Methods and Techniques for Serving on a

Peacekeeping Mission as a UN Military Observer

C O U R S E AU T H O R

Lieutenant Colonel Egil Nordli

Norwegian Army (Rtd)

S E R I E S E D I TO R

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

®
Methods and Techniques for Serving on a
Peacekeeping Mission as a UN Military Observer

C O U R S E AU T H O R

Lieutenant Colonel Egil Nordli

Norwegian Army (Rtd)

S E R I E S E D I TO R

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

®
© 2015 Peace Operations Training Institute. All rights reserved.

Peace Operations Training Institute

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org

First edition: 1997 by LCOL Christian Hårleman

Second edition: April 2006 by LTC Phyllis Mihalas
Third edition: March 2015 by LTC Egil Nordli

Cover Photo: UN Photo #439689 by Martine Perret. Antonio Achille, working with the Military Liaison Office of the UN Mis-
sion for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), looks through binoculars during a ceasefire monitoring patrol in
Oum Dreyga, Western Sahara. 15 June 2010.

The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute (POTI), the
Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. The Peace Operations Training Institute is an
international not-for-profit NGO registered as a 501(c)(3) with the Internal Revenue Service of the United States of America.
The Peace Operations Training Institute is a separate legal entity from the United Nations. Although every effort has been
made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s) disclaim any and
all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other
independent sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy
and doctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may
establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given
topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
Versions of this course offered in other languages may differ slightly from the primary English master copy. Translators make
every effort to retain the integrity of the material.
Methods and Techniques for Serving on a
Peacekeeping Mission as a UN Military Observer

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x

METHOD OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.1 Background History of the UN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 The Purpose and Principles of the UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 The Six Principal Organs of the UN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Roles and Function of the Secretary-General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Key UN Programmes, Agencies, and Commissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

LESSON 2: FRAMEWORK FOR UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS. 25

2.1 The UN Charter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 UN Security Council Resolutions (UNSCR) - Mandates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Principles for UN Peacekeeping Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 International Law and Conventions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) and Status of Mission Agreement . . .
(SOMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Rules of Engagement (ROE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.8 Impact on the UN Peacekeeper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

LESSON 3: UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.1 The Changing Nature of Conflicts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 The Need for UN Peacekeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Principles and Fundamentals of Traditional Peacekeeping. . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Types of UN Peacekeeping Operations – Complex Operations. . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Department of Field Support (DFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.7 Other UN Peace Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

LESSON 4: MULTIDIMENSIONAL UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

(UN INTEGRATED MISSIONS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 Generic Structure of Peacekeeping Operations – Integrated Missions. . . 53
4.2 Function of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General . . . . . .
(SRSG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Integration of Efforts, Cooperation, and Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Chain of Command – Command and Control Policy (DPKO C2 Policy). . 55
4.5 Mission Support Component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6 Military Component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.7 Joint Mission Analysis Centre (JMAC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.8 Joint Operations Centre (JOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.9 Joint Logistics Centre (JLOC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.10 Representation of UN Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.11 Human Rights Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.12 Humanitarian Assistance Component – Office for the Coordination of . .
Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.13 Electoral Component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.14 Security Sector Reform (SSR) Component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.15 Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) Component. . . 61

LESSON 5: UN CIVIL-MILITARY COORDINATION (CIMIC). . . . . . . . . . 65

5.1 The Need for Civil-Military Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Definition and Principles of UN Civil-Military Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3 CIMIC in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.4 Confidence-Building Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.5 Role of the UNMO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
LESSON 6: STRESS MANAGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1 Stress and Stress Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 Types of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.3 Stress Response to a Critical Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.4 Identifying Stress-Related Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

LESSON 7: ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS OF UN

PEACEKEEPERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.1 Code of Conduct. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2 Cultural Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3 Gender and Peacekeeping: UNSCR 1325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.4 Child Protection and Child Soldiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

8.1 UN Security Management and Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Security Responsibilities and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.3 HIV/AIDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.4 Local Medical Threats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.5 Landmines and Explosive Threats: Be Informed and Prepared . . . . . . . 122

LESSON 9: NEGOTIATION, MEDIATION, AND LIAISON. . . . . . . . . . . 125

9.1 Principles of Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.2 Principles of Liaison, Meditation, and Negotiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.3 Preparing for Negotiations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.4 Conducting Negotiations in UN Peacekeeping Operations. . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.5 Working with Interpreters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

LESSON 10: MEDIA RELATIONS AND IMPACT OF MEDIA. . . . . . . . 143

10.1 The Importance of Media Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.2 Peacekeepers’ Actions and the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.3 The Public Information Office (PIO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.4 Speaking to the Media: Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.5 Impact of the Internet and Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
LESSON 11: UNMO DUTIES PART 1 – GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.1 Introduction to UN Military Observer Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.2 Demands on a UN Military Observer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.3 Demographic Study, Social Customs, and Etiquette. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4 Applying Human Rights in a Peacekeeping Environment: The Role of an . .
UNMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

LESSON 12: UNMO DUTIES PART 2 – OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

12.1 Operational Orders, Plans, and Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
12.2 Standard Operating Procedures (SOP): Impartiality and Transparency of . .
Operating Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
12.3 Command and Control Structure (C2 Structure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
12.4 How to Plan, Conduct, and Debrief Operations and Tasks. . . . . . . . . . . 179
12.5 Reports and Reporting Mechanisms as an UNMO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
12.6 Observation Post (OP) Duties and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
12.7 Patrol Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
12.8 Inspection and Search Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.9 Investigation and Verifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.10 Reinforcement, Extraction, and Use of Force (ROEs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.11 Cooperation and Coordination with IOs/NGOs/GOs, Other Agencies, and .
Local Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.12 Do’s and Don’ts of Military Support to Humanitarian Assistance. . . . . . . 185

LESSON 13: UNMO DUTIES PART 3 – SAFETY, SECURITY, AND

FORCE PROTECTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
13.1 Local Threats: Traffic, Demonstrations, and Riots, Fires, and Insecure . .
Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.2 Landmines and Explosive Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.3 Types of Mines, ERW, and IEDs and Methods of Activation. . . . . . . . . . 197
13.4 Local Threats of Explosive Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
13.5 If Caught or Injured in a Minefield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
13.6 Tips and Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
13.7 Abduction/Detention and Hijacking/Hostage Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
13.8 Communication Security: Use of Operational Communication Means and .
Telephones/Cellular Phones/Internet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
LESSON 14: UNMO DUTIES PART 4 – FIELD SKILLS. . . . . . . . . . . . 207
14.1 Use of Radio and Other Means of Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.2 Map Reading and Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
14.3 Techniques for Driving Off-Road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
14.4 Observation and Driving – Use of Night Vision Devices (NVD). . . . . . . . 214
14.5 Basic Life Support, First Aid, and Self-Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
14.6 Basic Hygiene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Appendix A: Sources and Additional References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Appendix B: Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Appendix C: International Phonetic Alphabet and Digits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Appendix D: Procedure Words (PROWORDS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Appendix E: Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Appendix F: Report Writing Style Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Appendix G: Personnel Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Appendix H: List of UN Peacekeeping Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
About the Author. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
End-of-Course Exam Instructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Foreword

It is said that United Nations Military Observers (UNMOs) are “the eyes and the ears of the
Mission”. Their ground-level reporting, observation, and expertise help preserve the integrity of
each United Nations mandate and the relations between peacekeepers and the public they are
meant to serve. However, UNMOs are just one category of UN Military Experts on Mission
(UNMEM). In addition, UNMEM also include UN Military Liaison Officers (MLOs) and UN
Military Advisers (MILADs). This course will serve primarily as an introduction to UN Military
Observers. The functions of UNMLOs and UNMILADs are briefly introduced.

The military component of a UN peacekeeping operation may consist of national military

contingents and/or UNMEM. If a military component is comprised of UNMOs only, consequently,
it may be viewed as a UN Military Observer mission.

Beginning with a strategic-level overview of the United Nations organization and principles, this
course moves through the operational spectrum of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations
(DPKO), and ends at the tactical level of “on the ground” knowledge and skills required for an
individual UNMEM to succeed. In order to prepare individuals and improve their efficiency and
readiness, this course will assist in training UN Military Experts on Mission by enhancing the
general understanding of peacekeeping and by providing specific knowledge of methods and
techniques for serving on a United Nations mission in the function of UN Military Observer.

Established in 1948 in the region comprising Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt and Israel, the United
Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) was the first peacekeeping operation operated
by the United Nations. Since that time, 68 missions, including 16 that are active as of 2014, have
been established. Throughout these missions, UNMOs from many Troop Contributing Countries
(TCCs) have served carrying the Blue Beret. Over the last years, the complexity of UN peacekeeping
operations have put more intensive and extensive demands on UNMOs. The UN Supervision
Mission in Syria (UNSMIS) in 2012 was an example of a very demanding UN Military Observer
Mission. I expect this POTI Course to further enhance the motivation and performance of UNMOs
during their preparations and in the field.

Egil Nordli
Author / Lieutenant Colonel (Rtd)
Norwegian Army

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course author LTC Egil Nordli, you can either
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x | P E A C E O P E R AT I O N S T R A I N I N G I N S T I T U T E
Method of Study

The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this course. Though the student may have alternate
approaches that are effective, the following hints have worked for many.

• Before you begin actual studies, first browse • When you finish a lesson, take the
through the overall course material. Notice the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to
lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what the lesson section and re-read it. Before you
will be involved as you proceed. go on, be aware of the discrepancy in your
understanding that led to the error.
• The material should be logical and
straightforward. Instead of memorizing • After you complete all of the lessons, take time
individual details, strive to understand concepts to review the main points of each lesson. Then,
and overall perspectives in regard to the United while the material is fresh in your mind, take the
Nations system. End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.
• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to • Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve
schedule your time. a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher, you
will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If
• Study the lesson content and the learning
you score below 75 per cent, you will be given
objectives. At the beginning of each lesson,
one opportunity to take a second version of the
orient yourself to the main points. If you are able
End-of-Course Examination.
to, read the material twice to ensure maximum
understanding and retention, and let time elapse • One note about spelling is in order. This course
between readings. was written in English as it is used in the United
Kingdom.

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U N I T E D N A T I O N S M I L I T A R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M ) | xi
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE UN
SYSTEM
 LESSON
1

LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide UN Military Observers (UNMOs) with
1.1 Background History of basic working knowledge of the UN structure, principles, and general
the UN functions of the different organs. By the end of Lesson 1, the student
should be able to meet the following objectives:
1.2 The Purpose and
Principles of the UN
• Outline the background history of the United Nations;
1.3 The Six Principal
Organs of the UN • List the purposes and principles of the UN;
• List the ideals of the people that created the UN; and
1.4 Roles and Function
of the Secretary- • List the six principal organs of the UN and their general functions.
General
Introduction
1.5 Key UN Programmes,
Agencies, and As stated in the UN Charter, one of the most important purposes of the
Commissions UN is “to maintain international peace and security and to that end to take
effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats.”
Peacekeeping provides the UN with one of the means of achieving
international peace and security. It has developed as a pragmatic
response to problems requiring the UN’s actions.
1.1 Background History of the UN
The forerunner of the United Nations was the
League of Nations, an organization conceived
in similar circumstances during the First World
War and established in 1919 under the Treaty of
Versailles to promote international cooperation and
to achieve peace and security. The International
Labour Organization was also created under the
Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated agency of
the League. The League of Nations ceased its
activities after failing to prevent the Second World
War.
The General Assembly at its eighteenth session authorized the Secretary-
The name “United Nations”, coined by United General to install mechanical voting equipment in the General Assembly
Hall on an experimental basis for one year. Checking the electronic
States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was first
system of recording votes is Mr. David B. Vaughan, Under-Secretary of
used in the “Declaration by United Nations” of the Office of General Services. (UN Photo #49876 by Yutaka Nagata, 30
1 January 1942, during the Second World War. November 1964)
Representatives of 26 nations pledged their
governments to continue fighting together against of international relations – from the sovereign
the Axis Powers. equality of States to the prohibition of the use of
force in international relations. The Preamble to the
After the Second World War, representatives of Charter expresses the ideals and common aims of
50 countries met in San Francisco at the United all peoples whose government joined together to
Nations Conference on International Organization form the United Nations:
to draw up the United Nations Charter. Those
delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals “WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED
worked out by the representatives of China, NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the generations from the scourge of war, which
United States from August to October 1944. The twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow
representatives of the 50 countries signed the to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental
Charter on 26 June 1945. Poland, which was not human rights, in the dignity and worth of the
represented at the Conference, signed it later and human person, in the equal rights of men and
became one of the original 51 Member States. women and of nations large and small, and to
establish conditions under which justice and
The United Nations officially came into existence respect for the obligations arising from treaties
on 24 October 1945, when China, France, the and other sources of international law can be
Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United maintained, and to promote social progress and
States, and a majority of other signatories better standards of life in larger freedom,
had ratified the Charter. United Nations Day is
celebrated on 24 October each year. AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance
and live together in peace with one another as
The United Nations Charter good neighbours, and to unite our strength to
maintain international peace and security, and to
The Charter is a basic document to which nations ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the
are signatory. It is also a basic document of institution of methods, that armed forces shall
the United Nations, setting out the rights and not be used, save in the common interest, and to
obligations of Member States and establishing the employ international machinery for the promotion
UN organs and procedures. As an international of the economic and social advancement of all
document, the Charter codifies the major principles peoples,

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 HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR 1.3 The Six Principal Organs of the
EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS. UN
Accordingly, our respective Governments,
through the representatives assembled in the The Charter authorizes the establishment of six
city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their principal organs. These organs are the General
full powers found to be in good and due form, Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and
have agreed to the present Charter of the United Social Council, the International Court of Justice,
Nations and do hereby establish an international the Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat. In
organisation to be known as the United Nations.” addition, there are subsidiary organs, specialized
agencies, and other bodies related to the United
Nations, which, altogether, form the “United
1.2 The Purpose and Principles of
Nations system”.
the UN
The Six Principal Organs of the United Nations
The purposes and principles of the United Nations,
as set forth in the Charter, are as follows:
General
Assembly
Purposes Trusteeship Security
Council Council
• To maintain international peace and security;
• To develop friendly relations among nations
based on respect for the principle of equal rights Secretariat
and self-determination of peoples; International
Court of
• To cooperate in solving international economic, Justice Economic and
social, cultural and humanitarian problems and Social Council
in promoting respect for Human Rights and
fundamental freedoms; and
• To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of
The General Assembly
nations in attaining these common ends.

