Introduction to Computer Networks

2.1 Introduction
As we are living in the digital era where information is produced and shared across the world
as everything is interconnected through the network. A group of two or more similar things or
people interconnected with each other is called a network as shown in the figure below (Figure
2.1).
Some of the examples of the network in our everyday
life include:
a. Social network
b. Mobile network
c. Network of computers
d. Airlines, railways, banks, hospitals networks

Fig 2.1: Interconnection forming a Social Network

A computer network (Figure 2.2) is an interconnection of two or more computers or computing

devices. Such interconnection allows computers to share data and resources among each other.
A basic network may connect a few computers placed in a room.
The network size may vary from small to large depending on the number of computers it
connects. A computer network can include different types of hosts (also called nodes) like
server, desktop, laptop, cellular phones.

Fig 2.2: A Computer Network

Apart from computers, networks include networking devices like switch, router, modem, etc.
Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings. For
communication, data in a network is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These packets
are then carried over a network. Devices in a network can be connected either through wired
media like cables or wireless media like air.
In a communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can receive, create,
store or send data to different network routes is called a node. In the context of data
communication, a node can be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router, digital
telephone handset, printer, computer, or server.
The interconnectivity of computing devices in a network allows us to exchange information
simultaneously with many parties through an email, websites, audio/video calls, etc. The
network allows sharing of resources. For example, a printer can be made available to multiple
computers through a network; networked storage can be accessed by multiple computers.
People often connect their devices through hotspots, thus forming a small personal network.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the academic and research
institutions located at different places for scientific collaborations. The first message was
communicated between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford
Research Institute (SRI). Slowly but gradually, more and more organizations joined the
ARPANET, and many independent smaller networks were formed. A few of the milestones in
the magnificent journey of evolution of computer networks is depicted in the timeline shown
in Figure 2.3.

Fig 2.3: Timeline showing evolution of networking

2.3. TYPES OF NETWORKS

There are various types of computer networks ranging from networks of handheld devices
(like mobile phones or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within a single room to
the millions of computers spread across the globe. Some are connected wireless while others
are connected through wires.
Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are broadly
categorized as:
•PAN (Personal Area Network)
•LAN (Local Area Network)
•MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
•WAN (Wide Area Network)
2.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)
It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like computers, laptops, mobile
phones, smartphones, printers, etc., as shown in Figure 2.4. All these devices lie within an
approximate range of 10 meters. A personal area network may be wired or wireless. For
example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop through USB forms a wired PAN while two
smartphones communicating with each other through Bluetooth technology form a wireless
PAN or WPAN.
An example of PAN is the computer with attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer
etc. and an example or WPAN which connects the computers or other devices is Bluetooth. It
connects the various components without wires.

Fig 2.4: A Personal Area Network

2.3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a discretely owned network that operates within a single building or nearby area. It is
a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablets, mouse, printers, etc., placed at a
limited distance.
The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from a single room, a floor, or an
office having one or more buildings on the same premise, laboratory, school, college, or
university campus. The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics,
or Wi-Fi. A Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in Figure 2.5.

Fig 2.5: A Local Area Network

LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can access other computers
or shared resources. Users can print documents using a connected printer, and upload/download
documents and software to and from the local server. Such LANs provide short-range
communication with high-speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can be extended
up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite high and usually varies from 10 Mbps (called
Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps stands for Megabits per second.
Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other devices connect with each other
through cables in a local area network or LAN.

2.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger
geographical area like a city or a town. The data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but
it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV networks or cable-based broadband
internet services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be extended up to 30-40 km.
Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to form MAN, as shown in Figure 2.6.

Fig 2.6: A Metropolitan Area Network

10.3.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread across
different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or continents. A WAN
could be formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs (Figure 2.7) via wired/wireless media.
Large business, educational, and government organizations connect their different branches in
different locations across the world through WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that
connects billions of computers, smartphones, and millions of LANs from different continents.

Fig 2.7: Wide Area Network

2.4 NETWORK DEVICES
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks with
different functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch, Repeater,
Router, Gateway, etc. Let us explore them in detail. Modem stands for ‘Modulator
Demodulator’. It refers to a device used for conversion between analog signals and digital bits.
We know computers store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data
from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital data are converted to an
analog signal and the medium (be it free space or physical media) carries the signal to the
receiver. There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes. The modem
at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into analog signals. The
modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog signals into digital
data for the destination node to understand. Figure 2.8 shows connectivity using a modem.

Fig 2.8: Use of modem

10.4.2 Ethernet Card

An Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a network
adapter used to set up a wired network. It acts as an interface between the computer and the
network. It is a circuit board mounted on the motherboard of a computer as shown in Figure
2.9. The Ethernet cable connects the computer to the network through NIC. Ethernet cards can
support data transfer between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address,
which helps in uniquely identifying the computer on the network.

Figure 2.9: A Network Interface Card

2.4.3 RJ45
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector (Figure 2.10), that is used exclusively
with Ethernet cables for networking (four pins are used for sending and receiving the data and
other four pins are used for power networking devices). It is a standard networking interface
that can be seen at the end of all network cables. Basically, it is a small plastic plug that fits
into RJ-45 jacks of the Ethernet cards present in various computing devices.

Fig 2.10: RJ 45

2.4.4 Repeater
A repeater is an analog device used to expand the coverage area of the network by strengthening
a weak signal
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable. These signals can travel a specified
distance (usually about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit and become weak.
In such conditions, original signals need to be regenerated. A repeater is an analog device that
works with signals on the cables to which it is connected. The weakened signal appearing on
the cable is regenerated and put back on the cable by a repeater.

