m
Therefore, shutter = Pond level - crest level of weir
=2326.75m - 2326.1m = 0.65m

7.3 Design of Weir Wall

The weir wall is proposed to be trapezoidal cross-section with u/s face vertical and d/s face
with slope 1:1

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7.3.1 Top Width

'
The top width of weir wall (B ) is given as the following:-
'
Where, B = Top width of weir wall and is generally, 1.5 to 1.8
H
(i) B = √ G−1
'

H=depth of water over the weir wall at the time of maximum flood
G=Specific gravity of weir material (2.4). Range 2-2.4
H=He-ha =1.76-0.07, H =1.69m
1 . 69
B = √ 2 . 24−1 =1.52m
'

(ii) B’ = s+1 since, B’=0.65+1=1.65m

3H
(iii) B’= =1.12m
2G
'
Note: Since B =1.65.is in of range (1.5-1.8m), Therefore, take minimum top width of the
weir is the largest of the three condition which is ~1.7m

7.3.2 Bottom Width

The bottom width should be sufficient so that the maximum compressive stress with in
allowable limit &tension does not develop.
H +Heihetofweir
B=
(i), √G−1
1. 69+1 .5
B= √ 2. 24−1 =2.86m.
(ii), No flow condition
This occurs when the u/s water level at the pond level and there is no tail water on the
downstream.
The over turning moment (Mo) about toe the weir
γ W Hs 2
MO=
6 Where Hs = H + s
=16.25KN.m
H → seepage head (Height of weir+ shutter)
γ W → Weight of the water (9.81KN/m2)

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The resting moment is due to the weight of the weir for a vertical up stream face of the weir.
γHsG 2
Mr= (B + aB – a2)
12
9.81∗2.15 .∗2.2 2
¿ (B + 1.7B – 1.72)
12
=3.87 (B2 + 1.7B – 1.72)
Equating the over turning and the resisting moment, we get
16.27 = 3.87 (B2 + 1.7B – 1.72) ⟹ B=1.95 m
(iii) High flood condition
During high flood the over turning moment is from difference between upstream and
downstream water pressure diagrams
2 2
γ hH 9.81∗1.5 ∗1.76
Mo = ( ) ⟹( ¿=19.424 KN . m… … … … …¿ )
2 2
γH ( G−1 ) 2 2
Mr¿ (B +a )
12
9.81∗1.5 ( 2.2−1 )
¿
6
¿ 1.47(B2 +a2) …………………………………………. (4)
Equating equation (3) and (4), B=2.88m
B = max [2.86, 1.95, 2.88] ⟹ Adopt B = 2.88m, since the bottom width of the weir is
selected during high flood condition¿ 3m

7.3.3 Depth of Sheet Piles

R.L of bottom of upstream (U/S) pile= U/s HFL-1.5R =2327.86 -1.5*3.4

=2322.76m

Therefore, depth of U/S pile (d1 ), d1 =2325-2322.76m

Hence, d1=2.24m, take d1=2 .3m for safe design
R.L of bottom of downstream (D/S) pile
=D/S HFL after retrogression – 2R=2326.36- 2*3.4=2319.56 m

Depth of D/S pile (d2 ) =2325-2319.56=5.44m, take d2=5.5m

The depth of downstream pile is always greater than the depth of the upstream pile because of
for decreasing or minimizing of the piping problem.

7.3.4 Impervious Floor

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Seepage head, (Hs) = height of weir+ shutter

=1.5m+0.65m=2.15m
'
By Bligh s theory, the total creep length (L) is given by:
'
L=CHs where, C=Bligh s
Creep coefficient taken as (5-10) for gravel foundation, Let us take C=10
L=10*2.15=21.5m
Length of downstream impervious floor, L d


L=2d1+Lu+B+L d +2d2

For no shutter…….. L
d = 2.21*C
Hs
10√

For shutter Ld. =2.21*10

√ Hs
√
2 . 15
13 =2.21*10 13

Ld. =8.9m¿ 9m

Length of upstream impervious floor, L1

Lu=L- (Ld+B+2d1 +2d2 )

=21.5-(9 +3+2*2.3+2*5.5) = -ve

The Negative value indicates that the up stream bed level of the river is not affect scouring
problem. Which means the up stream bed level of the river is stable or strong.
For the u/s impervious floor let us take nominal value of Lu= 2m

Therefore, total length of impervious floor, will be

=Lu+B+Ld =2+3+9 =14m

Total creep length changed into= length of impervious floor +2d1 +2d2
=14+2*2.4+2*5=28.8m

7.3.5 Downstream Protection Work

D/S protection work the total length of d/s floor and d/s protection work is given by

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√ H s∗q
Lt =18C 13∗75

√
2 . 15∗3 . 97
Lt =18*10 13∗75 =16.84 m
Length downstream protection=Lt - Ld
=16.84-9=7.84m
Minimum length d/s concrete block=1.5d2=1.5*5.5=8.25 say 8.3m
Provided 1m*1m*1m concrete block cover 0.5m thick in filter
Minimum length d/s lunch apron=2.5d2=2.5*5.5=13.75 m
d1
Thickness lunch apron= t=√ 10* =1.3 m
6