The General Assembly (GA) is the main

Principles
deliberative organ of the UN. It is composed of
• The UN is based on the sovereign equality of all representatives from all Member States, each
its members; of which has one vote. Decisions on important
questions, such as those on peace and security,
• Members are to fulfil in good faith their charter of
admission of new Members, and budgetary
obligation;
matters require a two-thirds majority. A simple
• They are to settle their international disputes majority is required for decisions on other matters.
by peaceful means and without endangering The General Assembly meets annually in regular
international peace, security, and justice; sessions. Special sessions can be convened at
the request of the Security Council, a majority of
• They are to refrain from the threat or use of force
Members of the UN, or one Member if the majority
against any other state;
of Members concur. An emergency special session
• They are to give the UN every assistance in any may be called within twenty-four hours of a request
action it takes in accordance with the Charter; by the Security Council on the vote of any nine
and Members of the Council or if a majority of Members
concur. Because of the great number of questions
• Nothing in the Charter is to authorize the UN to
that the Assembly is called upon to consider, the
intervene in matters which are essentially within
Assembly allocates most questions to its six Main
the domestic jurisdiction of any state.
Committees:

16 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
• First Committee: Disarmament and International
Security;
• Second Committee: Economic and Financial;
• Third Committee: Social, Humanitarian, and
Cultural;
• Fourth Committee: Special Political and
Decolonisation*;
• Fifth Committee*: Administrative and Budgetary;
and
• Sixth Committee: Legal.

*These committees have responsibilities relating to

UN peacekeeping operations.

Security Council

The Security Council (SC) has the primary

responsibility, under the Charter, for the
maintenance of international peace and security.
The Council has 15 members: five permanent
members (5 P) – China, France, the Russian
The central art piece in the renovated Security Council
Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United Chamber depicts a phoenix rising from its ashes, as a
States – and 10 non-permanent members elected symbol of the world rebuilding itself after the Second
by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Each World War. The art and the renovations of the room are
member has one vote. Decisions on substantive a gift from Norway. (UN Photo #546339 by JC McIlwaine,
matters require nine votes, including the concurring 27 March 2013)
votes of all five permanent members. This is the
rule of “Great Power unanimity”, often referred to Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the
as “veto” power. Under the Charter, all Members of Security Council are:
the United Nations agree to accept and carry out • To maintain international peace and security in
the decisions of the Security Council. accordance with the principles and purposes of
the United Nations;
When a complaint concerning a threat to peace
is brought before it, the Council’s first action is • To investigate any dispute or situation which
usually to recommend that the parties try to reach might lead to international friction;
an agreement by peaceful means. It may also • To recommend methods of adjusting such
set principles for a peaceful settlement. When a disputes or the terms of settlement;
dispute leads to fighting, the Council’s first concern
is to bring it to an end as soon as possible. The • To formulate plans for the establishment of a
Council usually issues ceasefire directives, which system to regulate armaments;
prevent wider hostilities. The Council also sends • To determine the existence of a threat to the
United Nations peacekeeping forces to help reduce peace or act of aggression and to recommend
tensions in troubled areas, keep opposing forces what action should be taken;
apart, and create conditions of calm in which
peaceful settlements may be sought. The Council • To call on Members to apply economic sanctions
may also decide on enforcement measures, and other measures not involving the use of
economic sanctions (such as trade embargoes), or force to prevent or stop aggression;
collective military action. • To take military action against an aggressor;

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 The United Nations System
Principle Organs

General Security Economic and International Trusteeship

Secretariat
Assembly Council Social Council Court of Justice Council5

Subsidiary Bodies Subsidiary Bodies Departments and Offices

Main and other sessional Counter-terrorism EOSG Executive Office of the
Functional Commissions
committees committees Secretary-General
Disarmament Commission International Criminal Crime Prevention DESA Department of Economic and
Human Rights Council Tribunal for and Criminal Justice Social Affairs
International Law Commission Rwanda (ICTR) Narcotic Drugs DFS Department of Field Support
Standing committees International Criminal Population and Development DGACM Department for General
and ad hoc bodies Tribunal for the former Science and Technology Assembly and Conference
Yugoslavia (ICTY) for Development Management
Military Staff Committee Social Development Statistics DM Department of Management
Programmes and Funds
Peacekeeping operations Status of Women DPA Department of Political Affairs
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development DPI Department of Public
and political missions
Trade and Development United Nations Forum on Forests Information
Sanctions committees
• ITC International Trade Centre DPKO Department of Peacekeeping
(ad hoc) Regional Commissions
(UNCTAD/WTO) Operations
Standing committees
UNDP United Nations Development ECA Economic Commission DSS Department of Safety and
and ad hoc bodies
Programme for Africa Security
•UNCDF United Nations Capital ECE Economic Commission OCHA Office for the Coordination
Development Fund for Europe of Humanitarian Affairs
•UNV United Nations Volunteers ECLAC Economic Commission OHCHR Office of the United Nations
UNEP United Nations Environment Advisory for Latin America and High Commissioner for Human
Programme Subsidiary Body the Caribbean Rights
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund ESCAP Economic and Social OIOS Office of Internal Oversight
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human UN Peacebuilding Commission for Asia and Services
Settlements Programme Commission the Pacific OLA Office of Legal Affairs
UNHCR Office of the United Nations High ESCWA Economic and Social OSAA Office of the Special Adviser
Commissioner for Refugees Commission for Western Asia on Africa
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund OSRSG/CAAC Office of the Special
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs Other Bodies
Representative of the Secretary-
and Crime Committee for Development Policy General for Children and Armed
UNRWA1 United Nations Relief and Committee of Experts on Conflict
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in Public Administration UNODA Office for Disarmament
the Near East Committee on Non-Governmental Affairs
UN-Women United Nations Entity for Gender Organizations UNOG United Nations Office at
Equality and the Empowerment of Women Permanent Forum on Geneva
WFP World Food Programme Indigenous Issues UN-OHRLLS Office of the High
United Nations Group of Experts Representative for the Least
Research and Training Institutes
on Geographical Names Developed Countries, Landlocked
UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime Other sessional and standing Developing Countries and Small
and Justice Research Institute Specialized Agencies4 committees and expert, Island Developing States
UNIDIR1 United Nations Institute ad hoc and related bodies UNON United Nations Office at
ILO International Labour
for Disarmament Research Nairobi
Organization
UNITAR United Nations Institute for UNOV United Nations Office at
FAO Food and Agriculture
Training and Research Vienna
Organization of the United IMF International Monetary Fund
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute
Nations ICAO International Civil
for Social Development NOTES:
UNESCO United Nations Aviation Organization
UNSSC United Nations System Staff College 1 UNRWA and UNIDIR report only to the General
Educational, Scientific and IMO International Maritime
UNU United Nations University Assembly.
Cultural Organization Organization 2 IAEA reports to the Security Council and the
Other Entities WHO World Health Organization ITU International General Assembly.
World Bank Group Telecommunication Union 3 WTO has no reporting obligation to the General
UNAIDS Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS
•IBRD International Bank UPU Universal Postal Union Assembly (GA) but contributes on an ad-hoc ba-
UNISDR United Nations International sis to GA and ECOSOC work inter alia on finance
for Reconstruction and WMO World Meteorological
Strategy for Disaster Reduction and developmental issues.
Development Organization
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project 4 Specialized agencies are autonomous orga-
•IDA International WIPO World Intellectual
Services nizations working with the UN and each other
Development Association Property Organization through the coordinating machinery of ECOSOC
•IFC International Finance IFAD International Fund at the intergovernmental level, and through the
Related Organizations Corporation for Agricultural Development Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB) at
CTBTO PrepCom Preparatory Commission •MIGA Multilateral Invest UNIDO United Nations the inter-secretariat level. This section is listed in
ment Guarantee Agency Industrial Development order of establishment of these organizations as
for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban specialized agencies of the United Nations.
Treaty Organization •ICSID International Centre Organization 5 The Trusteeship Council suspended operation
IAEA2 International Atomic Energy Agency for Settlement of UNWTO World Tourism on 1 November 1994 with the independence of
OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Investment Disputes Organization Palau, the last remaining United Nations Trust
Chemical Weapons Territory, on 1 October 1994.
WTO3 World Trade Organization
This is not an official document of the United Nations, nor is it intended to be all-inclusive.

18 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
• To recommend the admission of new Members; The Court is open to all states that are parties to its
Statute. These include all Members of the United
• To exercise the trusteeship functions of the
Nations and Switzerland. Only states may be
United Nations in “strategic areas”; and
parties in contentious cases and submit disputes to
• To recommend to the General Assembly the the Court. The Court is not open to private persons
appointment of the Secretary-General and, and entities or international organizations.
together with the Assembly, to elect the judges of
the International Court of Justice. The General Assembly and the Security Council
can ask the Court for an advisory opinion on any
Economic and Social Council legal question. Other organs of the United Nations
and the specialized agencies, when authorized by
The Charter established the Economic and Social the Assembly, can ask for advisory opinions on
Council (ECOSOC) as the principal organ to legal questions within the scope of their activities.
coordinate the economic, social, and related work
of the United Nations and the specialized agencies The Trusteeship Council
and institutions known as the United Nations family
of organizations. Some of the functions and powers The Charter established the Trusteeship Council
of the Economic and Social Council are: in 1945 to provide international supervision for 11
Trust Territories placed under the administration of
• To serve as the central forum for the discussion
seven Member States,and to ensure that adequate
of international economic and social issues
steps were taken to prepare the Territories for
of a global or inter-disciplinary nature and the
self-government or independence. The Charter
formulation of policy recommendations on those
authorized the Trusteeship Council to examine and
issues addressed to Member States and to the
discuss reports from the Administering Authority
United Nations system;
on the political, economic, social and educational
• To make or initiate studies and reports and make advancement of the peoples of Trust Territories;
recommendations on international economic, to examine petitions from the Territories; and to
social, cultural, educational, health, and related undertake special missions to the Territories.
matters; and
By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained
• To promote respect for and observance of
self-government or independence, either as
human rights and fundamental freedom.
separate states or by joining neighbouring
independent countries. The last to do so was
Today, the ECOSOC includes 54 members
the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau),
with one vote each. Of these 54 members, 18
which became the 185th Member State. Its work
members are elected each year and serve for a
completed, the Trusteeship Council – consisting
three-year term. The Council meets in an annual
of the five permanent members of the Security
five-week session alternating between New York
Council – has amended its rules of procedure to
and Geneva. The Council is not a decision-making
meet as and where occasion may require.
body. Members of ECOSOC prepare items for the
GA’s decisions and assist the Security Council
The Secretariat
when so required.
The Secretariat is the administrative organ of
International Court of Justice
Member States and is staffed by international
servants. It works in duty stations around the
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the
world and carries out the diverse day-to-day work
principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It
of the organization. It services the other principal
settles legal disputes between states and gives
organs of the United Nations and administers the
advisory opinions to the United Nations and its
programmes and policies laid down by them. At its
specialized agencies. Its Statute is an integral part
head is the Secretary-General, who is appointed by
of the United Nations Charter.

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 1.4 Roles and Function of the
Secretary-General
The Charter describes the Secretary-General as
“chief administrative officer” of the organization,
who shall act in that capacity and perform “such
other functions as are entrusted” to him or her
by the Security Council, General Assembly,
Economic and Social Council and other United
Nations organs. The Charter also empowers the
Secretary-General to “bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter which in his opinion
may threaten the maintenance of international
peace and security.” These guidelines both define
[Former] Secretary-General Kofi Annan (right) meets Secretary- the powers of the office and grant it considerable
General Ban Ki-moon [while he was Secretary-General-designate] at UN scope for action. The Secretary-General would fail
Headquarters. (UN Photo #133018 by Mark Garten, 22 November 2006)
if he did not take careful account of the concerns
of Member States. In addition, he must uphold the
the General Assembly on the recommendation of
values and moral authority of the United Nations,
the Security Council for a five-year renewable term.
always speaking and acting for peace, even at
risk of challenging or disagreeing with those same
The duties carried out by the Secretariat are
Member States.
as varied as the problems dealt with by the
United Nations. These range from administering
This creative tension accompanies the
peacekeeping operations to mediating international
Secretary-General through day-to-day work,
disputes, from surveying economic and social
which includes attendance at sessions of United
trends and problems to preparing studies on
Nations bodies; consultations with world leaders,
human rights and sustainable development. As
government officials and others; and worldwide
international civil servants, staff members and
travel intended to keep him in touch with the
the Secretary-General answer to the United
peoples of Member States and informed about the
Nations alone for their activities, and they take
vast array of issues of international concern that
an oath not to seek or receive instructions from
are on the organization’s agenda. Each year, the
any government or outside authority. Under the
Secretary-General issues a report on the work of
Charter, each Member State undertakes to respect
the organization that appraises its activities and
the exclusively international character of the
outlines future priorities.
responsibilities of the Secretary-General and the
staff and to refrain from seeking to influence them
The Secretary-General is best known to the
improperly in the discharge of their duties.
general public for using his stature and impartiality
to prevent international disputes from arising,
The Secretariat is divided into several major
escalating, or spreading. Each Secretary-General
organizational units, each of which is headed by
also defines his role within the context of his
an Under-Secretary-General or an official of an
particular time in office.
equivalent level.