2.4.5 Hub
An Ethernet hub (Figure 2.11) is a networking device used to connect different devices through
wires in a network. Hubs are generally used to connect LAN computers.
A hub has multiple ports or lines. Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all
the other ports, without taking into consideration that whether the data is destined for a
particular node or not. The limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come at the same
time, they will collide.
 Figure 2.11: A network hub with 8 port

2.4.5 Switch
A switch is a networking device (Figure 2.12) that plays a central role in a Local Area Network
(LAN). Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple computers or communicating
devices. When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet
and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet. Thus, it sends signals to only selected
devices instead of sending them to all unlike hub. It can forward multiple packets at the same
time. A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops such signals
and asks the sender to resend them.

Figure 2.12: Cables connected to a network switch

Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices to connect multiple devices thus creating
LANs or accessing the Internet.
2.4.6 Router
A router (Figure 2.13) is a network device that can receive the data, analyze it and transmit it
to other networks. A router connects a local area network to the internet. Compared to a hub or
a switch, a router has advanced capabilities as it can analyze the data being carried over a
network, decide/alter how it is packaged, and send it to another network of a different type.
For example, data has been divided into packets of a certain size. Suppose these packets
are to be carried over a different type of network which cannot handle bigger packets. In such
a case, the data is to be repackaged as smaller packets and then sent over the network by a
router.
 Figure 2.13: A router

A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones
and other devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to provide wired Internet
access. These days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/ switch.
These routers connect to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and
convert them to digital data for computing devices to process.
2.4.7 Gateway
As the term “Gateway” suggests, it is a key access point that acts as a “gate or passage”
between an organization’s network and the outside world of the Internet (Figure 2.14). The
gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or going out of a
network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths.
Besides routing data packets, gateways also maintain information about the host
network's internal connection paths and the identified paths of other remote networks. If a node
from one network wants to communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will pass the data
packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the destination using the best possible route.

Figure 2.14: A network gateway

For simple Internet connectivity at home, the gateway is usually the Internet Service Provider
that provides access to the entire Internet. Generally, a router is configured to work as gateway
device in computer networks. But a gateway can be implemented completely in software,
hardware, or a combination of both. Because a network gateway is placed at the edge of a
network, he firewall is usually integrated with it.
2.5 NETWORKING TOPOLOGIES
We have already discussed that a number of computing devices are connected together to form
a Local Area Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of LANs forms the
Internet. The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its
topology. Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star, and Tree.

Types of
Network
Topology

Mesh Ring Bus Star Tree Hybrid

2.5.1 Mesh Topology

In this networking topology, each communicating device is connected with every other device
in the network as shown in Figure 2.15. Such a network can handle large amounts of traffic
since multiple nodes can transmit data simultaneously. Also, such networks are more reliable
in the sense that even if a node gets down, it does not cause any break in the transmission of
data between other nodes. This topology is also more secure as compared to other topologies
because each cable between two nodes carries different data. However, wiring is complex and
cabling cost is high in creating such networks and there are many redundant or unutilized
connections.

Fig 2.15: A Mesh Topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. It is possible to transmit data from one node to many other nodes at the same time.
 2. The failure of one node does not cause the entire network to fail as there are alternate
paths for data transmission.
3. It can handle heavy traffic, as there are dedicated paths between any two network nodes.
4. Point-to-point contact between every pair of nodes, makes it easy to identify faults.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the
network, many connections serve no major purpose. This leads to redundancy of many
network connections.
2. A lot of cabling is required. Thus, the costs incurred in setup and maintenance are high.
3. Owing to its complexity, the administration of a mesh network is difficult.

10.5.2 Ring Topology

In ring topology (Figure 2.16), each node is connected to two other devices, one on either side,
as shown in Figure 2.16. The nodes connected with each other thus form a ring. The link in a
ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one direction only (clockwise
or counterclockwise).

Figure 2.16: A ring topology

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. The data being transmitted between two nodes passes through all the intermediate
nodes.
2. A central server is not required for the management of this topology.
3. The traffic is unidirectional
4. The data transmission is high-speed.
5. In comparison to a bus, a ring is better at handling load.
6. The adding or removing of network nodes is easy, as the process requires changing only
two connections.
7. The configuration makes it easy to identify faults in network nodes.
8. In this topology, each node has the opportunity to transmit data. Thus, it is a very
organized network topology.
9. It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
2. The movement or changes made to network nodes affect the entire network’s
performance.
3. Data sent from one node to another has to pass through all the intermediate nodes.
4. Transmission of data is slower as compared to star topology.
5. The transmission speed drops with an increase in the number of nodes.
6. There is heavy dependency on the wire connecting the network nodes in the ring.

2.5.3 Bus Topology

In bus topology (Figure 2.17), each communicating device connects to a transmission medium,
known as a bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus and hence are transmitted to
the length of the bus in both directions. That means data can be received by any of the nodes
connected to the bus. In this topology, a single backbone wire called a bus is shared among the
nodes, which makes it cheaper and easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are
considered to be less secure and less reliable.

Fig 2.17: Bus topology

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is easy to set up, handle, and implement.

2. It is best-suited for small networks.
3. It costs very less.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. The cable length is limited. This limits the number of network nodes that can be
connected.
2. This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.
3. When the number of devices connected to the bus increases, the efficiency decreases.
4. It is suitable for networks with low traffic. High traffic increases load on the bus, and
the network efficiency drops.
5. It is heavily dependent on the central bus.
6. A fault in the bus leads to network failure.
7. It is not easy to isolate faults in the network nodes.
 8. Each device on the network “sees” all the data being transmitted, thus posing a security
risk.

