Lecture #4.
Dr. Salman Harasis
Fall-2021
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Protection
• Protection: is a system that detects a fault and switch the faulty element out of the circuit.
• Typical protection equipment consists of:
1- Current and/or voltage transformers 2- Relays
3- Secondary circuits supplying relays and controlling circuit-breakers 4- Auxiliary power supplies for relays
Protection operation criteria:
1- Fast response 2- High reliability 3- Selective: only the faulty element is switched off.
• Protection of transmission lines: lighting is the most common cause of faults.
• There are four main faults types:
1- Single-phase to ground (75-90%) 2- Multi-phase to ground (5-15%)
3- Multi-phase with no ground (5-10%) 4- Rare faults caused by: insulator breakage, swinging of wires
• Typical transmission lines protection configurations:
1- Differential current protection.
2- Current-phase comparison.
3- Directional comparison.
4- Distance protection.
• Protection of transformers: they must be protected against external faults (mainly
lighting) and internal faults.
Internal faults classification:
1- Inter-phase faults: by differential current protection.
2- Inter-turn faults: by Buchholz protection
3- Inter-winding faults: by Buchholz protection
4- Earth faults on windings: overcurrent relay and thermal relay.
• Protection of busbars: usually protected by distance protection of zone (1) and zone (2).
➢To avoid time delay in zone (2), important substations busbars are equipped with differential
current protection or current-phase comparison.
Protection of generating units
Generator Step-up transformer Unit transformer
-Electrical protection:
1. Differential current.
2. Distance protection.
3. Overcurrent relay for Stator and rotor windings.
4. Protection of loss of excitation,
loss of synchronism, failure of prime mover.
5. Earth faults.
1. Distance protection.
-Nonelectrical protection: 1. Standard protections.
2. Standard protections.
1. Lubrication oil failure.
2. Loss of boiler fire.
3. Over speeding.
4. Rotor distortion.
5. Excessive vibration.
6. Difference in expansion between rotating and
stationary parts.
Protection schemes review
Differential Protection Distance Protection
Voltage Control and Stability
❑Voltage stability is the ability to maintain the voltage so that when load is
increased, load power will increase and so both power and voltage are
controllable. Murty-p350
• Introduction
➢ When analyzing distribution networks, transmission and subtransmission networks are treated as sources operating at a
given voltage.
➢ When analyzing transmission and subtransmission networks, distribution networks are treated as sinks of real and reactive
power and referred to as composite load.
➢ Change in transmission voltage may cause complicated dynamic interaction inside the distribution network due to:
1- transformer tap-changing (Voltage control action) .
2- Control action associated with reactive power compensation and/or small embedded generators.
3- Low voltage causing changes in power demand (motors and lighting shutdown).
4- Operation of protection equipment (under/over voltage relays).
5- Re-ignition of lighting and self-start motors when supply voltage recovers.
Network Loadability
• We can calculate load active and reactive power by phasor diagram.
Re-arrange reactive power equation:
Square both sides:
This is the static power-voltage equation
Part 1 : V-P relation
❑ We have two load types: stiff load and non-stiff load
Stiff Load: has constant power demand and independent of voltage.
where Pn and Qn are the real and reactive power demand of the load at the rated voltage V n.
But Qn = Pn tan ϕ
Simplify
We get
Express in PU by (V/E)
PU
Part 1 : V-P relation
The non-linear behavior of voltage power characteristics
Stability limit
❑ For a lagging power factor (curves 1 and 2) the voltage decreases as the real load increases.
❑ For a leading power factor (curve 4) the voltage initially increases and then decreases.
❑ The difference between a current load and the maximum load determined by the peak of the characteristic is equal to the
stability margin for a given power factor.
❑ for Qn = 0, that is for ϕ = 0, the peak of the nose curve occurs at p = 0.5, that is for Pn = 0.5E2/X = E2/2X .
❑ Nose curves V(P) illustrate the dependency of the voltage on real power of a composite load assuming that PF is a
parameter.
Exercise# 1.1: Apply the “Per unit voltage power equation”(Eq 8.8 on the textbook) on Matlab by sweeping
the PF from 0.4 lag to 0.4 lead in 0.1 step
Part 2 : P-Q relation
• The curves Q(P) discussed below are derived assuming that the voltage is a parameter.
Rearrange
Radius This is a quadratic equation in (V2/X) and has
only one solution when
Solving for Qn gives: inverted parabola
envelope It crosses Pn-axis at Pn = E2/2X and has its maximum
at:
Qn max=E2/4X, Pn=0
➢ The parabola described by the equation defines the shape of the envelope that encloses the possible solutions to the network equation .
➢ Each point (Pn, Qn) on the parabola satisfies one network solution corresponding to only one value of voltage.
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Influence of the Load Characteristics(Non-Stiff Load: the load power depends on the voltage)
In general the less stiff the load, the
more open the solution area.
Stiff Load
Constant active power (Pn) and
Q: What is the difference square function reactive
between Fig. a and Fig. d?
Tradeoff between area
and stiffness Linear function active power and
square function reactive power
Square function active and
reactive power
Absolutely
stable system
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➢ The relation in Fig. d
Sub in yields
the static power-voltage equation
➢ This allows the load to be presented by an equivalent load admittance Yn = Gn + jBn
➢ Varying the value of Pn and Qn from zero to infinity
corresponds to changing the equivalent admittance from zero
(open circuit) to infinity (short circuit).
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