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UN Secretary-General 1.5 Key UN Programmes, Agencies,
and Commissions
Mr. Ban Ki-moon of South Korea is the eighth
Secretary-General of the United Nations. He began Peacekeepers may encounter some of the UN’s
his first term in 2007. On 21 June 2011, he was programmes, agencies or commissions working
unanimously appointed by the General Assembly in connection with or as a part of a peacekeeping
for a second five-year term. operation. The most common ones include:

Under the Charter, the Secretary-General is • UNHCR – Office of the United Nations High
appointed by the General Assembly upon the Commissioner for Refugees, which is voluntarily
recommendation of the Security Council. Mr. Ban’s financed. It extends international protection to
predecessors were as follows: more than 10 million refugees, seeking to ensure
that they receive asylum and favourable legal
• Kofi Annan (Ghana), January 1997 - December status in their asylum country.1
2006
• UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund,
• Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt), January 1992 - which is voluntarily financed. It helps developing
December 1996 countries, at their request, to improve the
• Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru), January 1982 - quality of life of their children through low-cost
December 1991 community-based services in maternal and child
health, nutrition, sanitation and education, as
• Kurt Waldheim (Austria), January 1972 - well as emergency relief.
December 1981
• UNDP – United Nations Development
• U Thant (Myanmar), November 1961 - December Programme, the world’s largest channel for multi-
1971 lateral technical and pre-investment assistance
• Dag Hammmarskjold (Sweden), April 1953 - to developing countries. It has supported more
September 1961 than 6,000 ongoing projects in 177 countries.2

• Trygve Lie (Norway), February 1946 - • WFP – World Food Programme, the world’s
November 1952 largest international food aid organization. It is
responsible for handling annually around 3.1
Mr. Ban’s many priorities while serving as million metric tons of food aid.3 WFP’s mandate
Secretary-General include initiatives to address is to help poor people in developing countries by
global warming, prevention of and response to combating world hunger and poverty.
pandemics, access to clean water and food for
the world’s poorest, energy consumption and
production, and economic stability. He credits
witnessing the United Nations’ efforts in post-war
South Korea with inspiring him to dedicate himself
to public service. He is quoted as saying, “As
Secretary-General, I am determined to see this
Organization deliver tangible, meaningful results
that advance peace, development, and human
rights.”

1 UNHCR, “Refugee Figures.” <www.unhcr.org/

pages/49c3646c1d.html>.
2 UN Development Programme, “Our Projects.”
<http://open.undp.org/#2015>.
3 World Food Programme, “Refugee Figures.”
<http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/
documents/communications/wfp265227.pdf>.

L E S S O N 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E U N S Y S T E M | 21
End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. The purpose of the UN is to promote: 5. List and briefly discuss the six principal
A. International security alliances and weapons organs of the UN.
sharing among nations;
B. Cooperation in solving international problems 6. The principal judicial organ of the UN is the:
and a centre for harmonizing the actions of A. General Assembly;
nations;
B. Congress of the UN;
C. Annual competitions among states;
C. International Court of Justice;
D. All of the above.
D. Supreme Court of the Hague.

2. The Secretary-General:
7. The International Court of Justice (ICJ):
A. Is the chief administrative officer of the United
A. Provides international supervision for 11 Trust
Nations;
Territories;
B. Brings any matter which threatens international
B. Provides advisory opinions on legal questions
peace and security to the attention of the
to the other UN organs;
Security Council;
C. Is the administrative organ of Member States;
C. Is impartial;
D. Is the principal organ to coordinate the
D. All of the above.
economic, social, and related work of the UN.

3. Select the statement that describes the

8. Give a brief description of the UNHCR.
General Assembly.
A. It is the main deliberate organ of the UN for all
Member States; 9. Give a brief description of UNICEF.
B. It consists of countries with GNPs higher than
$2B to vote; 10. Give a brief description of the UNDP.
C. It consists of countries that each have two
votes;
D. None of the above.

4. The Security Council has the primary

responsibility, under the Charter, to:
A. Maintain international peace and security;
B. Serve as the central forum for the discussion of
international economic and social issues;
C. Monitor the World Health Organization;
D. Create laws for Member nations.

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
 ANSWER KEY
1B, 2D, 3A, 4A,

5. Trusteeship Council; General Assembly; Security

Council; International Court of Justice; Economic and
Social Council; Secretariat,

6C, 7B,

8. Office of the UN High Commissioner for

Refugees, voluntarily financed extends international
protection to more than 10 million refugees, seeking to
ensure that they receive asylum and favourable legal
status in their asylum country,

9. UN Children’s Fund, voluntarily financed, helps

developing countries, at their request, to improve the
quality of the life of their children through low cost
community based services in maternal and child
health, nutrition, sanitation and education, as well as
emergency relief,

10. UN Development Programme, the world’s largest

channel for multi-lateral technical and pre-investment
assistance to developing countries, is supporting over
6,000 projects in some 170 countries.

L E S S O N 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E U N S Y S T E M | 23
LESSON 2
FRAMEWORK FOR UN
PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
 LESSON
2

LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide peacekeepers with the basic
2.1 The UN Charter information of the legal framework of United Nations Peacekeeping
2.2 UN Security Council Operations. By the end of Lesson 2, the student should be able to meet
the following objectives:
Resolutions (UNSCR) –
Mandates
• List the process by which the UN initiates a peacekeeping operation;
2.3 Principles for UN
Peacekeeping • Briefly state the concept of a mandate;
Operations • Describe the legal framework for UNPKOs;

2.4 International Law and • Explain the concept of UN Rules of Engagement (ROE); and
Conventions • Describe the impact of the legal framework on personal behaviour.

2.5 Status of Forces

Agreement (SOFA) Introduction
and Status of Mission All United Nations peacekeeping operations are legitimate. Their
Agreement (SOMA) legitimacy derives from the fact that they are established by a mandate
of the Security Council. Furthermore, the respect and successful
2.6 Memorandum of implementation of the mandate requires the support and approval of all
Understanding (MOU) the actors involved in the peacekeeping operation.

2.7 Rules of Engagement On the basic level, it is essential that UNMOs and peacekeepers of
(ROE) all nations, whether military, civilian police, or civilian, understand and
2.8 Impact on the UN
Peacekeeper
respect the legal framework for UN peacekeeping
operations (PKO). The conduct of each individual
represents the United Nations, and any misconduct
or mistake at the tactical level may greatly affect
the operation. There are many examples of failures
produced as a result of different interpretations
of a mandate or other legal issues. Furthermore,
many of the aspects of peacekeeping operations
have a legal context, and these deal with many
of the elements of complex interventions: conflict
and war; military intervention by the UN or
coalitions; use of force in peace operations; status
of individuals and of forces in peace operations;
refugees; internally displaced persons; international
aid workers; and NGOs working in the field. Award ceremony at UN HQ for 43 military and police officers from
27 countries who served for more than 90 days in the Department of
Thus, the knowledge of the legal framework is Peacekeeping Operations and received peacekeeping medals from Jean-
a critical issue to include in all pre-deployment Marie Guéhenno, Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations.
(UN Photo #146235 by Eskinder Debebe, 30 May 2007)
training for UNPKOs and UNMOs.
Peace Enforcement
2.1 The UN Charter
This is authorized under Chapter VII, entitled
The Charter of the United Nations is the main legal “Action with respect to threats to the peace,
document that states its organization and missions. breaches of the peace and acts of aggression.”
The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945. During The consent of the state or parties is not required.
the years since its signature, many amendments It is the only legal context for intervention. In some
have been added to it. The UN Charter does not circumstances, the UN will delegate the authority to
mention “peacekeeping” or “peace enforcement”. a regional organization, such as NATO.
These types of operations have developed to
address particular circumstances in the latter half Today’s peacekeeping missions may contain
of the 20th Century. The level of consent of the elements of both Chapter VI and Chapter VII
parties involved in the conflict has an effect on the in their mandate, as in the case of MONUC’s
intervention and the legal aspects of the mandate. mandate, which is as follows:
It is also the mandate that provides the legal basis • To monitor the implementation of the Ceasefire
for intervention. Agreement and investigate violations of the
ceasefire;
Peacekeeping
• To establish and maintain continuous liaison with
Peacekeeping is mandated under Chapter VI the headquarters of all the parties military forces;
and requires consent of the state(s) into which • To develop, within 45 days of adoption of
the UN force deploys. In short, there has to be a Resolution 1291, an action plan for the overall
“peace to keep”.1 Therefore, there will normally be implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement
a ceasefire in operation, and the situation will be by all concerned with particular emphasis on
relatively benign. Peacekeepers and UNMOs must the following key objectives: the collection
remain impartial toward all the parties involved. The and verification of military information on
posture of the UN peacekeeping force is reflected the parties forces; the maintenance of the
in the Rules of Engagement (ROE), which will cessation of hostilities and the disengagement
normally only allow for self-defence. and redeployment of the parties’ forces; the
comprehensive disarmament, demobilization,
1 DPKO. Success in Peacekeeping. <http://www. resettlement and reintegration of all members of
un.org/en/peacekeeping/operations/success.shtml>

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 all armed groups referred to in Annex A, Chapter • To deploy mine action experts to asses the
9.1 of the Ceasefire Agreement; and the orderly scope of the mine and unexploded ordnance
withdrawal of all foreign forces; problems, coordinate the initiation of the mine
action activities, develop a mine action plan, and
• To work with the parties to obtain the release
carry out emergency mine action activities as
of all prisoners of war, military captives and
required in support of its mandate.
remains in cooperation with international
humanitarian agencies;
Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the
• To supervise and verify the disengagement and United Nations, the Security Council also decided
redeployment of the parties’ forces; that MONUC may take the necessary action, in the
areas of deployment of its infantry battalions and as
• Within its capabilities and areas of deployment,
it deems it within its capabilities, to protect United
to monitor compliance with the provision of
Nations and co-located JMC personnel, facilities,
the Ceasefire Agreement on the supply of
installations and equipment, ensure the security
ammunition, weaponry and other war-related
and freedom of movement of its personnel, and
materiel to the field, including to all armed groups
protect civilians under imminent threat of physical
referred to in Annex A, Chapter 9.1;
violence.

2.2 UN Security Council Resolutions

(UNSCR) – Mandates
The UNSCR will indicate the type of peace
operation that it authorizes in its own language.
For example, peacekeeping will mention the peace
that is to be kept by reference to any agreement
that exists. Peace enforcement will mention that it
is authorized under Chapter VII of the UN Charter
and will generally include the phrase “all necessary
measures”. Thereafter, the UN Secretary-General
will put his plan together and appoint his Special
Representative (SRSG) and the Force Commander
(FC).
Antonio Achille, working with the Military Liaison Office of the UN
Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), looks through
binoculars during a ceasefire monitoring patrol in Oum Dreyga, Western The main actors are the Security Council, the
Sahara.(UN Photo #439689 by Martine Perret, 15 June 2010) General Assembly, and the Secretary-General.
The mandate is a negotiated document, which
• To facilitate humanitarian assistance and gives the guidance and context of the peace
human rights monitoring, with particular operation. The Security Council is the authority
attention to vulnerable groups including women, for mandating and terminating UN peacekeeping
children and demobilized child soldiers, as operations. The mandate and the mission are
MONUC deems within its capabilities and central to all peacekeepers and UNMOs. It is a
under acceptable security conditions, in close document that comes directly from the Security
cooperation with other United Nations agencies, Council Resolutions. It will normally be quite
related organizations and non-governmental specific as to the tasks to be undertaken and will
organizations; translate readily in missions to each component
of the mission. As the mandate is a document
• To cooperate closely with the Facilitator of the made by consensus, it may sometimes require
National Dialogue, provide support and technical an analysis by the Special Representative of the
assistance to him, and coordinate other United Secretary-General (SRSG) in order to produce
Nations agencies’ activities to this effect; a refined mission statement. The mandate