2.5.4 Star Topology

In star topology (Figure 2.18), each communicating device is connected to a central node,
which is a networking device like a hub or a switch, as shown in Figure 2.18. Star topology is
considered very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly connected with the central
device. Although disturbance in one device will not affect the rest of the network, any failure
in a central networking device may lead to the failure of the complete network.

Figure 2.18: A star topology

The central node can be either a broadcasting device means data will be transmitted to all the
nodes in the network, or a unicast device means the node can identify the destination and
forward data to that node only.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Due to its centralized nature, the topology offers simplicity of operation.

2. It also achieves isolation of each device in the network.
3. Adding or removing network nodes is easy, and can be done without affecting the entire
network.
4. Due to the centralized nature, it is easy to detect faults in the network devices.
5. As the analysis of traffic is easy; the topology poses lesser security risk.
6. Data packets do not have to pass through many nodes, like in the case of a ring network.
Thus, with the use of a high-capacity central hub, traffic load can be handled at fairly
decent speeds.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Network operation depends on the functioning of the central hub. Hence, central
hub failure leads to failure of the entire network.
2. Also, the number of nodes that can be added, depends on the capacity of the central
hub.
3. The setup cost is quite high.

2.5.5 Tree or Hybrid Topology

It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple branches and each branch can have
one or more basic topologies like a star, ring, and bus. Such topologies are usually realized in
WANs where multiple LANs are connected. Those LANs may be in the form of a ring, bus, or
star. In figure 2.19, a hybrid topology is shown. In this type of network, data transmitted from
the source first reaches the centralized device and from there the data passes through every
branch where each branch can have links for mode nodes

Figure 2.19: A hybrid topology

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be implemented
individually.
2. It is most-suited in networking multiple departments of a university or corporation,
where each unit (star segment) functions separately, and is also connected with the main
node (root node).
3. The advantages of centralization that are achieved in a star topology are inherited by the
individual star segments in a tree network.
4. Each star segment gets a dedicated link from the central bus. Thus, failing of one
segment does not affect the rest of the network.
5. The network can be expanded by the addition of secondary nodes. Thus, scalability is
achieved.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends heavily on
the bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
2. Maintenance is not easy and costs are high.
3. Configuration is difficult in comparison to that in other topologies.
4. Though it is scalable, the number of nodes that can be added depends on the capacity
of the central bus and on the cable type.

2.5.6. Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing network
topologies. These topologies can include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology,
star topology, and tree topology.
Obviously, the advantages and disadvantages of a hybrid topology are a combination
of the merits and demerits of the topologies used to structure it.

2.6 IDENTIFYING NODES IN A NETWORKED COMMUNICATION

Each node in a network should be uniquely identified so that a network device can identify the
sender and receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data. Let us explore further and known
how each node is distinguished in a network.

2.6.1 MAC Address

MAC stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address, also known as the physical or
hardware address, is a unique value associated with a network adapter called a NIC. The MAC
address is engraved on NIC at the time of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent address and
cannot be changed under any circumstances. The machine on which the NIC is attached can be
physically identified on the network using its MAC address. Each MAC address is a 12-digit
hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length), of which the first six digits (24 bits) contain the
manufacturer’s ID called Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later six digits(24bits)
represents the serial number assigned to the card by the manufacturer. A sample MAC address
looks like:
2.6.2 IP Address
IP address, also known as an Internet Protocol address, is also a unique address that can be
used to uniquely identify each node in a network. The IP addresses are assigned to each node
in a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Thus, if we know a computer’s
IP address, we can communicate with that computer from anywhere in the world. However,
unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node is removed from one network and
connected to another network.
The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short), is a 32-bit numeric address, written as
four numbers separated by periods, where each number is the decimal (base-10) representation
for an 8-bit binary (base-2) number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. A sample IPV4
address looks like this:

192:168:0:178
With more and more devices getting connected to the Internet, it was realized that the 32-bit
IP address will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. Thus, a 128
bits IP address, called IP version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address is
represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons. A sample
IPV6 address looks like:

2001: CDBA: 0000:0000:0000: 0000:3257:9652

2.7 INTERNET, WEB, AND THE INTERNET OF THINGS

The Internet is the global network of computing devices including desktops, laptops, servers,
tablets, mobile phones, other handheld devices, printers, scanners, routers, switches, gateways,
etc. Moreover, smart electronic appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light, etc. can also
communicate through a network. The list of such smart devices is always increasing e.g.,
drones, vehicles, door locks, and security cameras. The internet is evolving every day and it is
difficult to visualize of describe each and every aspect of the architecture of the Internet.
Computers are either connected to a modem through a cable or wirelessly (Wi-Fi). That
modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to a local Internet Service Provider (ISP) who
then connects to a national network. Many such ISPs connect together to form a regional
network and regional networks connect together to form a national network, and such country-
wise networks form the Internet backbone.
The Internet today is a widespread network, and its influence is no longer limited to the
technical fields of computer communications. It is being used by everyone in society as is
evident from the increasing use of online tools for education, creativity, entertainment,
socialization, and e-commerce.
2.7.1 The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) or web, in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form
of trillions of interlinked web pages and web resources. The resources on the web can be shared
or accessed through the Internet. Earlier, to access files residing in different computers. One
had to login individually to each computer through the Internet. Besides, files in different
computers were sometimes in different formats, and it was difficult to understand each other’s
files and documents.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee – A British computer scientist invented the revolutionary world wide web
in 1990 by defining three fundamental technologies that lead to creation of web:
•HTML – Hypertext Markup Language. It is a language that is used to design standardized
Web Pages so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer. The basic
structure of every webpage is designed using HTML.
•URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique address or path for each resource located
on the web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Every page on the web has
a unique URL. Examples are:
https://www.mhrd.gov.in, http://www.ncert.nic.in, http://www.airindia.in, etc.
URLis sometimes also called a web address. However, a URL is not only the domain name. It
contains other information that completes a web address, as depicted below:
http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.htm
URL