7.3.6 Up Stream Protection Work

Minimum length u/s concrete block=1d1=1*2.3=2.3m

Provided 1m*1m*1m concrete block cover 0.5m thick gravel
Minimum length u/s lunch apron=2d1=2*2.3=4.6 m
Thickness lunch apron=t=1.5m
Thickness of the impervious floor by Bligh’s theory
Seepage head (Hs)=2.15m
Creep length (L)=28.8 m.
Specific gravity=2.2
Residual head at point A the toe of weir wall
Hs
(2∗d 1+ lu+ B)
S- L
H=H

2. 15
(2∗2. 3+2+3 )=1 . 43 m
A = 2.15-
28 . 8
H

The thickness of D/S floor at this point is then obtained by;

HA 1 . 43
( ) )=1 . 6 m
tA= 1.33 G−1 =1.33*( G−1 Provided a thickness of 1.6m for a length of 3m
Thickness of D/s Floor after3m from the function of the weir wall.
HS
( 2∗2. 3+2+3+ 3)
HB=HS- L =1.21m

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H 1 . 21
( ) )=1. 34 m
B=1.33 G−1 =1.33*( 2. 2−1
t

Also the last length of 3m

Thickness of D/s Floor, after 6m from the weir wall or toe.
HS
(2∗2. 3+2+3+ 3+3)
HC=HS- L =0.985m
H 0 . 985
( ) )=1. 092 m
C=1.33
G−1 =1.33*( 2. 2−1
t

Figure 9: Cross-section of Weir

7.3.7 Check by Khosla, s Theory

a) Depth of Downstream pile

Check the thickness of impervious floor by khosslas theory:

Exit gradient (GE): Check against piping failure
The total length of impervious floor b=14m, d2=5.5m, HS =2.15m

α=b /d 2=2 .55 1+ √1+α 2

λ= =1 . 87
2

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H S∗1 2.15∗1 1 1
= ≤
d
GE= 2∗Π∗√ = 5.5∗π∗√1.87
λ 10.99 6 , saf

Figure:10Khoslas Theory up Lift Pressure

Up lift pressure

1+ √1+α 2
λ= =1 . 87
D/s pile; b = 14m, d2 = 5.5m, α = b/d2 =2.55, 2

Φ E=
100
Π
COS−1
λ( )
λ−2
,
F C =100−E
1

=52.21% =47.79%

ΦD =
100
Π
cos−1 ( )
λ−1
λ F D1 =100−Φ D
C

=34.6% = 65.4%
ΦC=0
Thickness correction for Fc1
−( ∅ E− ∅ D )
c 1= t 1=−3.496%
d2
Correction for mutual interference

√
=19* b
' (
D d+D
∗
b )
Where, D=Depth of pile whose effect is required on the another pile
(D=5.5-1.075=4.41m)
b ' =Distance b/n two piles=14M
d=the depth of the pile on which the influence occur (d=2.3-
1.092=1.21m)

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Correction for influence=-19* 14 √ 14 (

4 . 41 1 . 21+4 . 41
∗ )
−¿
= 4.3%
Corrected ( ∅ E 1)=52.21%−3.496 %−¿4.3%=44.4%
U/s pile; b = 14m, d1 = 2.3m, α = b/d1 = 6.09,

ΦC 1=
100
Π
COS−1 ( )
2− λ
λ orΦC 1 =100−E

=47.79%

ΦD 1=
100
Π
cos−1( )
1− λ
λ orΦD 1 =100−Φ D
ΦE=0 = 65.4%
Thickness correction for Fc1
+( ∅ D 1− ∅ C 1)
Fc 1= t 1=¿+7.66%, Where t=1m
d1
Correction for mutual interference

√
D d+D
=19* b
'
∗
b ( )
Where, D=Depth of pile whose effect is required on the another pile
(D=2.3-1.092=1.21m)
b ' =Distance b/n two piles =14m
d=the depth of the pile on which the influence occur (d=5.5-1.092=4.41m)

Correction for influence=+19* 14 √ ∗

14 (
1 . 21 4 . 41+1. 21
=2.05%
)
Corrected ( ∅ C 1)=47.79%+7.66%+2.2%=57.65%
Check against uplift pressure

Pressure at the toe A

ϕA =E 1+ ( ∅ c 1−b ∅ E 1 )∗t , ϕA =44.4 %+( 57.65−44.4

14 )∗9=59.54 %
H A =φ A ∗H S
Residual head (HA), =59.54%*2.15m =1.28m
h 1 .28
= =1 . 067 m<1 . 6 m⇒ ok
Thickness of the floor = G−1 2. 2−1
Pressure at the toe B(3m from toe)

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Percentage Pressure (ϕB ¿=44.4 % + ( 57.65−44.4

14 )∗6=50.1 %
H B =φ B∗H S
Residual head (HB), =50.1%*2.15m =0.85m
h 1 .08
= =1 . 08 m<1 . 34 m⇒ ok
Thickness of the floor = G−1 2. 2−1
Pressure at the toe C(6m from toe)

Percentage Pressure ϕ B ¿=44.4 %+ ( 57.65−44.4

14 )∗3=47.23 %
H C =φ C ∗H S
Residual head (HC), =47.23%*2.15m =1.01m
h 1 . 01
= =0 . 84 m<1 .092 m⇒ ok
G−1 2. 2−1
Thickness of the floor =

Therefore, we can conclude that thickness of floor is safe by Khoslas theory.