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
will determine the degree of force that can be 2.4 International Law and
used to execute the mission and provide for the Conventions
self-defence of individuals, protected personnel,
and the units deployed in the operation. Legal aspects that may impact UN peacekeeping
derive from a number of elements, including:
2.3 Principles for UN Peacekeeping • Legal issues that flow from the UN Charter and
Operations the Mandate, such as:
- Legitimacy;
The following principles apply to the entire structure - Consent; and
of the operation, from UNHQ in New York to the
- Use of Force.
smallest element of the mission.
• Legal issues that flow from International Law:
Legitimacy - International Humanitarian Law;
- International Conventions;
Legitimacy derives from international support,
- Law of Armed Conflicts; and
adherence to statuary law, and conventions and
credibility of the mission. Composition of the - Human Rights Law.
mission, including personnel from a wide range • Elements of National Law, such as:
of states, reinforces legitimacy. In addition, the - Military Law; and
mission should have a clear and achievable
- Domestic and Criminal Law.
mandate and act within international and national
laws, conventions, and rules provided in the • Specific legal documents that are related to the
mandate. United Nations and Member States’ participation
in UN peacekeeping:
Consent - Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA);
- Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA);
In the mission area, the consent refers to
- Convention on the Privileges and Immunities
acceptance of activities by the UN Force by
of the UN (1946);
all recognized parties in the conflict. In today’s
- Secretary-General’s “Bulletin on the
environment consent becomes fragile. A party may
Application of International Humanitarian
also withdraw its consent for the mission.
Law on UN Peacekeeping Forces” (1999)
and UN Convention on the Safety of UN and
Impartiality and Neutrality
Associated Personnel (1994); and
A UN force must be impartial in character. A careful - Troop-Contributing Agreements or
distinction should be made here. Impartiality deals Memorandum of Understanding (MOU).
with actions and the equal treatment of both sides
in a conflict. However, neutrality is a political or The Status of Forces may be further impacted by:
diplomatic position. • International Tribunals;

Use of Force • International Criminal Court;

• Human Rights law;
In peacekeeping operations, force will not be used
to carry out the mandate. The use of it would be • Evolving Common Law; and
considered an enforcement action under Chapter • Landmines treaties.
VII of the UN Charter. However, the non-use
of force does not exclude the defence of UN The impact of the legal framework varies from
personnel. The use of force should be clearly mission to mission, in accordance with many
defined in the Rules of Engagement (ROE). variables. For example, Human Rights Law is
applicable in peace, conflict, and peace restoration,

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while International Humanitarian Law applies on mission” status, which gives them certain
uniquely to conflict. In peacekeeping, the UN is immunities, e.g., from arrest or detention.
not usually part of the conflict. Therefore, the UN
is not party to International Humanitarian Law The privileges include:
Conventions.
• Juridical personality;
Laws Protecting UN Service Personnel • Immunity of property assets; and
• Inviolable premises.
UN Personnel deployed have protections provided
for in several international agreements and treaties.
The immunities include:
The basic framework is based on:
• Personal arrest;
• UN Convention on the Safety of UN and
Associated Personnel (1994) • Criminal Jurisdiction of the Host State;
• Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of • Functional immunity (personal, documents,
the UN (1946) equipment);
• Law of Armed Conflict (normally for Chapter VII: • Income tax;
peace enforcement operations).
• Immigration; and
UN Convention on the Safety of UN and • National Service.
Associated Personnel (1994)
The Secretary-General can waive immunities
The UN Safety Convention does not apply in for any peacekeeper, but not for the High
Chapter VII enforcement operations, but it does Commanders positions. UNMOs and UN Police
apply to peacekeeping (Chapter VI). Its principal are recognized as experts on mission (Article VI),
areas are defining offences for crimes against UN and their status is quasi-diplomatic. They have
personnel (murder, kidnapping, attack) or attacks functional immunity, immunity from personal arrest
on UN property. Adopted by the General Assembly, and criminal jurisdiction. However, they are not
it entered into force in 1999. It defines UN tax-exempt.
personnel as those “engaged or deployed by the
Secretary-General.”2 The Convention also defines Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)
the responsibilities of the state, stating that they:
The Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC) consists of
• May not attack or hinder UN operations or
many aspects that regulate the conduct of states
personnel;
and their armed forces during conflict. Generally,
• Must ensure the safety of UN personnel; it applies in circumstances of armed conflicts
between states, although there are some principles
• Must release detained personnel and treat them
that apply to non-international armed conflicts.
in ways consistent with the Geneva Convention
until they are released; and
Peacekeeping operations (Chapter VI) do not
• Must prosecute or extradite offenders. amount to international armed conflict. Therefore,
the Geneva Conventions of 1949 will not generally
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of be applicable, nor will the additional protocols. The
the United Nations (1946) application of the LOAC to UN operations depends
on several issues, including:
The Convention on Privileges and Immunities has
• The type of conflict; and
a wider remit than simply UN operations. It allows
for certain UN personnel to be accorded “experts • The extent of the contributing state’s obligations
in LOAC.
2 UN Office of Legal Affairs. Convention on the
Safety of UN and Associated Personnel. <http://
www.un.org/law/cod/safety.htm>

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The role of UN forces is recognized in several
international treaties, including:
• 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva
Conventions 1949 (Arts. 37 (1)(d) and 38
regarding use of the UN insignia). The Geneva
Convention of 1949 is designed to safeguard
military personnel who are not or no longer
taking part in the fighting and persons not
actively involved in hostilities, particularly
civilians. Additional Protocols of 1977 sensed
that the forms of conflict were changing and
included other definitions of armed forces and
allowed the application to non-international
conflicts;
• UN Convention on Certain Conventional
Weapons 1980 (Protocol II, Art. 8 and Amended
Protocol II, Art. 9 regarding protection from the
effects of mines); and
• Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court
1998 provides for attacks against peacekeepers.
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon reviews the original
United Nations Charter during a visit to the United
UN Secretary-General’s Bulletin (1999) States National Archives. (UN Photo #157707 by Mark
Garten, 11 October 2007)
For the protection of UN peacekeepers, the UN
Secretary-General produced the “Bulletin on the 2.5 Status of Forces Agreement
Application of International Humanitarian Law on (SOFA) and Status of Mission
UN Peacekeeping Forces” (1999). It originates from Agreement (SOMA)
the UNEF Regulations of 1957 stating that, “The
Force shall observe the principles and spirit of the These are documents signed in consent by the
general international Conventions applicable to actors involved in a peacekeeping operation. When
the conduct of military personnel.” It is intended to a UN force enters a State, a Status of Forces
establish the application of LOAC to UN personnel. Agreement (SOFA) will normally have been agreed
upon. This will not be possible if the state has
The fundamental principles and rules of “failed” or if the government is not in a position to
International Humanitarian Law set out in the negotiate. In these instances, the UN Convention
Bulletin are applicable to UN forces. When in on Privileges and Immunities will apply. A SOFA
situations of armed conflict, they are actively is not required in Chapter VII (peace enforcement
engaged therein as combatants, to the extent and operations). The UN has a standard form of SOFA
for the duration of their engagement. The Bulletin (UN DocA/45/594, dated 9 Oct 1990). It is a legal
also provides for: document agreed upon between the United Nations
and the host country, which defines the status of a
• Protection of Civilian population; peacekeeping operation and its members. SOFA is
• Means and methods of combat; based on and originates from Articles 104 and 105
of the UN Charter. The SOFA grants the members
• Treatment of civilians and persons “hors de of a peacekeeping operation the privileges and
combat”; immunities given to mission commanders and UN
• Treatment of detained persons; and officials and experts. It has direct influence on
the legal status of every peacekeeper and should
• Protection of the wounded, the sick, and medical be known by all. It is limited to the status of the
and relief personnel. organization, representatives of Member States,

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 Contributing Country’s Law

UN personnel take their own nation’s law with

them. This involves military law (military offences)
and also domestic criminal law. Every peacekeeper
and UNMO is subject to the national laws of his/
her own country during his/her tour of duty. The
operational command from the United Nations
authority in the mission applies for operational
matters. The SRSG or the commanding authority
establishes the guidelines for the conduct of the
peacekeepers. The Code of Conduct must also
guide the behaviour of the peacekeepers. Criminal
offences are covered by the contributing nation’s
A Uruguayan peacekeeper with UN Organization Stabilization Mission jurisdiction in accordance with the UN standard
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) watches as SOFA. In any case of a criminal act committed by
the helicopter carrying Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping a United Nations peacekeeper or UNMO during
Operations, Hervé Ladsous, makes its way back toward Goma after Mrs. his/her participation in the mission, the SOFA
Ladsous’ visit in Pinga, North Kivu Province.(UN Photo #573433 by Sylvain
will define the responsibilities of the Force, the
Liechti, 04 December 2013)
host country’s law and the national law of the
UN officials, and experts carrying out missions for peacekeeper.
the UN. A SOMA may be the alternative when no
Forces are a part of the Mission, e.g. a UN military
observer mission.
2.6 Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU)
The SOFA normally includes discussion on:
This document is an agreement concluded
• Status of national contingents; between the UN and the troop-contributing country
(TCC). It is not strictly a legally binding document,
• Freedom of movement within the area of
but it may have legal consequences for the
operation;
troop-contributing country. It is adapted to each
• Ease access to that area; type of contribution and mission. However, there
are some basic guidelines.
• Communications facilities necessary for the
performing of tasks; • Contribution: category and number of personnel.
• Respect for local laws and conduct; • Authority: All personnel in a UNPKO are placed
under the operational control of the UN. The
• Use of flags, uniforms, and the right to bear
mission commander has the responsibility to
arms;
maintain order and discipline.
• Privileges and immunities;
• Duties of the Troop-Contributing Country
• Jurisdiction; and (TCC): The government has the duty to ensure
that all personnel meet UN standards, and the
• Claims and disputes.
government must comply with UN procedures
regarding personnel. National personnel cannot
Host Nation’s Law
accept nor seek instructions from any authority
other than the UN. Each nation agrees to take
Exclusive jurisdiction for criminal matters is
judicial measures concerning crimes committed
secured under the standard UN SOFA. However,
by national personnel assigned to the operation,
other aspects of the host nation’s law may impact
and they must keep the mission commander
upon the UN force. The UN force should act in
informed of the consequences.
accordance with the host nation’s law and respect
their customs and traditions. • Duties of the UN: The UN pays for travel and

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 salary of UNMOs, UN Police, and civilian • To protect non-UN personnel under the
personnel in the mission. It also arranges the protection of the UN; and
rotations of contingents and the transport of their
• To response to a hostile act or demonstrated
equipment. The agreement details the financial
hostile intent.
and logistical aspects of the participation of a
TCC in an operation.
No rule limits this inherent right. The Commander
• Communication responsibilities of the UN: The has the authority to use all means necessary to
UN informs the TCC in regard to all relevant defend the mandate and to defend the units and
information concerning the contribution of UN personnel.
personnel and equipment.
The principles for employment of UN ROE are as
follows:
2.7 Rules of Engagement (ROE)
• The conduct of UNPKO is guided by international
The Rules of Engagement (ROE) are operational law.
tools that translate the legal and political aspects
• All personnel must operate within the framework
of the Use of Force guidance provided in the
of this document (Guidelines for UN ROE) that
mission mandate. These operational tools are
has been formulated in accordance with the
translated into the mission purpose. They represent
parameters set out by the relevant Security
an accommodation between the political purpose
Council Resolutions.
of the UN deployment, the legal constraints of
the force, and the military mission. The ROE • ROE provide directions to commanders at all
for peacekeeping will normally be restricted to levels, governing the use of force within the
self-defence. Contributing nations will require their mission area. The ROE informs commanders
personnel to comply with their own laws; this may of the constraints imposed and the degrees of
require some national amplification of the ROE to freedom they have, in the course in carrying out
ensure such compliance. their mission.
• Throughout the conduct of peacekeeping
ROE authorize military personnel when force may
operations, where forces are to be used,
be used in the conduct of a mission or operation.
all military personnel must comply with the
Thus, they:
international principles of proportionality, the
• Codify and quantify the “use of force”; minimum use of force, and the requirements to
minimize the potential for collateral damage.
• Provide guidance to commanders; and
• Assist the soldier in executing his/her mission on For a better understanding of these principles, it
the ground. must be understood that:
• The use of force should be applied only when
ROE are not absolute and are issued as guidance
necessary;
(action to be taken if judged to be necessary) and
as a prohibition (order not to take specific actions). • Only minimum force consistent with the threat
ROE are one of the key documents in any UNPKO. should be used;
It is essential that they are unambiguous and easy
• A proportionate level of response should be
to use.
dealt;

Peacekeepers have the right to self-defence, which • Activities cease when the hostile acts are
includes the right: stopped;

• To defend themselves; • Peacekeepers must use escalation procedures;

• To protect other UN personnel; • The use of deadly force should be controlled by
leaders on the ground;

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• Collateral damage should be minimized; 1.2 Use of force, up to and including deadly force,
to defend other international personnel against a
• Targets must be positively identified; and
hostile act or a hostile intent, is authorized.
• Restrictions may be applied by the Force
Commander. 1.3 Use of force, up to and including deadly force,
to resist attempts to abduct or detain other UN
UN ROE Master List personnel, is authorized.