•HTTP – The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of rules which is used to retrieve linked web
pages across the web. The more secure and advanced version is HTTPS.Many people confuse
the web with the Internet. The Internet as we know is a huge global network of interconnected
computers, which may or may not have any file or webpage to share with the world. The web
on the other hand is the interlinking of the collection of Webpages on these computers which
are accessible over the Internet. WWW today gives users access to a vast collection of
information created and shared by people across the world. It is today the most popular
information retrieval system

2.8 DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

The Internet is a vast ocean where information is available in the form of millions of websites.
Each website is stored on a server that is connected to the Internet, which means each server
has an IP address. Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address. To access a website,
we need to enter its IP address on our web browser. But it is very difficult to remember the
IP addresses of different websites as they are in terms of numbers or strings.
However, it is easier to remember names, and therefore, each computer server hosting a website
or web resource is given a name against its IP address. These names are called the Domain
names or hostnames corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each server. For easy
understanding, it can be considered as the phonebook where instead of remembering each
person’s phone number, we assign names to their numbers. For example, IP addresses and
domain names of some websites are as follows: Table 2.1 Examples of domain names and their
mapped IP addresses
Domain Name IP Address
ncert. nic. in 164.100.60.233
CBSE.nic.in 164.100.107.32
mhrd.gov.in 164.100.163.45
wikipedia.org 198.35.26.96

2.8.1 DNS Server

Instead of remembering IP addresses, we assign a domain name to each IP. But, to access a
web resource, a browser needs to find out the IP address corresponding to the domain name
entered. Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its corresponding IP address is
called domain name resolution. It is done through a server called DNS server. Thus, when we
enter a URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches a computer server called DNS
server to obtain the IP address corresponding to that domain name. After getting the IP address,
the HTTP protocol retrieves the information and loads it in our browser.
In Figure 2.20, an example is shown in which the HTTP requests a DNS server for the
corresponding IP address, and the server sends back an IP address.

Figure 2.20: Request of IP address corresponding to the domain name

A DNS server maintains a database of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. To
understand how the domain name resolution works, we have to understand how and where the
DNS servers are kept. The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order. At the top level, there
are 13 servers called root servers. Then below the root servers, there are other DNS servers at
different levels. A DNS server may contain the IP address corresponding to a domain or it will
contain the IP address of other DNS servers, where this domain entry can be searched.
Summary
•A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing
devices.
•A computer network allows computers to share data and resources with each other.
•Networking devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings. In a
communication network, each device that is a part of a network and that can receive, create,
store or send data to different network routes is called a node.
•Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are broadly
categorized into LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), and WAN
(Wide Area Network).
•LAN is a network that connects a variety of nodes placed at a limited distance ranging from a
single room, a floor, an office, or a campus having one or more buildings on the same premises.
•Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other devices connect with each other
through cables in a LAN.
•Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger
geographical area like a city or a town.
•Cable TV networks or cable-based broadband internet services are examples of MAN.
•Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are
spread across different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or
continents.
•The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones, and
millions of LANs from different continents.
•Modem stands for ‘Modulator Demodulator’, which is a device used for conversion between
electric signals and digital bits.
•Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a network adaptor
used to set up a wired network.
•Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in uniquely identifying the computer on the
network.
•A repeater is an analog device that regenerates the signals on the cables to which it is
connected.
•A switch is a networking device used to connect multiple computers or communicating
devices.
•A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyze it and transmit it to other
networks Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or
going out of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing paths.
•The arrangement of computers and other peripherals in a network is called its topology.
•Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star, and Tree.
•In mesh topology each communicating device is connected with every other device in the
network.
•In a ring topology, each node is connected to two other devices, one each on either side.
•In a bus topology, a single backbone wire called bus is shared among the nodes, which makes
it cheaper and easy to maintain.
•In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central networking device like
a hub or a switch.
•In tree or hybrid topology, there are multiple branches and each branch can have one or more
basic topologies like star, ring, and bus.
•The MAC address, also known as the physical or hardware address, is a unique permanent
value associated with a network adapter called a NIC. It is used to physically identify a machine
on the network.
•IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address, is a unique address that can be used to
uniquely identify each node in a network.
•Unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node is removed from one network and
connected to another network.
•The Internet is the global network of computing devices.
•The Worldwide Web (WWW) or web, in short, is an ocean of information, stored in the form
of trillions of interlinked web pages and web resources.
•Sir Tim Berners-Lee —a British computer scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide
Web in 1990.
•HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is a language that is used to design standardized Web
Pages so that the Web contents can be read and understood from any computer.
•URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) or URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique address
or path for each resource located on the web.
•HTTP – The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a set of rules which is used to retrieve linked web
pages across the web. The more secure and advanced version is HTTPS.
•Each computer server hosting a website or web resource is given a name against its IP address.
These names are called the Domain names or hostnames.
•Conversion of the domain name of each web server to its corresponding IP address is called
domain name resolution. It is done through a server called DNS server.
Exercise
1. Expand the following: a) ARPANET b) MAC c) ISP d) URI
2.What do you understand by the term network?
3.Mention any two main advantages of using a network of computing devices.
4.Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
5.Write down the names of a few commonly used networking devices.
6.Two universities in different States want to transfer information. Which type of network do
they need to use for this?
7. Define the term topology. What are the popular network topologies?
8.How is tree topology different from bus topology?
9.Identify the type of topology from the following:
a) Each node is connected with the help of a single cable.
b) Each node is connected with central switching through independent cables.
10. What do you mean by a modem? Why is it used?
11.Explain the following devices:
a) Switch b) Repeater c) Router d) Gateway e) NIC
12. Draw a network layout of star topology and bus topology connecting five computers.
13. What is the significance of MAC address?
14. How is an IP address different from a MAC address? Discuss briefly.
15. What is DNS? What is a DNS server?
 3.SECURITY ASPECTS

