Computer Architecture and Operating Systems
Lecture 5: Dynamic Memory Allocation
Andrei Tatarnikov
atatarnikov@hse.ru
@andrewt0301
Dynamic Memory Allocation
Programmers use dynamic Application
memory allocators (such as Dynamic Memory Allocator
malloc) to acquire VM at Heap
run time.
For data structures whose
User stack
size is only known at
runtime. Top of heap
(brk ptr)
Dynamic memory Heap (via malloc)
allocators manage an area Uninitialized data (.bss)
of process virtual memory Initialized data (.data)
Program text (.text)
known as the heap.
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Dynamic Memory Allocation
Allocator maintains heap as collection of variable
sized blocks, which are either allocated or free
Types of allocators
Explicit allocator: application allocates and frees space
E.g., malloc and free in C
Implicit allocator: application allocates, but does not
free space
E.g. garbage collection in Java, ML, and Lisp
Will discuss simple explicit memory allocation today
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The malloc Package
#include <stdlib.h>
void *malloc(size_t size)
Successful:
Returns a pointer to a memory block of at least size bytes
aligned to an 8-byte (x86) or 16-byte (x86-64) boundary
If size == 0, returns NULL
Unsuccessful: returns NULL (0) and sets errno
void free(void *p)
Returns the block pointed at by p to pool of available memory
p must come from a previous call to malloc or realloc
Other functions
calloc: Version of malloc that initializes allocated block to
zero.
realloc: Changes the size of a previously allocated block.
sbrk: Used internally by allocators to grow or shrink the heap
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malloc Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void foo(int n) {
int i, *p;
/* Allocate a block of n ints */
p = (int *) malloc(n * sizeof(int));
if (p == NULL) {
perror("malloc");
exit(0);
}
/* Initialize allocated block */
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
p[i] = i;
/* Return allocated block to the heap */
free(p);
} 5
Allocation Example
p1 = malloc(4)
p2 = malloc(5)
p3 = malloc(6)
free(p2)
p4 = malloc(2)
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Constraints
Applications
Can issue arbitrary sequence of malloc and free requests
free request must be to a malloc’d block
Allocators
Can’t control number or size of allocated blocks
Must respond immediately to malloc requests
i.e., can’t reorder or buffer requests
Must allocate blocks from free memory
i.e., can only place allocated blocks in free memory
Must align blocks so they satisfy all alignment requirements
8-byte (x86) or 16-byte (x86-64) alignment on Linux boxes
Can manipulate and modify only free memory
Can’t move the allocated blocks once they are malloc’d
i.e., compaction is not allowed
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Performance Goal: Throughput
Given some sequence of malloc and free
requests:
R0, R1, ..., Rk, ... , Rn-1
Goals: maximize throughput and peak memory
utilization
These goals are often conflicting
Throughput:
Number of completed requests per unit time
Example:
5,000 malloc calls and 5,000 free calls in 10 seconds
Throughput is 1,000 operations/second
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Performance Goal: Peak Memory Utilization
Given some sequence of malloc and free requests:
R0, R1, ..., Rk, ... , Rn-1
Def: Aggregate payload Pk
malloc(p) results in a block with a payload of p bytes
After request Rk has completed, the aggregate payload Pk is
the sum of currently allocated payloads
Def: Current heap size Hk
Assume Hk is monotonically nondecreasing
i.e., heap only grows when allocator uses sbrk
Def: Peak memory utilization after k+1 requests
Uk = ( maxi<=k Pi ) / Hk
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Fragmentation
Poor memory utilization caused by fragmentation
internal fragmentation
external fragmentation
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Internal Fragmentation
For a given block, internal fragmentation occurs if payload is smaller
than block size
Block
Internal Internal
Payload
fragmentation fragmentation
Caused by
Overhead of maintaining heap data structures
Padding for alignment purposes
Explicit policy decisions
(e.g., to return a big block to satisfy a small request)
Depends only on the pattern of previous requests
Thus, easy to measure
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External Fragmentation
Occurs when there is enough aggregate heap memory, but no
single free block is large enough
p1 = malloc(4)
p2 = malloc(5)
p3 = malloc(6)
free(p2)
p4 = malloc(6) Oops! (what would happen now?)
Depends on the pattern of future requests
Thus, difficult to measure
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Implementation Issues
How do we know how much memory to free given
just a pointer?
How do we keep track of the free blocks?
What do we do with the extra space when allocating a
structure that is smaller than the free block it is placed
in?
How do we pick a block to use for allocation -- many
might fit?
How do we reinsert freed block?
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Knowing How Much to Free
Standard method
Keep the length of a block in the word preceding the block.
This word is often called the header field or header
Requires an extra word for every allocated block
p0
p0 = malloc(4) 5
block size payload
free(p0)
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Keeping Track of Free Blocks
Method 1: Implicit list using length—links all blocks
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Method 2: Explicit list among the free blocks using pointers
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Method 3: Segregated free list
Different free lists for different size classes
Method 4: Blocks sorted by size
Can use a balanced tree (e.g. Red-Black tree) with pointers within each
free block, and the length used as a key 15
Method 1: Implicit List
For each block we need both size and allocation status
Could store this information in two words: wasteful!