Although the UN guidelines for ROE define what 1.4 Use of force, up to and including deadly
should be included in future ROE for specific force, to resist attempts to abduct or detain other
UNPKOs, adjustments may be introduced if international personnel, is authorized.
needed. The UN master list of numbered ROE
provides the rules from which specific ROE for 1.5 Use of force, up to and including deadly
future UNPKOs should be drawn. The master force, to protect UN installations, areas or
list is intended to cover the broad spectrum of goods designated by the head of the mission in
requirements for any UNPKO. However, it is not consultation with the Force Commander, against a
deemed to be exhaustive and may be subject to hostile act, is authorized.
subsequent adjustments as required. Based on
this master list, specific ROE will be developed for 1.6 Use of force, up to and including deadly
each mission in accordance with all legal aspects force, to protect key installations, areas or
and factors detailed beforehand in this module. goods designated by the head of the mission in
Each armed peacekeeper will be issued an “ROE consultation with the Force Commander, against a
CARD”, which will include the ROE applicable in hostile act, is authorized.
the mission.
1.7 Use of force, excluding deadly force, to protect
The five basic UN ROE are: key installations, areas or goods designated
by the Head of Mission in consultation with
1. Use of force the Force Commander, against a hostile act, is
authorized.
2. Use of weapons systems
1.8 Use of force, up to and including deadly
3. Authority to carry weapons force, to defend any civilian person who is in
need of protection against a hostile act or hostile
4. Authority to detain, search and disarm intent, when competent local authorities are not
in a position to render immediate assistance is
5. Reactions to civil action or unrest authorized. When and where possible, permission
to use force should be sought from the immediate
Options of Each ROE superior commander.

Each of the five basic ROE has a set of 1.9 Use of force, to prevent the escape of any
pre-determined options, with different levels of use apprehended or detained person, pending
of force and for the control of their employment. hand-over to appropriate civilian authorities is
The options for the “use of force” ROE are detailed authorized.
in continuation as examples.
1.10 Use of force, up to and including deadly force,
1.1 Use of force, up and including deadly against any limits or intends to limit freedom of
force, to defend oneself and other UN movement is authorized.
personnel against a hostile act or a hostile intent, is
authorized.

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2.8 Impact on the UN Peacekeeper
The documents produced and signed at the highest
level of the United Nations, the host countries, the
actors involved in the operation, and the TCCs all
have direct influence on the mission, the tasks, and
the responsibilities of each individual peacekeeper.
The mandate normally describes the end state
and governs the activity of all peacekeepers on
the ground. A clear and achievable mandate is
important so the mission can be understood clearly
by all peacekeepers.

Duties and responsibilities are deduced from

the legal framework, which provides legitimacy
to the peace operation. The objectives stated in
the mandate are the guidance and mission of the
peacekeepers. All peacekeepers should comply
with these terms of reference:
• The legal framework requires of all
peacekeepers a complete impartiality;
• It requires them to obey and respect the Geneva
Convention;
• The use of force must be limited to the minimum,
in accordance with clearly defined and agreed
upon rules of engagement; and
• Any crime or grave misconduct in the mission
will be dealt with judicially by the home country
of the person involved.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. Which of the following has an impact on the 7. List at least 5 of the areas given to mission
UN peacekeeper? Select all that apply. commanders and UN officials and experts as
A. The mandate normally describes the end state a result of the Status of Forces Agreement
of the mission; (SOFA)/Status of Mission Agreement
(SOMA).
B. The mission must be clearly understood;
C. The peacekeeper must be impartial;
8. In the UN Rules of Engagement (ROE),
D. They must obey and respect the Geneva
peacekeepers have the right to which of
Convention;
the following? Select all that apply.
E. They must apply force in the context of the UN
A. To defend themselves;
ROE;
B. To protect other UN personnel;
F. Crimes or grave misconduct in the mission will
be dealt with by the home country, and in some C. To protect non-UN personnel under the
cases, by the host country’s justice. protection of the UN;
D. To respond to a hostile act or demonstrated
hostile intent.
2. List the five basic UN ROE.

9. Which of the following is NOT a principle

3. What is a mandate?
for employment of the UN ROE?
A. The conduct of UNPKO is guided by
4. Where do mandates come from? international law;
A. Economic and Social Committee; B. All personnel must operate within the
B. International Criminal Court of Justice; framework of the ROE document;
C. Security Council; C. All military personnel must comply with the
D. Secretary-General. international principles of proportionality,
minimum use of force, and the requirements to
minimize the potential for collateral damage;
5. Name the four principles for UN
D. Use of force is always authorized.
peacekeeping operations.

10. Select the false statement.

6. The role of UN forces is recognized in which
of the following? A. Not all of the UN peacekeeping operations are
legitimate;
A. The mission mandate;
B. Legitimacy comes from the fact that the UN
B. The Rome Statute for the International
Security Council mandates each mission;
Criminal Court 1998;
C. The Charter of the UN is the main legal
C. The UN Charter;
document that states its organization and
D. Each nation-state’s Constitution. missions;
D. Chapter VI of the UN Charter requires the
consent of each of the parties for a PKO
mission.

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
 ANSWER KEY
1. A, B, C, D, E, F,

2. The five basic UN ROE are: Use of Force; Use

of weapons systems; Authority to carry weapons;
Authority to detain, search and disarm; and Reactions
to civil action or unrest,

3. A mandate is a negotiated document, which gives

the guidance and context of the peace operation.
The mandate and the mission are central to all
peacekeepers and UNMOs,

4. C,

5. The four principles for UNPKO are: legitimacy;

consent; impartiality and neutrality; and use of force,

6. B,

7. Any five of the following is correct: Status of

national contingents; freedom of movement within
the area of operations; easy access to that area;
communications facilities necessary for performing
the tasks; respect for local laws and conduct; use of
flags, uniforms, and the right to bear arms; privileges
and immunities; jurisdiction, and claims and disputes,

8. A, B, C, D,

9. D,

10. A.

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LESSON 3
UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
 LESSON
3

LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide UN Military Observers (UNMOs) with
3.1 The Changing Nature the basic knowledge of UN peacekeeping operations. Upon completion of
of Conflicts the lesson, all students will be familiar with UN peacekeeping operations,
its fundamentals, and concepts. By the end of Lesson 3, the student
3.2 The Need for UN
should be able to meet the following objectives:
Peacekeeping
3.3 Principles and • List some fundamentals of traditional peacekeeping;
Fundamentals
• Explain broadly the differences between traditional peacekeeping
of Traditional operations and complex peacekeeping operations; and
Peacekeeping
• List other UN peace activities.
3.4 Types of UN
Peacekeeping Introduction
Operations – Complex
UNMOs must be guided by a deep understanding of UN organizations
Operations
and principles. In order to operate in the mission efficiently and effectively,
3.5 Department of they should have a clear picture of the background, functions, and the role
Peacekeeping of the UN in peacekeeping activities in particular. UNMOs should also be
capable of operating in a conflict or post-conflict area with a multinational
Operations (DPKO) and multi-disciplinary environment, while being respectful of different
3.6 Department of Field cultures and professional ethics. They should be able to avoid conflict-
escalation while also being ready to cope with it.
Support (DFS)
3.7 Other UN Peace
Activities
3.1 The Changing Nature of (UNIFIL) in 1978 was initiated in the midst of this
Conflicts rivalry. However, in the post-Cold War period,
cooperation slowly replaced competition, and the
During the first decade of the post-Cold War Security Council began making greater use of the
era, the United Nations was confronted with a UN to deal with these intrastate wars.
significant change in the nature of conflict. The key
problem in these post-Cold War conflict situations A second factor was the change in the type and
became civil war or anarchic violence within a frequency of armed conflicts. Following World War
single country, rather than military force between II, the decolonization and independence of many
two states. Instead of two opposing national countries has resulted in a surge of civil wars, as
organized armies, today’s conflicts typically involve political elites within these new nations struggled
irregular forces struggling internally, using light for dominance against repressed groups.
weapons and guerrilla tactics. Examples can be
found in Somalia, the Balkans, Liberia, Haiti, Sierra
Leone, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
and in Syria.

In addition, an increasing number of actors adds

to the complexity of post-Cold War conflicts. Many
intrastate and ethnic conflicts involve more than
two opposing forces. Rather, they may typically
involve rival warlords, factional leaders, paramilitary
forces, and even organized criminal groups. The
principle of reciprocity in international laws that has
historically given states an incentive to cooperate
with each other and to respect international
norms and rules is inoperative in most of these Over two hundred Nepalese peacekeepers arrive in Juba from the UN
situations. This also applies to the principle of Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), to reinforce the military
component of the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). The contingent’s
state sovereignty that has defined whose consent
arrival follows an advance team of 25 Nepalese troops who arrived in the
was traditionally sought before undertaking a country in January from MINUSTAH to support UNMISS, after an outbreak
peacekeeping operation. Post-Cold War conflicts of violence in mid-December between pro- and anti-government forces.
have thus blurred the lines that previously existed (UN Photo #579020 by Isaac Billy, 04 February 2014)
between national and international; military and
civilian; organized crime and legitimate political The third factor arose from humanitarian concerns.
groups; and civil war and interstate war. As the international community struggled to deal
with human suffering caused by the growing
3.2 The Need for UN Peacekeeping number of intrastate conflicts, policymakers saw
peacekeeping as a vehicle to help solve or mitigate
As the nature of conflicts changed from interstate humanitarian crisis. Peacekeepers were often
conflicts to intrastate conflicts, the initial response tasked with creating a safe and secure environment
of the international community was to expand in which humanitarian actors could safely operate.
peacekeeping greatly. In the late 1980s and early
1990s, the number, size, scope, and cost of these Peace and Security in the Charter
efforts all increased dramatically.
Peacekeeping was developed as a series of ad hoc
Three factors accounted for this growth. First, the practical mechanisms used by the United Nations
end of the Cold War brought an end to the standoff to help contain armed conflicts and settle them by
between superpowers that so often rendered peaceful means. The mechanism devised by the
the UN unable to act. From the mid-1970s to the United Nations to ensure international peace and
mid-1980s, only one new Peacekeeping Operation, security is outlined in Chapters VI, VII, and VIII of
the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon the Charter.

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Chapter VI provides for the settlement of disputes
by a variety of peaceful measures, including
negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration, and judicial settlement (Article 33).
The Security Council is authorized to call on the
parties to settle their disputes by peaceful means
or to make recommendations (Article 37). Thus,
the decisions or recommendations of the council
for the appropriate terms of settlement of an
international dispute should be carried out by the
parties themselves.

Chapter VII is essentially coercive and designed

to deal with threats to peace, breaches of the
peace, and acts of aggression. Under Chapter
VII, the United Nations Security Council should
determine the existence of any threat to the peace,
breach of the peace, or act of aggression to make
recommendations or decide what measures shall
be taken to maintain or restore international peace
and security (Article 39). Before resorting to
enforcement, the Security Council may call on the
parties concerned to comply with such provisional
measures as it considers necessary (Article 40).
These measures may include complete or partial UNMISS (United Nations Mission In South Sudan)
interruption of economic relations and means peacekeepers are on a Short Duration Patrol led by
Captain Vinayak Kumar Upadhyay from IndBatt-1 (Indian
of communication, the severance of diplomatic
Military Contingent). (UN Photo #548030 by Martine
relations (Article 41), or such action by air, sea, or Perret, 10 April 2013)
land forces as may be necessary to maintain or
restore international peace and security (Article Fundamentals of Peacekeeping Missions:
42).
• Credibility – The credibility of a peacekeeping
operation is the confirmation of its ability to
3.3 Principles and Fundamentals of accomplish its mandate. In order to effectively
Traditional Peacekeeping carry out its mandate and earn the confidence
of the parties, a peacekeeping force must
Principles to every peacekeeping mission:
be composed of trained personnel who are
• Consent – UN Peacekeeping Operations are well equipped and possess high professional
established with the consent and cooperation of standards.
the main parties involved in a conflict.
• Negotiation and Mediation – Negotiation
• Impartiality – A UN force must be impartial in and mediation have enormous potential in
character. The force cannot take sides without de- escalating a conflict, to promote a secure
becoming part of the traditional conflict it has environment, and to develop peaceful and lasting
been mandated to control and resolve. solutions to a conflict.

• Minimum Use of Force – In peacekeeping

Keep in mind that consent may not be the norm
operations, force will not be used to carry out the
in complex peacekeeping. In fact, complex
mandate. Minimum use of force does not exclude
peacekeeping may not have consent from any
self-defence of United Nations personnel and
party. In addition, minimum use of force may also
property. The use of force must be clearly
not be the case for complex peacekeeping – the
defined in the Rules of Engagement (ROE).
degree of force authorized will be provided by the
mandate.