3.1 THREATS AND PREVENTION

Being alone is the most ideal situation for an individual in terms of security. It applies to
computers as well. A computer with no link to an external device or computer is free from the
security threats arising otherwise. However, it is not an ideal solution for a human being or a
computer to stay aloof in order to mitigate any security threats, as the world at present is on its
way to becoming fully connected. This connectedness of various devices and computers has
brought into our focus the various network threats and their prevention.
Network security is concerned with the protection of our devices as well as data from
illegitimate access or misuse. Threats include all the ways in which one can exploit any
vulnerability or weakness in a network or communication system in order to cause harm or
damage one’s reputation. Where as Prevention generally comes before protection and is meant
to avert the threat before it occurs.

3.2 Malware
Malware is a short term used for Malicious software. It is any software developed with the
intention to damage hardware devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble to the user. Various
types of malware have been created from time to time, and large-scale damages have been
inflicted. Many of these malware programs have been identified and countermeasures have
been initiated. However, different types of malware keep on coming on a regular basis which
compromises the security of computer systems and causes intangible damages. Besides, each
year, malware incurs financial damages worth billions of dollars worldwide. Viruses, Worms,
Ransomware, Trojans, and Spyware are some of the kinds of malware.
3.2.1 Virus
The term computer virus was coined by Fred Cohen in 1985 and has been borrowed from
biological science with almost similar meaning and behavior, the only difference is that the
victim is a computer system and a virus is malicious software. A virus is a piece of software
code created to perform malicious activities and hamper resources of a computer system like
CPU time, memory, personal files, or sensitive information. Mimicking the behavior of a
biological virus, the computer virus spreads in contact with another system, i.e. a computer
virus infects other computer systems that it comes into contact with by copying or inserting its
code into the computer programs or software (executable files). A virus remains dormant on a
system and is activated as soon as the infected file is opened (executed) by a user.
Viruses behave differently, depending upon the reason or motivation behind their creation.
Some of the most common intentions or motives behind viruses include stealing passwords or
data, corrupting files, spamming the user’s email contacts, and even taking control of the user’s
machine. Some well-known viruses include Crypto Locker, ILOVEYOU, My Doom, Sasser
and Net sky, Slammer, Stuxnet, etc.
3.2.2 Worms
The Worm is also malware that incurs unexpected or damaging behavior on an infected
computer system. The major difference between a worm and a virus is that, unlike a virus, a
worm does not need a host program or software to insert its code into. Worms are standalone
programs that are capable of working on their own. Also, a virus needs human triggering for
replication (i.e. when a user opens/executes the infected file), while a worm replicates on its
own and can spread to other computers through the network. Some prominent examples of
worms include Storm Worm, Sobig, MSBlast, Code Red, Nimda, Morris Worm, etc.

3.2.3 Ransomware
It is a type of malware that targets user data. It either blocks the user from accessing their own
data or threatens to publish the personal data online and demands ransom payment against the
same. Some ransomware simply blocks access to the data while others encrypt data making it
very difficult to access. In May 2017, ransomware WannaCry infected almost 200,000
computers across 150 countries. It worked by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments
in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. It literally made its victims “cry” hence the name.

Figure 3.1: A ransomware

3.2.4 Trojan
Since the ancient Greeks could not infiltrate the city of Troy using traditional warfare methods,
they gifted the king of Troy with a big wooden horse with hidden soldiers inside and eventually
defeated them. Borrowing the concept, a Trojan is a malware, that looks like legitimate
software and once it tricks a user into installing it, it acts pretty much like a virus or worm.
However, a Trojan does not self-replicate or infect other files, it spreads through user
interaction such as opening an email attachment or downloading and executing a file from the
Internet. Some Trojans create backdoors to give malicious users access to the system.

3.2.5 Spyware
It is a type of malware that spies on a person or an organization by gathering information about
them, without the knowledge of the user. It records and sends the collected information to an
external entity without the consent or knowledge of the user. Spyware usually tracks internet
usage data and sells them to advertisers. They can also be used to track and capture credit card
or bank account information, login, and password information, or the user’s personal identity.

3.2.6 Adware
Adware is malware that is created to generate revenue for its developer. Adware displays
online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or installation screens. Once the adware has
infected a substantial number of computer systems, it generates revenue either by displaying
advertisements or using a “pay per click” mechanism to charge its clients against the number
of clicks on their displayed ads. Adware is usually annoying, but harmless. However, it often
paves way for other malware by displaying unsafe links as advertisements.