7.4 Energy Dissipation

During the flood season, when high flood occurs over the weir crest water falls from the
maximum reservoir level of u/s to the d/s tail water and the difference b/n the u/s and d/s
energy grade line becomes very high. Therefore, the energy must be dissipated before it
reaches the natural river source: otherwise it causes damage to d/s of the apron.
The energy tends to dissipate through a hydraulic jump d/s of the weir .To control the
location of the jump stilling basin is designed.

Figure 11: Energy dissipation

To determine the water depth of well know Bernoulli’s equation is used consider
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0-0&1-1
H+ He=D1+V2/2*g+ HL, neglect the HL
2
q
1.5+1.76=D1+ 2
2∗g∗D
3.26= D1+15.76/2*9.81*D12
3.26D12=D13+0.803 by trial &error D1=0.61 m
D1 q
D2= (-1+√ 1+8 F2 ) where f= =2.66
2 √ g D 13
o .61
D2 = (-1+√ 1+8∗2.662) =1.81m
2
Critical depth dc is expressed by using formula
Dc = √3 q 2/g = √3 3.972/9.81 = 1.08m
( D 2−D 1)
The head loss dissipated energy As result of jump p =HL =
4 D 1 D2
1.81−0.61
=( ) = 0.272
4∗0.61∗1.81
The length of jump, Lj= 5(D2-D1) = (1.81-0.61) = 6m
D3 =d/s HFL –bed level
= 2326.86-2325 =1.86m.
As D3>D2 the jump occurs on weir face, and there is no need of design stilling basin.

7.5 Stability Analysis of Weir

The design section has to be safe against sliding; overturning & tension requirement .stability
analysis of the proposed weir is carried out by considering the various external. The Forces
acting on it. The external force including.
Uplift pressure is considered for the weir wall.
Water wedge weight is considered for weir crest only
Self-weight
3
Unit weight of water and masonry is taken to be 9.81 and 24 KN/m
respectively.
Moment is taken about the toe per meter width the effect of this force acting on
design structure varies from place to place, foundation condition of the site
height of the design structure.

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Dynamic case

Figure 12: Forces act on weir

Table 32: Stability analysis of dynamic case
N Item
o Forces(KN) Lever Moments(KN-m) at
arm(m toe
Vertical Horizonta ) Overturnin Restorin
l g g
1 P H =1. 69∗γ w ¿ 1 .5 24.87 0.563 14
1

2 P H =0 .5∗γ w ¿ 1. 5 2 11.04 0.5 5.52

2

3 PU =0 . 5∗γ w ( 1 .5+1 . 69 )∗3 -46.94 2 93.88

2
4 P H =0 .5∗γ w ¿ 0 .61 -1.83 0.41 0.75
3

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5 W W =γ w∗A W 1 28.2 2.15 60.63

6 W 1 =γ m∗A 1 61.2 2.15 131.58

7 W 2 =γ m∗A 2 23.4 0.867 20.29

∑ V =65 .86 KN , ∑ H =34.08 KN

∑ M R=213 .25 KN . m , ∑ M O =114.27 KN .m

Safety factors

So =
∑ M R =213 .25 =1 . 88>1. 5 safe .
Overturning stability, ∑ M O 114 . 27

S s=
∑ H =34 . 08 =0 .52<0. 75
Sliding safety factor, ∑ V 65 . 86 Safe

∑ M = 98 .98 =1 .503
Check for tension, x= ∑ V 65. 86 and for no tensione < B/ 6
B 3
e=| −X|=| −1. 503|=0 . 003
2 2
B
¿ =0. 5
e=0.003 6 No tension, ok!,So, we can conclude that the structure is safe.
Static case:

Figure 13: Force acting on weir on static case

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Table 33: Forces and moments acting on weir at static case:

N Item Forces(KN) Moments(KN-m)
o Lever
Vertical Horizonta arm(m) Overturnin Restorin
l g g
1 P H =0 .5∗γ w∗1 . 52 11.04 0.5 5.52

2 Pu =0 . 5∗γ w∗1. 5∗3 -22.07 2 44.14

3 W 1 =γ m∗1 . 5∗1 .7 61.2 2.15 131.58

4 W 2 =0 . 5∗γ m∗1. 5∗1. 3 23.4 0.867 20.12

∑ V =62.53 KN ∑ H =11.04 KN
∑ M O =49 . 66 KN . m ∑ M R=151 .7 KN .m
Safety factors

So =
∑ M R =151. 7 =3 .05> 1. 5
Overturning stability, ∑ M O 49 . 66 Safe

S s=
∑ H =11. 04 =0 . 2<0 .75
Sliding stability, ∑ V 62 .53 ok!

x=
∑ M =102. 04 =1 .63
∑ V 62. 53
Check for tension,

B 3 B 3
e=| −x|=| −1 .63|=0 . 13 , = =0 .5
2 2 6 6

B
¿ =0. 5
Hence, e=0.13 6 Ok! No tension. Thus, the structure is safe and stable in static
condition.