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Operational and Tactical Considerations • Centralization – All activities of the force and
all incidents it encounters may have political
A traditional peacekeeping mission is primarily ramifications. Therefore, reporting and
a political operation. The head of the mission is decision-making may be more centralized than
responsible for establishing the inter-operability of in standard military operations. Forces must
the various components of the mission, considering have adequate communication systems to
the political objectives defined in the mandate. facilitate the rapid transmission of information
The frame of reference for dealing with rapidly from the lowest level in the field to the mission
changing or unanticipated situations that require an headquarters.
immediate response is:
• Self-sufficiency – Peacekeeping units should
• Transparency – Transparency is consistent arrive in the area of operations as soon as
with the prevailing requirements for security. possible and with sufficient stores to operate
All parties should be fully aware of the motives, until a logistics base is in place.
mission, and intentions of the operation.
• Coordination – A peacekeeping operation
3.4 Types of UN Peacekeeping
may involve a wide range of organizations,
Operations – Complex Operations
e.g., United Nations relief agencies and non-
By measuring the operational environment and
governmental organizations. Personnel at all
the level of military effort involved in all UN
levels should seek to establish and nurture
peacekeeping operations from 1948 to 2005,
coordination within the mission, with United
the result and analytical framework places
Nations headquarters, within their operational
UN peacekeeping operations into two general
areas, and with the local population.
categories:
• Liaison – Communication should be established
at every possible level at the earliest opportunity. Traditional Peacekeeping Operations
• Information – Information is essential for the
Traditional peacekeeping operations relied on
force in order to make continuously updated
the consent and cooperation of the belligerents
assessments of the attitudes and capabilities of
and were largely restricted to the interposition of
the parties concerned.
unarmed observers or lightly armed peacekeepers
• Limitations and Restrictions – The area of between warring states. Once certain conditions
operations is strictly defined, operations to are met, a ceasefire agreement is put in place,
gather information are limited, and the Rules of and the parties to the conflict fully consent to the
Engagement will normally forbid the use of force deployment of peacekeepers.
unless absolutely necessary for self-defense.
The objectives of traditional peacekeeping
• Armaments – Peacekeeping forces are normally
operations are the most circumscribed of all UN
lightly armed and will deploy with only the
operations and are generally limited simply to
armaments required for self-defense, consistent
reporting conditions following a political agreement
with the mandate and the situation in the area of
for a conflict to end. Within this general objective,
operation.
one can distinguish three specific military tasks
• Visibility – The physical visibility of a force commonly given to UN traditional peacekeeping
is enhanced by wearing distinctive, easily- operations:
recognized United Nations headgear, badges,
• Border or demilitarized zone monitoring;
signs, and insignia. Peacekeeping forces must
also make their intentions perfectly clear to all • Ceasefire, truce, or general armistice agreement
parties. monitoring; and
• Mobility – Peacekeeping forces must be mobile • Supervision of the withdrawal of forces.
in order to navigate large areas. They must have
the capacity to respond rapidly to incidents. Therefore, the primary military objective of

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 Complex Peacekeeping Operations

Complex peacekeeping operations may be

authorized under Chapter VI and VII. These
operations are multi-functional missions in which
the military component is only one part of a
comprehensive political, diplomatic, humanitarian,
and economic effort. The objectives of these
missions include supporting civilian components
and non-governmental organizations in the
provision of humanitarian aid; the organization
and protection of elections; the supervision of
government functions; the disarmament and
demobilization of a large number of parties;
the repatriation and rehabilitation of refugees;
the protection of safe areas; the restoration of
A peacekeeper from the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB) of the UN national governments and institutions; and other
Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the such objectives. These tasks are also done as
Congo (MONUSCO) sits at the top of an armored vehicle before going on ancillary missions in many traditional peacekeeping
patrol in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
operations but on a much smaller scale and with
(UN Photo #584400 by Sylvaine Liechti, 20 March 2014)
much less emphasis than in complex peacekeeping
most traditional peacekeeping operations is to operations. The actual military missions of complex
occupy a clearly recognized and usually linear peacekeeping operations are more complicated
interposition buffer zone. Traditional peacekeepers than those of their buffer zone predecessors, even
are authorized to use force only in self-defense. when conducted in a permissive environment.
Traditional peacekeepers are never intended to use
active force to coerce belligerents; there were, of The environment of complex peacekeeping
course, never structured for this or mandated to do operations are considerably more antagonistic and
so. Despite this passive approach, operations are combative than those of traditional peacekeeping
still often dangerous. Many contemporary studies where most missions are deployed in clearly
refer to traditional peacekeeping as “Chapter VI linear buffer zones between consenting nation
operations”. states. In contrast, the environment of complex
peacekeeping operation is characterized largely by
Examples of Traditional Observation Missions unstable intrastate conflicts. These often are hostile
environments where a virtual state of war existed or
UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organization
was in temporary remission.
UNMOGIP UN Military Observers Group in India
and Pakistan
UNOGIL UN Observation Group in Lebanon Examples of Complex Peacekeeping Operations
UNPROFOR UN Protection Force
Examples of Traditional Observer and UNOSOM II UN Operation in Somalia II
Peacekeeping Missions UNOMOZ United Nations Operation in
UNEF I UN Emergency Force I Mozambique
UNSF UN Security Force in New Guinea UNAMIR UN Mission in Rwanda
UNEF II UN Emergency Force II UNTAC UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNDOF UN Disengagement Observers Force MONUSCO UN Stabilization Mission in the
UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon Democratic Republic of the Congo
UNMISS UN Mission in the Republic of South
Sudan
MINUSMA UN Multidimensional Integrated
Stabilization Mission in Mali

44 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
3.5 Department of Peacekeeping or humanitarian missions; proposes resource
Operations (DPKO) requirements, and monitors and controls funds
related to peacekeeping activities. The Department
The Department of Peacekeeping Operations of Field Support also engages in contingency
(DPKO) is the operational arm for all United planning for possible new operations. DFS jointly
Nations peacekeeping operations and it is performs a number of capacities with DPKO.
responsible for the conduct, management,
direction, planning and preparation of those The head of the department, the Under-Secretary-
operations. It develops training, plans, and General for Field Support, directs field support
methodologies for peacekeeping operations and for all UN missions on behalf of the Secretary-
secures, through negotiations with governments, General, formulates policies and guidelines for field
the personnel and equipment required for support, and advises the Secretary-General on all
operations. DPKO maintains contacts with parties related matters.
to conflicts and members of the Security Council
on the implementation of Council decisions;
3.7 Other UN Peace Activities
undertakes contingency planning for possible new
operations; carries out analysis of emerging policy
Peacekeeping is only one of the UN’s mechanisms
questions; and formulates policies and procedures
for conflict resolution. There are other important
in this regard. It also coordinates all United Nations
UN peace activities, which need to be discussed
activities related to landmines and develops and
as part of this lesson. These activities are the most
supports mine action programmes in peacekeeping
cost-effective ways of preventing disputes from
and emergency situations (Mine Action Service).
arising, stopping existing disputes from escalating
The Peacekeeping Best Practices Section collects
into conflicts, and controlling and resolving existing
lessons learned and promotes the integration
conflicts. These activities include preventive
of these into the planning and conduct of UN
diplomacy, peacemaking, peacebuilding, sanctions,
Peacekeeping Operations as a shared capacity
and disarmament. The Secretary-General
with DFS.
continues to receive mandates from the General
Assembly and the Security Council to maintain
The head of the department, the Under-Secretary-
existing efforts and to undertake new ones in
General for Peacekeeping Operations, directs
this field. The Secretary-General, through his
peacekeeping operations on behalf of the
special representatives, special envoys, and other
Secretary-General, formulates policies and
emissaries on a resident or visiting basis, is actively
guidelines for operations, and advises the
engaged in implementing these political mandates
Secretary-General on all related matters.
in several countries. The primary responsibility for
preventive action, peace-making, peacebuilding,
3.6 Department of Field Support sanction, and disarmament rests with the
(DFS) Department of Political Affairs (DPA).
• Preventive diplomacy is action taken to prevent
The Department of Field Support is the disputes from developing between parties, to
administrative, financial, and logistical arm for all prevent existing disputes from escalating into
United Nations peacekeeping operations – and conflicts, and to limit the spread of the latter
other operations – and it is responsible for the when they occur.
conduct, management, direction, planning, and
preparation of all these aspects. It develops training • Peace-making is diplomatic action to bring
plans and methodologies for mission support and hostile parties to negotiated agreements through
secures through negotiations with host nations such peaceful means as those foreseen under
and local suppliers whether supplies and services Chapter VI of the UN Charter.
required for operations in a mission area will be • Peacebuilding is critical in the aftermath of
brought in or locally procured. DFS – through conflict. Peacebuilding includes the identification
Mission Support – provides local logistical and and support of measures and structures that will
administrative support for operations and political promote peace and build trust and interaction

L E S S O N 3 : U N P E A C E K E E P I N G O P E R AT I O N S | 45
 among former enemies, in order to avoid a
relapse into conflict.
• Sanctions are to apply measures not involving
the use of force in order to maintain or restore
international peace and security. Such measures
are commonly referred to as sanctions. This
legal basis is recalled in order to underline
that the purpose of sanctions is to modify
the behaviour of a party that is threatening
international peace and security and not to
punish or otherwise exact retribution.
• Disarmament is the assembly, control and
disposal of weapons. Micro-disarmament is
the practical disarmament in the context of the
conflicts the United Nations is actually dealing
with. Micro-disarmament is relevant to post-
conflict peacebuilding. Disarmament can also
follow enforcement action. All sanction’s regimes
include an arms embargo.

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 UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING GROUP:
CAPACITIES TO ENSURE INTEGRATION
DEPARTMENT OF
DEPARTMENT OF FIELD SUPPORT
PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS

Office of the Under-Secretary-General Office of the Under-Secretary-General

(DPKO/OUSG) (DFS/OUSG)

SHARED CAPACITIES Global Field Support Strategy Project Team

Office of Operations
Assistant Secretary-General
Office of the Assistant Secretary-General Joint management forums
(SMT, ESMT, Directors Mtg) Office of the Assistant Secretary-General

Africa I Division Field Procurement & Liaison Team

Office of the Chief of Staff

Sudan Integrated Operational Team (IOT) Field Personnel Division
East Africa IOT
Executive Office Office of the Director
Africa II Division
Situation Centre Field Personnel Specialist Support Service
West Africa IOT
Guidance & Organisational Design Section
Great Lakes IOT Public Affairs Section
Quality Assurance and Info. Management Section

Asia and Middle East Division Peacekeeping Information Recruitment, Outreach & Career Development Section
Management Unit
Asia IOT Field Personnel Operations Service
Afghanistan IOT Focal Point for Security Africa 1 Section Asia & Middle East Section

Middle East and Western Sahara IOT Africa 2 Section Europe & Lat. Am. Section
Senior Leadership Appointments
Europe and Latin America Division Section
Field Budget and Finance Division
Europe and Latin America Team IOT Audit Response and Boards of
Inquiry Section Office of the Director

Office of Rule of Law and Conduct and Discipline Unit Budget & Performance Reporting
Security Institutions Service

Office of the Assistant Secretary-General Policy, Evaluation and Training MOU & Claims Management Section
Division
Security Sector Reform Unit Logistics Support Division
Peacekeeping Best
Police Division Practices Section Office of the Director

Office of the Police Adviser Integrated Training Service Operational Support Service
Strategic Policy & Development Section Aviation and Safety Section

Mission Management & Support Logistics Operations Section

Section Strategic Deployment Stocks Unit
Standing Police Capacity
(Brindisi, Italy) Specialist Support Service

Criminal Law & Judicial Advisory Contingent Owned Equipment and

Property Management Section
Service
Engineering Section
Disarmament Demobilisation and
Reintegration Section Medical Support Section
Supply Section
Mine Action Service
Cartographic Section
Office of the Director
Transportation & Movement Service
Programme Management Section Air Transport Section
Policy, Information & Resource Movement Control Section
Management Section
Surface Transport Section

Office of Military Affairs UN Logistics Base (Brindisi, Italy)

Information & Communications

Office of the Military Adviser Technology Division
Office of the Director
Current Military Operations Service
Field Communications & IT
Military Planning Service Operations Service
Force Generation Service Field Technology and Security Section

Last updated: 31 January 2011

Figure 1: Available <www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/dpkodfs_org_chart.pdf>

L E S S O N 3 : U N P E A C E K E E P I N G O P E R AT I O N S | 47
End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. List and briefly describe the UN mechanisms 6. Chapter VI provides for:

for conflict resolution other than A. The settlement of disputes by a variety of
peacekeeping (there are five). peaceful measures;
B. Negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
2. Why was peacekeeping developed? arbitration, and judicial settlement (Article 33);
A. To help contain armed conflicts and help settle C. The authorization of the Economic and Social
these armed conflicts by peaceful means; Committee to call on the parties to settle
B. To settle disputes by force; their disputes by peaceful means or to make
recommendations (Article 37);
C. To give the UN an opportunity to use military
power; D. The grey area between Chapters V and VII.
D. None of the above.
7. Which of the following characterizes the
importance of Chapter VII of the UN
3. What are the two types of peacekeeping
Charter?
missions?
A. It is essentially coercive and designed to deal
A. Traditional and Complex;
with threats to peace, breaches of the peace,
B. Mediation and Traditional; and acts of aggression;
C. Humanitarian and Complex; B. It allows the United Nations Security Council
D. Judicial and Traditional. to determine the existence of any threat to
the peace, breach of the peace, or act of
aggression;
4. Which is the “operational arm for all UN
Peacekeeping Operations, and responsible C. It allows the URNS to make recommendations
for the conduct, management, direction, or decide what measures shall be taken to
planning and preparation of those maintain or restore international peace and
operations”? security;
A. Department of Field Support; D. All of the above.
B. Mine Action Service;
C. Office of Operations, Office of Military Affairs, 8. List the three specific military tasks of
and UN Police Division; traditional peacekeeping operations.
D. Department of Peacekeeping Operations.
9. Traditional peacekeeping operations:
5. Before resorting to enforcement, the UN A. Do not require the consent or cooperation of
Security Council may: the belligerents;
A. Call on the parties concerned to comply B. Consist of peacekeepers that come from the
with provisional measures as it considers belligerent countries;
necessary; C. Have unarmed observers and/or lightly armed
B. Decide that the condition between the two military units that come from neutral Member
adversaries does not warrant action; States;
C. Ask for a third party to mediate; D. Have no buffer zone.
D. Allow the nations to struggle with the situation
without UN assistance.