Standard trick
If blocks are aligned, some low-order address bits are always 0
Instead of storing an always-0 bit, use it as a allocated/free flag
When reading size word, must mask out this bit
1 word
Size a a = 1: Allocated block
a = 0: Free block
Format of
allocated and Payload Size: block size
free blocks Payload: application data
Optional
padding
(allocated blocks only)
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Detailed Implicit Free List Example
Unused
Start
of 8/0 16/1 32/0 16/1 0/1
heap
Double-word Allocated blocks: shaded
aligned Free blocks: unshaded
Headers: labeled with size in bytes/allocated bit
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Implicit List: Finding a Free Block
First fit:
Search list from beginning, choose first free block that fits:
p = start;
while ((p < end) && \\ not passed end
((*p & 1) || \\ already allocated
(*p <= len))) \\ too small
p = p + (*p & -2); \\ goto next block (word addressed)
Can take linear time in total number of blocks (allocated and free)
In practice it can cause “splinters” at beginning of list
Next fit:
Like first fit, but search list starting where previous search finished
Should often be faster than first fit: avoids re-scanning unhelpful blocks
Some research suggests that fragmentation is worse
Best fit:
Search the list, choose the best free block: fits, with fewest bytes left over
Keeps fragments small—usually improves memory utilization
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Will typically run slower than first fit
Implicit List: Allocating in Free Block
Allocating in a free block: splitting
Since allocated space might be smaller than free space, we
might want to split the block
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p
addblock(p, 4)
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void addblock(ptr p, int len) {
int newsize = ((len + 1) >> 1) << 1; // round up to even
int oldsize = *p & -2; // mask out low bit
*p = newsize | 1; // set new length
if (newsize < oldsize)
*(p+newsize) = oldsize - newsize; // set length in remaining
} // part of block 19
Implicit List: Freeing a Block
Simplest implementation:
Need only clear the “allocated” flag
void free_block(ptr p) { *p = *p & -2 }
But can lead to “false fragmentation”
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p
free(p)
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malloc(5) Oops!
There is enough free space, but the allocator won’t be able to find it
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Implicit List: Coalescing
Join (coalesce) with next/previous blocks, if they are free
Coalescing with next block
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p
logically
free(p) gone
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void free_block(ptr p) {
*p = *p & -2; // clear allocated flag
next = p + *p; // find next block
if ((*next & 1) == 0)
*p = *p + *next; // add to this block if
} // not allocated
But how do we coalesce with previous block?
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Implicit List: Bidirectional Coalescing
Boundary tags [Knuth73]
Replicate size/allocated word at “bottom” (end) of free blocks
Allows us to traverse the “list” backwards, but requires extra space
Important and general technique!
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Header Size a a = 1: Allocated block
a = 0: Free block
Format of
Payload and
allocated and padding Size: Total block size
free blocks
Payload: Application data
Boundary tag Size a (allocated blocks only)
(footer)
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Constant Time Coalescing
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Block being Allocated Allocated Free Free
freed
Allocated Free Allocated Free
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Constant Time Coalescing (Case 1)
m1 1 m1 1
m1 1 m1 1
n 1 n 0
n 1 n 0
m2 1 m2 1
m2 1 m2 1
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Constant Time Coalescing (Case 2)
m1 1 m1 1
m1 1 m1 1
n 1 n+m2 0
n 1
m2 0
m2 0 n+m2 0
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Constant Time Coalescing (Case 3)
m1 0 n+m1 0
m1 0
n 1
n 1 n+m1 0
m2 1 m2 1
m2 1 m2 1
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Constant Time Coalescing (Case 4)
m1 0 n+m1+m2 0
m1 0
n 1
n 1
m2 0
m2 0 n+m1+m2 0
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Disadvantages of Boundary Tags
Internal fragmentation
Can it be optimized?
Which blocks need the footer tag?
What does that mean?
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Summary of Key Allocator Policies
Placement policy:
First-fit, next-fit, best-fit, etc.
Trades off lower throughput for less fragmentation
Interesting observation: segregated free lists (next lecture)
approximate a best fit placement policy without having to search
entire free list
Splitting policy:
When do we go ahead and split free blocks?
How much internal fragmentation are we willing to tolerate?
Coalescing policy:
Immediate coalescing: coalesce each time free is called
Deferred coalescing: try to improve performance of free by
deferring coalescing until needed. Examples:
Coalesce as you scan the free list for malloc
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Coalesce when the amount of external fragmentation reaches some threshold
Implicit Lists: Summary
Implementation: very simple
Allocate cost:
linear time worst case
Free cost:
constant time worst case
even with coalescing
Memory usage:
will depend on placement policy
First-fit, next-fit or best-fit
Not used in practice for malloc/free because of linear-
time allocation
used in many special purpose applications
However, the concepts of splitting and boundary tag
coalescing are general to all allocators
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Any Questions?
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