7.6 Design of Under Sluice

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This structure has crest at level to develop a deep channel pocket, which will help to bring
flow dry weather discharge towards this pocket, thereby ensuring easy division of water in to
the canal through the head regulator.
Providing one under sluice with 2m width (divide wall is provided between the proper weir
and the under sluice).
Designed with the discharge of;
1) Twice the discharge of the off taking canal capacity Q=2*0.11687=0.234m*3/sec
2) 20% of the max. Flood, Q=0.2*71.94=14.4m*3/sec
Therefore, Q sluice will be maximum of the above. Q sluice=14.4m*3/sec
Providing one under sluice with 2m width (divide wall is provided between the proper weir
and the under sluice).

Q 14 . 4
q= = =7 . 2 m3 /sec
L 2
Scoured depth for the sluice section (R)

()
1
q2 3
R=1.35
f , for f=1

R=1.35 (
1 )
2 1
7.2
=5.034m
3

RL of bottom of scour depth on u/s side=U/S HFL-1.5R=2327.93m -1.5*5.034

=2320.379m.

Therefore, the depth of the u/s pile,

d 1 = 2325-2320.379m =4.62m.
RL of bottom of scour pile on d/s side=

D/S HFL-2R=2326.86m -2*5.034= 2316.79m.

Therefore, the depth of the d/s pile,d 2 =2325-2316.79=8.21m.

7.6.1 Impervious Floor

Min. length of d/s impervious floor,

L2 =3 .87
√ Hs
10
Where H=Hs =2.15m, C=10 (for boulder foundation Dr.K.A.Arora, 2002)

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L2 =3 .87∗10
√ 2 . 15
10 = 17.94 m¿ 18m minimum Length of u/s impervious floor,
L1 =L−( L2 + B+2 d 1 + 2d 2 )=28 . 8−( 18+3+2∗4 . 61+2∗8. 21 )=−19. 84 m

Therefore, take nominal value of 2m for u/s length.

7.6.2 Protection Work

Total length of d/s impervious floor and protection work

L2 + L3 =27 C
√( ) ( )
Hs
10
∗
q
75
=27∗10∗ (√ 210.15 )∗(775. 2 )=38 . 79 m

L3 =( L2 + L3 )− L2=38 . 79−18=20 .79 m.

Length of the d/s protection work,
This length is both inverted filter and launching apron.
L3 20 . 79
L4 = = =10. 395 m.
Length of the u/s protection work, 2 2
3
2
Note; using broad crested weir formula,Q S =Cd LH
Where H=weir height + He=1.5+1.76=3.26m.
L=2m and Cd=1.7
3
Qs=1 . 7∗2∗( 3 . 26 ) 2 =20 . 01m 3 /sec Discharge through the under sluice.
3
2 3/2 3
And Qw=C d LH =1 .7∗16∗3 . 26 =160 .1 m /sec Discharge through the proper weir with
length, L=16m.
Therefore, the total discharges,

Qs=Qw+Qs=160 .1+20 .01=180 .22m3 /sec>Q=71.94 m3 /sec Ok

7.7 Silt Excluder

It is a structure which excludes the silt from irrigation water as the name implies. It separates
the lower silt laden portion of the water from the upper silt free portion. It consists of a series
of parallel tunnels of low height. The tunnels are constructed in the pocket parallel to the flow
of water in the river. The height of the tunnels depends upon the silt distribution in the flow
of the water.

7.7.1 Design of Silt Excluder

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It is design that the bottom layer of water which is highly charged with silt and sediment will
pass down the tunnels and escape over the floor of the under-sluice way(s),since the gates of
the under sluice way(s) shall be kept open up to the top of the tunnels. The clearer water over
the top of the roof of the excluder tunnels will thus enter the canal through the head regulator.
Design procedure
Full supply discharge of canal = 0.11687m3 /sec
Crest level of the under sluice = 2325m
Crest level of the head regulator = 2326.25m
Usually, two or three bays of under sluice of the weir are covered
by the excluder.
However excluder covering only one bay has been designed [Garge 2003]
Design discharge =15% to 20% of canal discharge [Garge 2003]
20
Q= ∗0.11687=0.0234 /sec
100
A minimum velocity of 2 to 4.5m/sec must be maintained through the tunnels in order to
keep them free from sediment. Therefore 2m/sec- adopted for the design
3
0.0234 m /sec 2
Area of cross section A = =0.012m
2 m/ sec
Height of tunnels generally v1aries from 0.5 to 0.6m for Sandy River and 0.8 to 1.2m for
boulder Stage River. [Garge 2003]
Assuming thickness of roof slab =0.15m
Height of tunnel (h) =2326.25-0.15-2325= 1.1m
A 0.0234
Total clear width = = =0.0213 m
h 1.1
For clear span of 0.02m (assume)
0.0213
Number of tunnel = =1.1 ≈1 tunnel
0.02
Assume thickness of divide wall =0.3m
Overall width =0.02*1+0.3=0.32m
Only one bay sluice will be used for silt excluder

7.7.2 Design of Canal out Let

The head regulate crest level is fixed 2326.25m&canal bed level is 2326.02m
Right side canal capacity canal is 0.11687m3/s.