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10. Match the following entities with their responsibilities:

1. Office of Operations, Office A. Maintains contacts with parties to conflicts and

of Military Affairs and Police members of the UNSC on implementation of
Division the Council decisions and secures, through
2. Department of Field Support negotiations with government, the personnel and
equipment needed for a peacekeeping activity;
3. Mine Action Service
B. Develops plans for peacekeeping operations;
4. Best Practices Section
C. Coordinates all UN activities related to landmines
5. DPKO/Under-Secretary-
and develops and supports mine action
General
programmes;
D. Directs PKO on behalf of the Secretary-General;
E. Collects lessons learned.

ANSWER KEY
1. Preventive Diplomacy; Peace-Making; Peacebuilding; Sanctions; and Disarmament,

2A, 3A, 4D, 5A, 6B, 7D,

8. Border or demilitarized zone monitoring; cease-fire, truce, or general armistice agreement monitoring;
and supervision of the withdrawal of forces,

9C,

10. 1B; 2A; 3C; 4E; 5D.

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LESSON 4
MULTIDIMENSIONAL UN
PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
(UN INTEGRATED MISSIONS)
 LESSON
4

4.1 Generic Structure of

Peacekeeping Operations –
Integrated Missions
4.2 Function of the Special
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Representative of the
Secretary-General (SRSG) The aim of this lesson is to provide UNMOs and peacekeepers with
information on the structure of different traditional and complex United
4.3 Integration of Efforts,
Nations peacekeeping operations. By the end of Lesson 4, the student
Cooperation, and
should be able to meet the following objectives:
Coordination
4.4 Chain of Command –
Command and Control Policy • List the components normally present in UN peacekeeping operations;
(DPKO C2 Policy)
• List the roles of each component;
4.5 Mission Support Component
• State how the different components may integrate and cooperate;
4.6 Military Component
4.7 Joint Mission Analysis Centre • Identify his/her chain of command in accordance with his/her position in
(JMAC) the mission; and

4.8 Joint Operations Centre (JOC) • Understand the functionality and complexity of Integrated Missions.
4.9 Joint Logistics Centre (JLOC)
4.10 Representation of UN Introduction
Agencies
Since the early 1990s, peacekeeping operations have evolved
4.11 Human Rights Component
significantly. Peacekeeping is no longer an endeavor specific to the
4.12 Humanitarian Assistance military; it has become multidimensional, employing an increasing number
Component – Office for the of civilian personnel such as civilian police; human rights and election
coordination of Humanitarian monitors; humanitarian assistance personnel; and other components.
Affairs (OCHA) The expansion in both the scope and complexity of UN peacekeeping has
4.13 Electoral Component underscored the importance of training. Peacekeepers, both civilian and
4.14 Security Sector Reform (SSR)
Component
4.15 Disarmament, Demobilization
and Reintegration (DDR)
Component
military, work closely with colleagues from diverse • Human Rights component;
nationalities and backgrounds with various levels of
• Humanitarian Assistance component;
training and experience. Therefore, it is important
for all peacekeeping personnel to share the same • Electoral component;
understanding and knowledge of the organization
• Security Sector Reform (SSR) Component; and
and relationship among the participants in United
Nations peacekeeping operations. • Demobilization, Democratization and
Reintegration (DDR) Component.
In multidimensional peacekeeping operations
(UN Integrated Missions), the military component
interacts with all other mission components. The
interaction and close coordination between the
military component and other components is also
necessary for DDR/SSR and election processes,
humanitarian activities, human rights monitoring,
civil affairs and the law and order.

4.1 Generic Structure of

Peacekeeping Operations –
Integrated Missions
Peacekeeping is a joint and combined effort,
composed of many elements and people united
in their quest for peace. The United Nations, as
The UN Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
the world’s major international organization, is (MONUSCO) is backing the Forces Armées de la République Démocratique
both large and complex, staffed with personnel du Congo (FARDC) in an operation against the rebel group Allied
from all of its Member States. Peacekeeping Democratic Forces (ADF), in the Beni region of eastern DRC, near the
operations (also called missions or field missions) Ugandan border. MONUSCO Deputy Force Commander Major General Jean
present a similar profile. They are manned by Baillaud (left) meets with FARDC troops during the operation. (UN Photo
#582837 by Sylvain Lietchi, 13 March 2014)
military personnel, or “Blue Helmets”, from many
troop-contributing countries (TCCs). They are also
manned by civilians from many organizations of the In traditional missions, the organization may
United Nations. Non-governmental organizations be relatively simple. However, peacekeeping
(NGOs), governmental organizations (GO), UN operations that respond to complex emergencies
Police (UNPOL), and others are normally present require a multidimensional structure. This is
in UNPKOs. Peacekeepers must be aware of all commonly referred to as a complex peacekeeping
the components present in the mission area and mission.
understand the complementary roles of each for
the success of the operation. Traditional Peacekeeping

In a mission, United Nations peacekeepers will Traditional peacekeeping operations normally

normally encounter and work with the following have as their main element a military component.
components: UN Police may be present, and all are supported
by a civilian mission support component. These
• Office of the Special Representative of the peacekeeping operations tend to maintain their
Secretary-General; structure and organization with only minor changes
• Mission Support; for the duration of the mandate. Examples of
traditional peacekeeping operations include; i.e.:
• Military component, including UN Military UNMOGIP, established in 1949; UNMEE, a recent
Observers, UN Police, Formed Units, and Staff mission (2000) with a traditional mandate of forces
Officers;

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 4.2 Function of the Special
Representative of the Secretary-
General (SRSG)
The Secretary-General, with the approval of
the Security Council, appoints the head of
peacekeeping operations in a mission area.
This person determines the further delegation of
authority in the field on behalf of the Secretary-
General. Therefore, the SRSG is a specially
appointed individual who exercises diplomatic and
political authority in the mission area.

An SRSG supported by political and mediation staff

conducts diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict.
The following are the roles and responsibilities of
the Office of the SRSG:
Troops of the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic • Manages the political aspects of the mission to
Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) are show in Kibumba, North Kivu
include the resolution and the mandate;
Province, along the road from Goma to Rutshuru, where MONUSCO and
the national army (FARDC) have deployed to protect Goma from the M23 • Provides leadership to the mission;
rebel group. (UN Photo #520983 by Sylvain Lietchi, 11 July 2012)
• Plans the process: political/end-state/vision/
separation; and UNFICYP, whose organization is steps in the process;
described above.
• Coordinates the overall operation by providing
unity of effort and harmonizing that effort through
Complex Peacekeeping – Integrated Missions
personal leadership;
Complex peacekeeping operations, by definition, • Coordinates the United Nations’ response on the
involve situations that require the participation of ground; coordinates all policy and operational
the full scope of the elements of the UN family objectives; examines and supervises the roles of
of organizations. The Military and UN Police the various components in the mission area;
components, however important in size, normally
• Conducts aspects of peacekeeping, such as
are just specialized elements supporting the
mediation and negotiation, with the various
mandate with their specific capabilities. The
parties; encourages these parties to engage
Humanitarian Assistance, the Mission Support,
in negotiation; facilitates international action to
and the Public Information components, among
alleviate human suffering; and
many others, are supporting the success of the
peace efforts with their own capabilities. Thus, • Executes the Security Council Resolution
these elements have larger organizations and based on delegation of responsibility from the
resources than in traditional peacekeeping. The Secretary-General.
situations tend to be more fluid and difficult to
predict, imposing continuous reassessments of the The chief of the military component in a
mandate. Reorganization and redeployment are peacekeeping operation (the Force Commander or
normal in these operations. Chief Military Observer) is also appointed by the
Secretary-General. He/she is given appropriate
The first mission to be described as complex was authority over all military units and personnel in the
the successful UNTAC in Cambodia. Current mission area in light of operational requirements.
examples of complex peacekeeping operations
include; i.e.: UNAMID in Darfur, Sudan; UNMISS
in the Republic of South Sudan; and MONUSCO in
the Democratic Republic of Congo.

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
4.3 Integration of Efforts, 4.4 Chain of Command – Command
Cooperation, and Coordination and Control Policy (DPKO C2
Policy)
The multifunctional nature of peacekeeping
operations and the complementary roles of each The chain of command in United Nations
component in the fulfilment of a mandate require peacekeeping operations is normally integrated by
cooperation, coordination, and integration of the:
efforts.
1. Secretary-General
In complex peacekeeping operations, all
components must be considered and act as equal 2. Special Representative of the
partners. Each provides a different capability in the Secretary-General
support of peace. The SRSG and the SRSG office
represent the political factor. The other components 3. Deputy SRSG
are elements that they use or coordinate in order to
fulfil the mandate. For example, the Disarmament, 4. Force Commander or Chief Military Observer
Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) process
is a combined task. The military provides security This may vary in accordance with the organization
and trained personnel to receive, inspect, store, and composition of the mission.
and destroy the weapons. Together with the UN
Police, they provide a safe and secure context for Peacekeepers in formed units are commanded by
the parties to disarm. their own officers and non-commissioned officers.
In all cases, discipline is a national responsibility,
Humanitarian assistance organizations support and the unit or contingent commander is
the effort by supplying food, shelter, and tools for responsible to the Force Commander.
the demobilized soldiers, and they train them for
the reintegration to civilian life. UNHCR may help For discipline, the national chain of command
the return of displaced families to their homes, applies to the UNMOs and UN Police. However, the
thus supporting the whole process. The Explosive operational and tasking command are commanded
Ordnance Devices (EOD, mines) specialists of the by the senior officer in the team or the element.
Military component or UN Mine Action Service UN Mission Support Staff and civilians of other
support the reintegration of demobilized soldiers, components are subject to their own organization’s
ensuring the safe use of land and communication regulations.
lines (roads, bridges, etc.).

Each element has its own organization, regulations, 4.5 Mission Support Component
and objectives. More importantly, each has its own
organizational culture. It is important to understand The Mission Support Component is headed by
and know about each element. This will result in the Chief Mission Support (CMS) or a Director
an integration of efforts and cooperation and will of Mission Support (DMS). The Chief Mission
allow the full use of available assets in the mission, Support is an international civil servant, normally
thus setting the stage for the success of the with extensive experience in UN peacekeeping
peacekeeping operation. operations and in UN administration and support.
He/she plans and forecasts requirements in areas
of logistics, personnel, and finance; provides field
administration to all components of the mission;
and advises the Head of Mission.

The Mission Support Component consists of

United Nations employees. In this component, one
can find International Civil Servants supported for

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managerial, administrative, and clerical tasks by 4.6 Military Component
locally recruited staff. Translators, clerks, drivers,
and janitors are examples of the support contracted The military component includes formed units and
to local staff. The Mission Support’s tasks in UNMOs depending on the size and complexity of
support of the mission may include: the mission. The Force Commander is always the
• Supply support, procurement and re-supply; chief of the military component, whenever there
are formed units. The Chief Military Observer
• Food services; commands the UNMOs.
• Transportation;
Military Component Generic Organization
• Maintenance of vehicles and equipment;
Force Commander (FC)
• Field construction engineering and technical
services; Chief of Staff (COS)

• Aviation and air services; Military Staff

• Signals and communications; Chief Military Observers
Formed Units (CMOs)
• Personnel administration and services;
Infantry Task
• Security services; Units Forces Sector HQ

• Budgeting and financial services; Engineers UNMO Teams

Medical
• Health services; Transport Logistics UNMO Teams
• Postal and courier services; and Source: UN Infantry Battalion Manual <www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
documents/UNIBAM.Vol.I.pdf>.
• Staff assistance.

The Mission Support provides full direct support The Force Commander provides leadership and
to all the elements in the mission, according to exercises command over assigned forces. He/
their needs in the field. UN Military Observers, UN she will be an outstanding military officer at Major
Police, and civilians are provided with vehicles General rank, with ample UN peacekeeping and
and, in some cases, even food and lodging where command experience and from a troop-contributing
those are unavailable due to special geographical country and/or from other Peace Support
constraints, such as the desert in MINURSO. Operations (PSO). He/she is appointed by the
Formed units are supplied, normally through the Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping
use of contractors, with supplies such as food Operations. His/her responsibilities include:
and fuel. In some operations, the Mission Support • Command the military component; being also
may even be responsible for supporting the local the main military adviser to the SRSG on military
government, for examples in UNTAET in East issues. The Force Commander may also be
Timor. designated Head of Mission if an SRSG is not
appointed;
• Execute the military mission; and
• Be responsible for discipline and conduct.

The Military Staff is mostly integrated by

professional officers from the troop-contributing
countries. In some small or traditional
peacekeeping operations, these officers
have UNMOs status for the UN and deploy
as individuals. In complex peacekeeping or

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
large missions, the military staff includes
non-commissioned officers (NCOs) in supporting
roles, and all members are deployed as staff
officers (formed units type). The international
composition is characteriztic of UN Military
Staff and is designed to ensure impartiality and
proportional representation of the TCCs. They
accomplish the normal duties of staff officers, and
they normally have ranks from Major to Colonel.
Each Field Mission will organize its military staff in
accordance with the size, complexity, and mandate
of the operations.