3.2.7 Key loggers

A key logger can either be malware or hardware. The main purpose of this malware is to record
the keys pressed by a user on the keyboard. A key logger makes logs of daily keyboard usage
and may send them to an external entity as well. In this way, very sensitive and personal
information like passwords, emails, private conversations, etc. can be revealed to an external
entity without the knowledge of the user. One strategy to avoid the threat of password leaks by
key loggers is to use a virtual keyboard while signing into your online accounts from an
unknown computer.
(A) Online Virtual Keyboard Vs On-Screen Keyboard
The names “on-screen” and “virtual” keyboard refer to any software-based keyboard
and are sometimes used interchangeably. But, there exists a notable difference between
“on-screen” and “online virtual” keyboards. Both types of keyboards may look the
same, but the difference is in terms of the layout or order of the keys. The on-screen
keyboard of an operating system uses a fixed QWERTY key layout which can be
exploited by sophisticated key logger software. However, an online virtual keyboard
randomizes the key layout every time it is used, thereby making it very difficult for a
key logger software to know or record the key(s) pressed by the user.

3.2.8 Modes of Malware distribution

Malware once designed, can take many routes to reach your computer. Some of the common
distribution channels for malware are:
a. Downloaded from the Internet: Most of the time, malware is unintentionally downloaded
into the hard drive of a computer by the user. Of course, the malware designers are smart
enough to disguise their malware, but we should be very careful while downloading files from
the Internet (especially those highlighted as free stuff).
b. Spam Email: We often receive unsolicited emails with embedded hyperlinks or attached
files. These links or attached files can be malware.
c. Removable Storage Devices: Often, the replicating malware targets the removable storage
media like pen drives, SSD cards, music players, mobile phones, etc. and infect them with
malware that gets transferred to other systems that they are plugged into.
d. Network Propagation: Some malware like Worms have the ability to propagate from one
computer to another through a network connection.

3.2.9 Combating Malware

Common signs of some malware infections include the following:
• frequent pop-up windows prompting you to visit some website and/or download some
software;
• changes to the default homepage of your web browser; • mass emails being sent from
your email account;
• unusually slow computer with frequent crashes
• unknown programs startup as you turn on your computer
• programs opening and closing automatically
• sudden lack of storage space, random messages, sounds, or music start to appear
• programs or files appear or disappear without your knowledge.

Malware can be avoided by

1. Using antivirus, anti-malware, and other related software and updating them on a
regular basis.
2. Configure your browser security settings
3. Always check for a lock button in the address bar while making payments.
4. Never use pirated on unlicensed software. Instead, go for Free and Open Source
Software (FOSS).
5. Applying software updates and patches released by its manufacturers.
6. Taking a regular backup of important data.
7. Enforcing firewall protection in the network.
8. Avoid entering sensitive (passwords, pins) or personal information on unknown or
public computers.
9. Avoid entering sensitive data on an unknown network (like Wi-Fi in a public place)
using your own computer also.
10. Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments from unsolicited emails.
11. Scan any removable storage device with antivirus software before transferring data to
and from it.
12. Never share your online account or banking password/pins with anyone.
13. Remove all the programs that you don’t recognize from your system.
14. Do not install an anti-spyware or antivirus program presented to you in a pop-up or ad.
15. Use the pop-up window’s ‘X’ icon located on the top-right of the pop-up to close the
ad instead of clicking on the ‘close’ button in the pop-up. If you notice an installation
has been started, cancel immediately to avoid further damage.
3.3 ANTIVIRUS

An antivirus is software, also known as anti-malware. Initially, antivirus software was

developed to detect and remove viruses only and hence the name antivirus. However, with time
it has evolved and now comes bundled with the prevention, detection, and removal of a wide
range of malware.

3.3.1 Methods of Malware Identification used by Antivirus

a.Signature-based detection
In this method, an antivirus works with the help of a signature database known as “Virus
Definition File (VDF)”. This file consists of virus signatures and is updated continuously on a
real-time basis. This makes the regular update of the antivirus software a must. If there is
antivirus software with an outdated VDF, it is as good as having no antivirus software installed,
as the new malware will infect the system without getting detected. This method also fails to
detect malware that has the ability to change its signature (polymorphic) and malware that has
some portion of its code encrypted.

b.Sandbox detection
In this method, a new application or file is executed in a virtual environment (sandbox) and its
behavioral fingerprint is observed for possible malware. Depending on its behavior, the
antivirus engine determines if it is a potential threat or not and proceeds accordingly. Although
this method is a little slow, it is very safe as the new unknown application is not given access
to the actual resources of the system.

c.Data mining techniques

This method employs various data mining and machine learning techniques to classify the
behavior of a file as either benign or malicious.

d.Heuristics
Often, a malware infection follows a certain pattern. Here, the source code of a suspected
program is compared to viruses that are already known and are in the heuristic database. If the
majority of the source code matches with any code in the heuristic database, the code is flagged
as a possible threat.

e.Real-time protection
Some malware remains dormant or gets activated after some time. Such malware needs to be
checked on a real-time basis. In this technique, the anti-malware software keeps running in the
background and observes the behavior of an application or file for any suspicious activity while
it is being executed i.e. when it resides in the active (main) memory of the computer system.
3.4 SPAM
Spam is a broad term and applies to various digital platforms like messaging, forums, chatting,
emailing, advertisement, etc. However, the widely recognized form is email spam. Depending
on their requirements, organizations or individuals buy or create a mailing list (list of email
addresses) and repeatedly send advertisement links and invitation emails to a large number of
users.
This creates unnecessary junk in the inbox of the receiver’s email and often tricks a
user into buying something or downloading paid software or malware. Nowadays, email
services like Gmail, Hotmail, etc. have an automatic spam detection algorithm that filters
emails and makes things easier for the end users. A user can also mark an undetected
unsolicited email as “spam”, thereby ensuring that such type of email is not delivered into the
inbox as a normal email in the future.