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Out Let Size

Q=CLH3/2 where c=1.7
L =out let length
H=water depth in canal=0.23m ≅ 0.4 m(from main canal)
Q
L= 3/ 2
C∗H
0.11687
L= 3/ 2 =0.623≅ 0.63 m
1.7∗0.23
Therefore out let size 0.63m*0.4m (length & height)

7.8 Design of Retaining Wall (Guide wall)

To avoid out flanking of the river due to the control structure across the river a masonry
guide wall is provided. Considerations;
Analysis per meter span and moment heel
The depth of the soil up to the top level of the wall
The wall on the side of the soil inclined
Soil homogenous
Earth pressure at rest was considered

7.8.1 Upstream Retaining Wall

Data available
River bed level=2325m
U/S HFL=2327.86m
γ m=24 KN /m3 , γ w=9. 81 KN /m3 , γ soil =19 .62 KN /m3
0
Angle of repose( φ )=30
Top width=0.5m (source soil mechanics Arora)
Free board(FB)=0.4m(assumed)
Anchored depth below river bed =0.6m (source soil mechanics Arora)
Therefore, height of wing wall
H= (U/S HFL- river bed level) +FB+ anchored depth
H= (2327.86- 2325) +0.4 +0.6= 3.86m
Take =4m
The bottom width is=70%*H=4*0.7=2.8m
B=2.8m
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Kp=¿ ¿=1/3

Figure 14: Upstream wing wall

Table 34: Forces and moments acting onUpstream Wing Wall

No Item Forces Lever Moments at
(KN) arm(m) O(KN-m)
Vertical horizontal Overturning restoring
1 W1=0.5*3.6*24 43.2 0.25 16.56
2 W2=0.5*2.3*3.6*24 99.36 1.267 125.856
3 W3=0.5*2.3*19.62*3.6 81.23 2.033 165.16
4 W4=2.8*0.6*24 40.32 1.4 56.45
5 Ps=0.5*19.62*42*1/3 -52.32 1.33 -69.76
6 Ph=0.5*3.22*9.81 50.23 1 50.23
7 Pu=0.5*42*9.81 -78.48 0.933 -73.22

∑V=185 . 63 ∑H=2.09 ∑ M R=414 .3 ∑Mo=142.98

Safety factors

So =
∑ MR =414 . 3 =2. 89>1 . 5 ,OK !
Overturning stability, ∑ Mo 142. 98

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S S=
∑ V =185 . 63 =88 .8>1OK !
Sliding stability, ∑ H 2 . 09
x=
∑ M =414 . 3−142. 98 =1. 4 m;e=| B −x|=|2 . 8 −1. 46|=0 . 062
Check for tension. ∑ V 185. 63 2 2
B/6=2.8/6=0.467m
B
¿ =0. 46 m
Sincé e=0.34m 6 no tensión.
Therefore, the structure is safe in design.

7.8.2 Downstream Retaining Wall

D/S HFL=2326.86m
Free board (FB) =0.4(assumed)
Top width=0.5 m (source soil mechanics Arora)
Anchored depth below river bed =0.6m (source soil mechanics Arora)
H= (D/S HFL- river bed level) +FB+ anchored depth
Therefore, H= (2326.86- 2325) +0.4+0.6=2.86 say¿ 3m
Provided H, =3m
Bottom width=0.7*3=2.1m, B= 2.1m

Figure 15: Downstream retaining wall

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Table 35: Forces and moments acting on d/s retaining wall

Item Forces Lever Moments

No (KN) arm(m) at O(KN-m)
Vertical Horizontal Overturning restoring

1 W1=0.5*2.4*24 28.8 O.25 7.2

2 W2=0.5*1.6*2.4*24 46.08 0.8 36.86

3 W3=0.5*1.6*2.4*19.62 37.67 1.6 60.273

4 W4=0.6*2.1*24 30.24 1.05 31.752
5 Ps==0.5*19.62*32 *1/3 -29.43 1 29.43

6 Ph=0.5*22*9.81 19.62 0.667 13.0865

7 Pu=0.5*32*9.81 -44.15 0.7 30.9

∑ V =98 . 64 , ∑H=9 . 81 , ∑ M O =60 .33 ,∑ M R=149 .172

Safety factors

SO =
∑ MR =149 .172 =2 . 47>1 .5 , OK !
Overturning stability, ∑ M 0 60 . 33
S S=
∑ V = 98. 64 =10 . 05>1 , OK !
Sliding stability, ∑ H 9. 81
x=
∑ M =149. 172−60 . 33 =0 .9 m , e=|B −x|=|2. 1 −0 . 9|=0. 15 m
Check for tension, ∑ V 98 .64 2 2

B/6=2.1/6=0.35
Since e=0.15<0.53m, there is no tension.

8. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

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The main of economic Analysis is to check weather a given project is economical or not. A
given project said to be economically feasible implies that the total benefit of the project
exceeds the total cost of the project (i.e. benefit cost ratio of the project should be greater than
one)

Table 36: Rate of Cost

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost
1 Access road Km 3 5000 15000
2 Camping - 1 50,000 50,000

Table 37: Weir Apron and under Sluice portion

No Site clearing M2 154.9 6 929.5
1 Foundation Excavation M3 326.34 30 9790.2
2 Masonry work M3 81.6 450 36720
3 Concrete work M3 255.4 3350 855539.8
4 Plastering M3 81.6 450 36720
5 Gravel and filter M3 75.6 55 4151
6 Intake M3 2.55 500 1275
7 Length of d/s &u/s M3 252 500 126000
8 Sheet pile M3 2.808 500 1404

Table 38: Head Regulator

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Total cost
1 Concert pipe(d=0.6m M2 700 700
2 Cote(0.4*0.4) pcs 5000 5000

Table 39: Retaining wall

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost

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1 Masonry Work M3 322.66 450 145197

2 Excavation M3 25.92 30 777.6

Table 40: Main Canal

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost
1 Excavation for lined M3 10.58 30 317.4
2 Excavation for unlined M3 220.8 30 6624
2 Back for fill lined M3 45 30 1350
3 Drop-1 M3 0.24 450 108

Table 41 Secondary and branch canal

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost
1 Excavation for SC1 M3 9.3 30 317.4
2 Excavation for SC2 M3 5.3 30 159
3 Excavation for BC M3 83.8 30 2514
4 Excavation for SC3 M3 34 30 1020
5 Excavation for SC4 M3 11.56 30 346.8
6 Drop SC1-2-3-4-BR1 M3 0.758 450 341.1
7 Division box M3 1.256 550 690.8

Table 42: Tertiary canal

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost
1 Excavation for TC M3 207.9 30 6237

Table 43: Culvert

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit cost Total cost
1 Concrete M2 3.365 450 1514.25

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2 Pipe PCS 0.2 1500 3000

Table 44: Drainage Convey

NO Work Description Unit Quantity Unit Total cost
cost
1 Excavation for collector drain M3 303.5 450 136575

2 Excavation for main drain M3 354.6 450 159570

Present project cost=1,609,888.85 birr

Estimation of Project benefit the Purpose of Irrigation Project is to increase the crop
production in this case all the Agricultural out puts are sold for the assumed life time of the
project which is 20 yrs.
The following table shows the estimated benefit of the project
Present project cost=1,609,888.85 birr
Assume that the annual operation and maintenance cost of the project cost is 15% and
contingency cost is 10% of the initial investment. i.e.
= (0.15*1,609,888.85 birr + 0.1*1,609,888.85 birr /year
Total project cost=241,483.3+160,988.885
=402,472.2Birr
402,472.2 Birr
Total cost per hectare= =4471.9 Birr/ha
90 ha
Project Benefit
Since irrigation schemes are implemented for the purpose of producing agricultural products
through the year the benefit of the project is obtained by assuming as if all the agricultural out
puts obtained are sold for the proposed project life time.

Table 45: Estimation of Project benefit

N Types Are Yiel Price Price Input Laborp Labor M & O Total Profi Total
o of a d Qt/ Birr/ (Birr/ cost(birr er/ha cost/ Cost(bir cost(birr/h tbirr/ Profit(bir
crop (ha) Ha Qt ha) /ha) ha r/ha) a) ha r)

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6=4* 11=(7+9+ 12=(

1 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 10 10) 6- 13=3*12
11)
1 Toma 18 95 350 3325 600 100 4000 250 4850 2840 511,200
to 0 0
2 Potat 25. 100 250 2500 700 90 3600 250 4550 2045 515,340
o 2 0 0
3 Peppe 22. 50 300 1500 650 70 2800 250 3700 1130 254,250
r 5 0 0
4 Onio 15. 80 500 4000 1000 75 3000 250 4250 3575 546,975
n 3 0 0
5 Sugar 9 70 600 4200 850 90 3600 250 4700 3730 335,700
cane 0 0
Total sum of net benefit=2,163,465 birr

(Source: Samira feasibility study)

Total net benefit =24038.5 Birr/ha and

Total project cost=4471.9 Birr/ha

Benefit 24038.5
 = = 5.4>1
Cost 4471.9

Hence, the project is so feasible.

9. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Theenvironmentiscomposedofvarioussystemscomprising ofphysical,biological andsocio-

economic sub systems,whichare subjectedtoconstructionofdevelopment

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works,likewaterresourcedevelopmentprojects.Thesechangesmay shapethe
environmentforthebetterortheworse,whichnecessitatesthattheybeanalyzedin the design of
such projects. Environmental impactassessmentistherefore, asystematic
structuredidentification,prediction, andevaluationoftheenvironmental consequences of
apropose actions.
The impact of the proposed action will be identified by using the existing
environmentasacontrol.Achangeintheenvironmentisthedifference inthe
environmentbetweenthecontrol,theexisting environmentandthenewenvironment, the
alteredcondition caused byaproject.
Whento conduct EIA
EIAshouldbeconductedasearly aspossibleintheprojectandprogramtoinfluence planning,
designing, implementation and operational management. Hence, EIA should be conductedat
all stagesofdevelopment.