3.5 HTTP AND HTTPS

3.5.1 What is HTTP?

An HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The HTTP protocol provides communication
between different communication systems. When the user makes an HTTP request on the
browser, then the web server sends the requested data to the user in the form of web pages. In
short, we can say that the HTTP protocol allows us to transfer the data from the server to the
client.

An HTTP is a stateless protocol as each transaction is executed separately without

having any knowledge of the previous transactions, which means that once the transaction is
completed between the web browser and the server, the connection gets lost.

3.5.2 What is HTTPS?

The full form of HTTPS is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. The HTTP protocol does not
provide the security of the data, while HTTP ensures the security of the data.

Therefore, we can say that HTTPS is a secure version of the HTTP protocol. This
protocol allows transferring the data in an encrypted form. The use of HTTPS protocol is
mainly required where we need to enter the bank account details.
The HTTPS protocol is mainly used where we require to enter the login credentials.
In modern browsers such as chrome, both protocols, i.e., HTTP and HTTPS, are marked
differently. To provide encryption, HTTPS uses an encryption protocol known as Transport
Layer Security, and officially, it is referred to as a Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). This protocol
uses a mechanism known as asymmetric public key infrastructure, and it uses two different
keys which are given below:
 o Private key: This key is available on the web server, which is managed by the owner of
a website.

It decrypts the information which is encrypted by the public key.

o Public key: This key is available to everyone. It converts the data into an encrypted
form.

3.5.3 HTTP Vs HTTPS

Both the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and its variant HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol Secure) are a set of rules (protocol) that govern how data can be transmitted over the
WWW (World Wide Web).
In other words, they provide rules for the client web browser and servers to communicate.
HTTP sends information over the network as it is. It does not scramble the data to be
transmitted, leaving it vulnerable to attacks from hackers.
Hence, HTTP is sufficient for websites with public information sharing like news portals,
blogs, etc. However, when it comes to dealing with personal information, banking credentials,
and passwords, we need to communicate data more securely over the network using HTTPS.
HTTPS encrypts the data before transmission. At the receiver end, it decrypts to recover the
original data. The HTTPS-based websites require SSL Digital Certificate. The major difference
between HTTP and HTTPS is the SSL certificate. The HTTPS protocol is an extended version
of the HTTP protocol with an additional feature of security.

This additional feature of security is very important for those websites which transmit sensitive
data such as credit card information.
The HTTPS protocol is secured due to the SSL protocol. The SSL protocol encrypts the data
which the client transmits to the server. If someone tries to steal the information which is being
communicated between the client and the server, then he/she would not be able to understand
due to the encryption. This is the main difference between the HTTP and HTTPS that the HTTP
does not contain SSL, whereas the HTTPS contains SSL that provides secure communication
between the client and the server.

HTTP HTTPS
The full form of HTTP is the Hypertext The full form of HTTPS is Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Transfer Protocol Secure.
It is written in the address bar as http://.
It is written in the address bar as https://.
The HTTP transmits the data over port The HTTPS transmits the data over port
number 80. number 443.
It is unsecured as the plain text is sent, which
It is secure as it sends the encrypted data
can be accessible by the hackers. which hackers cannot understand.
It is mainly used for those websites that It is a secure protocol, so it is used for those
provide information like blog writing. websites that require to transmit the bank
account details or credit card numbers.
It is an application layer protocol. It is a transport layer protocol.
It does not use SSL. It uses SSL that provides the encryption of
the data.
Google does not give the preference to the Google gives preferences to the HTTPS as
HTTP websites. HTTPS websites are secure websites.
The page loading speed is fast. The page loading speed is slow as compared
to HTTP because of the additional feature
that it supports, i.e., security.

3.6 Firewall
A computer firewall is a network security system designed to protect a trusted private network
from unauthorized access or traffic originating from an untrusted outside network (e.g., the
Internet or different sections of the same network) to which it is connected (Figure 3.2). A
firewall can be implemented in software, hardware, or both. As discussed earlier, a malware-
like worm has the capability to move across networks and infect other computers. The firewall
acts as the first barrier against malware.

Figure 3.2: A firewall between two networks

A firewall acts as a network filter and based on the predefined security rules, it continuously
monitors and controls the incoming and outgoing traffic. As an example, a rule can be set in
the firewall of a school LAN, that a student cannot access data from the finance server, while
the school accountant can access the finance server.

3.6.1 Types of Firewall

• Network Firewall: If the firewall is placed between two or more networks and
monitors the network traffic between different networks, it is termed a Network
Firewall.
• Host-based Firewall: If the firewall is placed on a computer and monitors the network
traffic to and from that computer, it is called a host-based firewall.
3.7 COOKIES
The term "cookie" was derived from the term "magic cookie" used by Unix programmers to
indicate a packet of data that a program receives and sends it back unchanged. A computer
cookie is a small file or data packet, which is stored by a website on the client’s computer. A
cookie is edited only by the website that created it, the client’s computer acts as a host to store
the cookie.
Cookies are used by websites to store the browsing information of the user. For example, while
going through an e-commerce website, when a user adds items to a cart, the website usually
uses cookies to record the items in the cart. A cookie can also be used to store other user-centric
information like login credentials, language preference, search queries, recently viewed web
pages, music choice, favorite cuisine, etc., which helps in enhancing the user experience and
making browsing time more productive.
Depending upon their task, there are different types of cookies. Session cookies keep track of
the current session and even terminate the session when there is a time-out (banking website).
So, if you accidentally left your e-banking page open, it will automatically close after the time-
out. Similarly, authentication cookies are used by a website to check if the user is previously
logged in (authenticated) or not. This way, you don’t need to login again and again while
visiting different web pages or links of the same website. You might have also noticed that
certain information like your Name, Address, Contact, D.O.B, etc. automatically fills up while
filling an online form. This auto-fill feature is also implemented by websites using cookies.

3.7.1 Threats due to Cookies

Usually, cookies are used for enhancing the user’s browsing experience and do not infect your
computer with malware. However, some malware might disguise as cookies e.g. “super
cookies”. There is another type of cookie known as the “Zombie cookie” that gets recreated
after being deleted. Some third-party cookies might share user data without the consent of the
user for advertising or tracking purposes. As a common example, if you search for a particular
item using your search engine, a third-party cookie will display advertisements showing similar
items on other websites that you visit later. So, one should be careful while granting permission
to any websites to create and store cookies on the user’s computer.

3.8 HACKERS AND CRACKERS

Hackers and crackers are people having a thorough knowledge of computer systems, system
software (operating system), computer networks, and programming. They use this knowledge
to find loopholes and vulnerabilities in computer systems or computer networks and gain access
to unauthorized information. In simple terms, a hacker is a person that is skilled enough to hack
or take control of a computer system. Depending on the intent, there are different types of
hackers. Whereas Crackers are kind of people who break or violate the system or a computer
remotely with bad intentions to harm the data and steal it. Crackers destroy data by gaining
unauthorized access to the network. There works are always hidden as they are doing illegal
stuff.

3.8.1 White Hats: Ethical Hacker

If a hacker uses their knowledge to find and help in fixing the security flaws in the system, it’s
termed a White Hat hacker. These are the hackers with good intentions. They are actually
security experts. Organizations hire ethical or white hat hackers to check and fix their systems
for potential security threats and loopholes. Technically, white hats work against black hats.

3.8.2 Black Hats: Crackers

If hackers use their knowledge unethically to break the law and disrupt security by exploiting
the flaws and loopholes in a system, then they are called black hat hackers.

3.8.3 Grey Hats

The distinction between different hackers is not always clear. There exists a grey area in
between, which represents the class of hackers that are neutral, they hack systems by exploiting
their vulnerabilities, but they don’t do so for monetary or political gains. The grey hats take
system security as a challenge and just hack systems for the fun of it.

Summary
• Threats include all the ways in which one can exploit any vulnerability or weakness in
a network or communication system in order to cause harm or damage one’s reputation.

• Prevention generally comes before protection and is meant to avert the threat before it
occurs.
• Malware is a short term used for Malicious software. It is any software developed with
the intention to damage hardware devices, steal data, or cause any other trouble to the
user.

• A virus is a piece of software code created to perform malicious activities and hamper
resources of a computer system like CPU time, memory, personal files, or sensitive
information.

• The Worm is also malware that incurs unexpected or damaging behavior on an infected
computer system.
• It is a type of malware that targets user data. It either blocks the user from accessing
their own data or threatens to publish the personal data online and demands ransom
payment against the same.

• Trojan is a malware, that looks like legitimate software and once it tricks a user into
installing it, it acts pretty much like a virus or worm.
• It is a type of malware that spies on a person or an organization by gathering information
about them, without the knowledge of the user. It records and sends the collected
information to an external entity without the consent or knowledge of the user.

• Adware displays online advertisements using pop-ups, web pages, or installation

screens.

• A key logger can either be malware or hardware. The main purpose of this malware is
to record the keys pressed by a user on the keyboard.

• An antivirus is software, also known as anti-malware.

• Spam is a broad term and applies to various digital platforms like messaging, forums,
chatting, emailing, advertisement, etc.

• An HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The HTTP protocol provides
communication between different communication systems.

• The full form of HTTPS is Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. The HTTP protocol
does not provide the security of the data, while HTTP ensures the security of the data.

• A computer firewall is a network security system designed to protect a trusted private

network from unauthorized access or traffic originating from an untrusted outside
network (e.g., the Internet or different sections of the same network) to which it is
connected
• A computer cookie is a small file or data packet, which is stored by a website on the
client’s computer.
• A hacker is a person that is skilled enough to hack or take control of a computer system.
 • Crackers are kind of people who break or violate the system or a computer remotely
with bad intentions to harm the data and steal it. Crackers destroy data by gaining
unauthorized access to the network.

Review Questions
1. Why is a computer considered to be safe if it is not connected to a network or Internet?
2. What is a computer virus? Name some computer viruses that were popular in recent years.
3. How is a computer worm different from a virus?
4. How is Ransomware used to extract money from users?
5. How did a Trojan get its name?
6. How does adware generate revenue for its creator?
7. Briefly explain two threats that may arise due to a key logger installed on a computer.
8. How is a Virtual Keyboard safer than an On-Screen Keyboard?
9. List and briefly explain different modes of malware distribution.
10. List some common signs of malware infection.
11. List some preventive measures against malware infection.
12. Write a short note on different methods of malware identification used by antivirus
software.
13. What are the risks associated with HTTP? How can we resolve these risks by using HTTPS?
14. List one advantage and disadvantage of using Cookies.
15. Write a short note on White, Black, and Grey Hat Hackers.