9.1 Descriptionof PotentialImpact

Theimpacts of the project are classified in to two groups:-

i. Positive impacts
ii. Negativeimpacts

9.1.1 PositiveEnvironmentalImpactoftheProject

Theimplementation of theproject substantiallychanges themodeof lifeofthe society

astheuserreceivesmoreincomefromintensifiedcropproduction.Asthe resultof the
implementationof the irrigationprojectthefollowingpositive impacts maybe expected.
Increased production
Increasingthe reliabilityofagricultural production
Faminerelief–famine followsdrought.Irrigationhelpsinaltering thedrought to famine.
Rise insocialstandards–withincreasedfood productionandassuredsupplies
offoodandwater,moremoney isavailablewithfarmersandraisestheir standard ofliving.

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Flood control
Socio –Economicimpact

9.1.2 NegativeImpactsoftheProject

Thelikely negativeenvironmentalimpactsastheresultoftheimplementationofthe project

arediscussed in the followingsections.
Organic and inorganic pollution
Pollution ofWaterquality
Publichealth
Waterlogging
Soilerosion
Biological &ecological changes

9.1.3 OrganicandInorganic Pollution

The useof pesticidesandfertilizers toincrease theyieldshouldbe carriedoutwith care

nottoimpairthenormalcondition.Farmersshouldbe givenproperextension
serviceonhowtousechemical fertilizer andother agrochemicalinputstoavoidthe misuse.
On the command area, the prominent fertilizer used are urea and DAP. Some
pesticidesarealsoused.Thiswillbring alsoanincreaseintheuseandgenerationof nutrient organic
compounds and pathogens. This will result in pollution of environmentandwateruse
problems.Thedischarge of drainagewaterpolluted by pesticidesandfertilizersmay
havesomeeffect onthewaterquality ofdomesticwater sourceif theymix.

9.1.4 Pollution ofWaterQuality

Irrigationmay contributetotheproblemofwaterpollutioninvariousways.During construction

period,earthwork activities forconstruction of theproposedconveyance canal and irrigation
infrastructurearelikelytoyield high sediment loads.
Wherea s,duringtheoperationphase,thesedimentrating,downs treamofthedam
willbemuchlowerduetosedimentdeposing in thereservoir.Allthesechangesmay
bringchangesto thewater quality.

9.1.5 PublicHealth

Duringconstruction period therewillbeincreased risk ofthe transmission ofendemic diseases

andsexuallytransmitted diseases including HIV/Aids, due to increased

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Movementandinteractionbetweenthelocalcommunity andtheconstructionforce.
Duringtheoperation ofthe irrigation project, malaria transmission could intensifyand cause
amajor risk to publichealth.

9.1.6 WaterLogging

Throughscientifically notcorrect,farmersthinkthatirrigatingmorewaterwillgive
moreyieldsandthisexcesswatermay percolateintothegroundwaterandraisethe
watertable.Whenthe watertableraise,salinity andwaterlogging occurs.Thiswill degradethe
fertile land.

9.1.7 Biological & Ecological Changes

The observationmade inthe projectarea,the cultivatedland iscoveredwithtrees,

forests,bushes&shrubs.Butwiththe increase offertilelanddemandforfarming&
differentrelatedneedsthisresourceiswillbeendangered.Thisinturn willhavea remarkablenegative
effectontheecologicalattributes.Due totheimplementationof the project in
thefarmer’sarea,theremight bedecreasedgrazingland, hazarded to the willed &domestic animals
to cross largecanals.

9.2 Mitigation Measures

Eventhough,itisnotpossibletoeliminatethe negativeimpactoftheproject,they
havetobeminimizedtocertainthresholdleveltosustainabledevelopment.Therefore; the following
mitigation measures we recommended to reduce the adverse effects.
The MitigationMeasures ofOrganicandinorganic pollution
Establishment of biological, physical &chemical water quality criteria for agricultural
wateruse.
Improvetheawarenessofthecommunityaboutuseoffertilizers&chemicalon waterquality.
Proper design of sewagesfor agricultural water.

The Mitigationmeasures Pollution ofWaterquality

Establishments of biological and physical water quality criterion for

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agricultural wateruse
Improving awareness ofthe community about effect of fertilizersand chemicals on
water quality.
Proper disposal of swages from agricultural wateri.e. well-designed drainagesystem
should be adopted.
The Mitigationmeasures ofPublichealth
Avoidanceof stagnant wateror slowlymoving water
Provision of safewater supply
Sufficient health servicesand vectorcontrol
The Mitigationmeasures ofWaterlogging
Liningof canals and watercourses
Reducingthe intensityofirrigation
Exercisingeconomical and scientificuse of watersystem
The Mitigationmeasures ofBiological & ecologicalchanges
Intimatingaforestationanuncultivatedland,establishlocalforestryagents andcreatetenure
stepupsandallmakeupofthe farmersmindtoawarethe effects and consequent ofdeforestation.

10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

10.1 Conclusions

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Based on the results of this project design the following conclusions can be drawn. As it can be
seen from the background history, it can be concluded that the majority of the soil quality of
water and geology in the project area is suitable for irrigation.
Peak rain fall is estimated using general extreme value frequency analysis method based on 18
years and the data consistency is checked by test outlier is reliable and adequate then heaviest
rain fall data which is recorded in Bokoji station 72.75mm and the peak discharge is estimated
by SCS Curve Number Method 71.94 m3/s.
According the agro industrial input demand of the country, SamiraIrrigation Project is meant to
enhance crop production. Therefore potato, tomato, pepper, onion and sugar cane crops are
selected. Their crop water requirement is worked out by penman monteith method using
CPOPWAT 8.0. The duty is 0.38l/s/haduring the dry season.
Lean flow has been conducted based on the floating method to decide whether storage structure
is provided or not. Therefore the minimum flow at dry season is in the month of at January 135
l/se. Irrigation water demand assessment for the selected crops has been computed being the
CROPWAT8.0software package and the net required scheme water supply is 106.875l/se/ which
is less than the minimum flow of the river and hence no need of night storage structure.
From topographical nature of command area, suitable canal alignment was done and trapezoidal
unlined canal section is selected based on soil criteria .The design of the cross section of the
canal fixed by using B/D ratio. And also different components of canal structures such as
culverts, drops, diversion box, canal out let and an access road were also designed at appropriate
locations.
Based on the peak discharge vertical drop pickup weir and components of head work structure
were also designed and relevant dimensions provided.
Furrow irrigation is the method that can be adopted for given crops. Furrow system is designed
based on soil type and crop type, by providing relevant furrow spacing, furrow slop and furrow
length based on appropriate guide lines and feasibility of design checked by distribution
efficiency and percentage of deep percolation best fit standard value.
In order to create a favorable condition for plant growth, surface drainage system is designed
based on drainage coefficient 11.5mm/day which is obtaining empirical guide line of MAR of 18
years rain fall data.

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The cost of the project is approximately estimated by considering the dimension of the structure
and the materials used for construction of the structure. The approximant cost of the project was
estimated to be1, 609,888.85 ETB. The benefit- cost ratio greater one, therefore the project is
feasible.
The environmental impact assessment for the project area is also well through-out. With the
extension of negative impacts, valuable remedial measures are proposed for each effect.

10.2 Recommendations

To sustain optimal production and safeguard the environment the following recommendations
were made:
Since the rainfall pattern of the project area is unimodal, rain-fed agricultural production once in
a year is not satisfactory to sustain the community necessitates. Accordingly, irrigation project is
very indispensible for the area.
To make efficient use of the project, farmers need to be supported through training and
provision of other services like inputs (fertilizers, agrochemical), extensions, credit, market etc.
To have efficient use of water and to keep the structure operational, establishment of water user’s
association is important.
For the project to give the expected services all the concerned bodies such as farmers, farmer
associations and government agencies need to manage, follow and monitor the whole activities
of the project.
Since most of the canals in the project command area are unlined, frequent maintenance or silt
removal is needed as to make the canals durable.
As there may existence of soil erosion in the command area, afforestation should be made and
thereby sedimentation problem will be decreased.
Design of any irrigation project need technical skills to operate. To have skilled and efficient
workers it is better to give periodical training for easily adoption of new technology systems.
For the project to be feasible and profitable effective marketing system should also be searched.
Because the project site is far fromArba Minch University, the group member has got no
opportunity to visit the site. The data that were used for the project work are obtained from the
feasibility report of the Samira small scale irrigation project, considering this problem it had
better to give opportunity to visit the site for the coming generation.

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REFERENCE

BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 \f 1033 Arora K, R. (1996). Irrigation, Water Power and Water
Resources Engineeringi. Standard publishers distribution: Napa Sarak Delhi.

ARORA, K. (2001). Irrigation, Water power and Water resource Engineering. Neia Sarak Delh:
standard publishers distribution.
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Chow. (1964). Hand Book of Applied hydrology. Mc Graw Hill International book company.

FAO. (1998). Guide lines for computing crop water requirements, Irrigation and Drainage paper,
No.24,56. Rome, Italy.

Garg, S. (1978). Irrigation and hydraulic structures. New Delh: Khanna publishers.

M.Shaw, E. (1994). Hydrology in practice 3rd edition .

Patra K, C. (2001). Hydrology and water resources Engineering. New Delhi: Narosa.

R.Maidment, D. (1992). Hand Book of Hydrology. McGraw Hill international book company
USA.

RAY K.LINSLEY, J. K. (1982). Hydrology for Engineers” , 3rd edition. Mc Graw Hill.

Sharsrabudhe, S. (1994). Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic structure, 6th edition. S.k.
KATARIL.

Subramanya, K. (1984). Engineering hydrology. New Delhi: Mc Graw Hill.

Varsheny, R. (1992). Theory and design of irrigation structures, 6th edition .

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