Formed military units strongly contribute to the

creation of a secure environment in support of
peace. They deploy with their own equipment
and specialized supplies, and therefore have a
large degree of self-sufficiency. The Formed Units
assigned to peacekeeping missions are led by
a designated Force Commander. In the majority A Nigerian Military Liaison Officer with the United
of operations, formed units have the following Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
characteristics: (MINURSO) briefs fellow officers at the Mission’s Awsard
team site before a patrol. (UN Photo #440795 by Martine
• Consist of battalion-size units (Officers, NCOs, Perret, 29 June 2010)
and Soldiers);
• Are normally organized in military style with • Transport, such as land transport with transport
a command and control central structure, sub units (trucks, buses, cars, etc), air transport
containing up to three Motorized Infantry (aircraft and helicopters), and even sea/river
Companies and one Mechanized Infantry transport with ferries, boats, and ships of
Company (Armoured Personnel Carriers) different capabilities.
supported by a Headquarters Company;
UNMOs are a group of international officers,
• Are normally armed with weapons up to 12.7 usually under the command of a Chief Military
caliber machine guns and 81 mm mortars in Observer. They must have a strong professional
traditional peacekeeping, though this may vary background and receive specific training prior to
based on a mission’s mandate. In peacekeeping deployment. In addition, these officers are:
operations with a stronger mandate, heavy
armour is deployed, as well as attack helicopters; • Unarmed, wearing their national uniforms and
and ranks, and the UN symbols on their shoulder
patch and blue beret;
• Provide a large number of small armed
detachments for manning positions, observation • Normally with the ranks of Captain to Lieutenant
posts, and checkpoints or ground patrols. Colonel; and
• Organized in groups and small teams distributed
Depending on the size of the mandate, formed in all the area of responsibility of the mission.
military units may also include: Individuals from different TCCs always form the
• Engineers, for camp and road maintenance and teams.
construction, potable water, etc.;
The tasks assigned to UNMOs may include the
• Medical units, to provide the medical support to following:
all the mission personnel at different levels with
the mission; and • Observe and report ceasefire violations;

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 The Police Commissioner has authority over
all UN Police deployed in the mission. His/
her primary function is to assist and advise the
political component and the SRSG. One of the first
components of UN Police (at that time UN Civilian
Police) to be deployed was in the Congo in the
1960s, and has been part of the United Nations
Force in Cyprus for more than 30 years. Since
1990 the police presence in every peacekeeping
mission has been a regular feature. The role and
functions of UN Police are constantly changing
and are directed towards the sustainable law
and order capacity of the nation and assist in the
development of good governance.
Members of the Ghanaian engineering contingent at work. Beginning
their work on UN Day, Ghanaian engineers with the UN mission in Mali Since the 1990s, their roles have varied from
(MINUSMA) renovated a school in Taliko, a marginalized neighbourhood monitoring, advising, and assisting, to their
of Bamako. The school had hosted several displaced families after deadly executive role in recent complex missions.
flash floods hit the Malian capital this summer. (UN Photo #571070 by
Executive roles are mandated normally in the
Marco Dormino, 31 October 2013)
political context of a lack of national government
• Liaise and communicate between factions; authorities or their inability to maintain law and
order. In these cases, the United Nations Police
• Patrol and report on isolated areas; carry out their duties as in their home country, with
• Investigate accidents; powers to arrest and investigate local citizens.

• Inspect and verify arms agreements; Organized in groups and teams under the
• Negotiate and mediate between factions; command of a UN Police Commissioner, the UN
Police have the following responsibilities:
• Assist in cross-boundary movements;
• Ensure that law and order are maintained
• Facilitate body or POW exchange; effectively and impartially;
• Supervise the disarmament of militia and military • Ensure that human rights and criminal justice
forces; standards are fully respected;
• Monitor the separation or withdrawal of troops; • Monitor law enforcement activities of local
• Supervise the destruction of armaments; officials;

• Observe and report alleged abuses of Human • Supervise or control the local civilian police;
Rights; • Carry out general police duties, such as the
• Assist in the conduct of a referendum or election; investigation of incidents;

• Provide assistance to humanitarian agencies; • Supervise the return of refugees and Prisoners
and of War (POWs);

• Supervise disarmament, demobilization, • Supervise the demobilization of local police

reintegration, and cantonment of military forces. forces;
• Assist in registration and election procedures;
The UN Police component is playing an and
increasingly important role in United Nations
peacekeeping. UN Police officers help build • Assist in the retraining of local police forces.
confidence in local communities. UN Police may
be operating as individuals, teams, or deployed as
formed UN Police Units (i.e. Anti-Riot).

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4.7 Joint Mission Analysis Centre reports – and reports on all operational activity.
(JMAC) The provision of copies of all reports to JOC should
be instituted in the standard reporting procedures
The Join Mission Analysis Centre (JMAC) provides of all mission components.
the Head of Mission (HoM) and the Senior
Management Team (SMT) with a capacity to collect
4.9 Joint Logistics Centre (JLOC)
and sanitize all-source information to produce
medium and long-term integrated analysis. JMAC
The JLOC is the nerve centre for logistics functions
integrated analysis products should provide the
in a mission involving information gathering,
HoM and SMT with improved understanding of
analysis, planning, coordination, execution,
issues and trends; their implications and potential
monitoring and feedback. It is to provide all mission
developments, as well as assessments of
components, other UN and non-UN entities with
cross-cutting issues and threats that may affect the
a single point of coordination for all aspects of
mission. JMAC analytical products should provide
logistics support in the mission area.
the basis for enhanced mission planning and
decision making.
The JLOC is jointly staffed by military, police
and civilian staff. Integration ensures that an
The JMAC shall provide analytical support to
in-house capacity is available to analyze, plan, and
mission-wide information priorities identified by
implement logistics operations in support of any
the HoM and SMT. It may also support individual
entity. The JLOC interface with the JOC and the
mission components to enhance their decision
JMAC.
making capabilities.

Upon establishment of the JMAC, all mission

components shall make arrangements to provide
timely and accurate information as requested
by the JMAC in order to produce its integrated
analysis. The regular provision of information to
the JMAC should be instituted in the reporting
procedures (i.e. SOPs) of all mission components.

4.8 Joint Operations Centre (JOC)

The Joint Operations Centre (JOC) is a jointly
staffed information hub established at Mission
Headquarters (HQ). JOC works to ensure
mission-wide awareness through integrated
Major General Khosewest Jamal Ahmed (third from left), Director of
reporting on current operations as well as
Joint Coordination Center (JCC) in Sulaimanyah, briefs Cesar Zorzenon
day-to-day situation reporting. During crises, the (right) Training Adviser on Standing Police Capacity of the United Nations
JOC will operate as the primary facility to support Mission in Iraq (UNAMI), and George Tweneboah (second from left) Police
mission crises management. Reform Adviser of UNAMI, during their visit to Sulaimanyah. (UN Photo
#478436 by Bikem Ekberzade, 29 June 2011)
The JOC provides the HoM and the SMT with a
24-hour information centre responsible to ensure
full situational awareness through timely and
accurate monitoring and reporting.

Upon establishment of the JOC, all mission

components shall make immediate arrangements
in order to provide the JOC with regular situation

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4.10 Representation of UN Agencies field coordination to both agencies and NGOs. He/
she provides guidance on policy and allocates
Since the end of the Cold War, there has been an tasks. He/she also provides advice to the political,
upsurge in the number and intensity of civil wars military, and civilian police components, as
and inter-ethnic conflicts. These have caused required.
large-scale humanitarian crises with extensive
loss of life, massive displacement of people, and Conflicts strongly affect the weak elements of any
widespread damage to societies in complicated society. Women, children, and the elderly suffer.
political and military environments. To address Diseases, lack of health support, and a strong
these complex emergencies, the United Nations diminution of the living standards of the population
has upgraded its capacity to respond quickly will accompany conflict. The humanitarian
and effectively. The General Assembly in 1991 elements will use all of their resources to alleviate
established the Inter-Agency Standing Committee the crisis and support the return of the population
to coordinate the international response to to their normal lives. Their collective responsibilities
humanitarian crises. include the following:
• Food distribution;
Many actors, including governments,
non-government organizations (NGOs), and • Medical and shelter supply;
United Nations Agencies seek to respond • Other necessities for living;
simultaneously to such emergencies. The Office for
the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) • Development projects; and
works with these groups to ensure that there is a • Reconstruction efforts.
coherent framework within which everyone can
contribute promptly and effectively to the overall Humanitarian assistance components work based
effort. on a strong principle of impartiality, and their
presence in a conflict area is always appreciated.
4.11 Human Rights Component Humanitarian workers normally know the area
and the people and arrive in the field before the
Those involved in the Human Rights component peacekeepers. They should be highly respected by
are civilian specialists under the direction of all, as they are doing a dangerous and difficult job
a representative appointed by the UN High to mitigate the effects of crisis and conflict.
Commissioner for Human Rights. Their tasks
include the investigation and follow-up of incidents 4.13 Electoral Component
where alleged human rights violations have taken
place. They have a very important role in complex Not all of the missions have the mandate of
peacekeeping, as one of the characteristics of the supervising and organizing free and fair elections.
conflicts to which these operations respond is the Where the mandate exists there is an “Electoral
recurrence of human rights violations toward the Component”. It consists of civilians, mostly
local population, especially women and children. recruited through the system of United Nations
Volunteers and organized in regional groups under
4.12 Humanitarian Assistance the authority of a Chief Electoral Officer who:
Component – Office for the • Monitors the process of elections;
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
(OCHA) • Verifies on behalf of the international community
that the elections are free and fair.
These are groups of civilians usually headed by
a Humanitarian Coordinator. The Humanitarian They are deployed in small teams in all the
Coordinator does not command humanitarian electoral districts of the mission area.
elements; rather he/she provides international and

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4.14 Security Sector Reform (SSR)
Component
Acknowledging that there is no one model for
a Security Sector Reform, a Report to the UN
SG defines the Security Sector as “a broad term
often used to describe the structures, institutions,
and personnel responsible for the management,
provision and oversight of security in a country.”
It is generally accepted that the Security Sector
includes defense, law enforcement, corrections,
intelligence services, and institutions responsible
for border management, customs, and civil
emergencies. Elements of the judicial sector
responsible for the adjudication of cases of alleged
criminal conduct and misuse of force are, in many
instances, also included.
Voter registration materials are loaded onto a helicopter from the UN
The United Nations refers to Security Sector Mission in Sudan (UNMISS), operating under the guidance of the UN
Reform (SSR) as “a process of assessment, review Integrated Referendum and Electoral Division (UNIRED), in Torit, Sudan,
and implementation as well as monitoring and for delivery to the country’s remote counties. On 9 January 2011, Sudan
held two referenda to determine whether South Sudan and the region
evaluation led by national authorities that has as its
of Abyei would remain part of the country. (UN Photo #455153 by Tim
goal the enhancement of effective and accountable McKulka, 8 November 2010)
security for the State and its peoples without
discrimination and with full respect for human rights Through processes of removing weapons from the
and the rule of law.” Furthermore, the Security hands of combatants, taking the combatants out of
Sector includes actors that play a role in managing military structures, and helping them to integrate
and overseeing the design and implementation of socially and economically into society, DDR seeks
security, such as ministries, legislative bodies and to support ex-combatants so that they can become
civil society groups. Other non-State actors that active participants in the peace process.
could be considered as part of the Security Sector
include customary or informal authorities and Integrated DDR is part of the United Nations
private security services. system’s multidimensional approach to post-conflict
peace-building and reconstruction. It is based on
In many cases there is a link between DDR and a set of principles for planning and integrated DDR
SSR that requires close coordination, cooperation, processes and concrete mechanisms to guarantee
and management. The SSR and DDR components coordination and synergy in the processes among
shall be organized accordingly. all UN actors.

4.15 Disarmament, Demobilization,

and Reintegration (DDR) Component
The objective of the DDR process is to contribute to
security and stability in post-conflict environments
so that recovery and development can begin. The
DDR of ex-combatants is a complex process,
with political, military, security, humanitarian and
socioeconomic dimensions.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. Which of the following are some of the 5. You find yourself assigned to a mission
components normally present in UN that has been assigned, as its mandate, the
Peacekeeping Operations? monitoring of free and fair elections. You
A. Mission Support, Red Cross, Doctors Without have built a good relationship with the local
Borders, Human Rights; community leader, who asks you to make
sure that no one threatens or interferes with
B. Military Observers, Mission Support,
the voting process. Which of the following
Secretary-General;
will you do?
C. Electoral Staff, UN Police, Mission Support,
A. Turn this over to the local authorities;
Military Component;
B. Tell him that you will organize a team of
D. Human Rights Staff, Red Crescent, UNMOs,
UNMOs to help you discourage anyone from
UN Police.
interrupting the voting process;
C. Remind him that you are only an UNMO and
2. Select two of the following components cannot do anything at all;
and describe their purpose(s) in a single
D. Remind him that the Chief Electoral Officer is a
paragraph: Mission Support, UN Military
member of the UN mission and is responsible
Observers, Formed Units, UN Police,
for verifying that the elections are free and fair.
Human Rights, Electoral Component,
Humanitarian Assistance.
6. Identify which of the following organizations
you would find in the Humanitarian
3. What is one of the roles of the Mission
Assistance Centre of a UN mission.
Support Component?
A. UN High Commissioner for Refugees
A. Supply and food services;
(UNHCR), International Committee of the Red
B. Transportation and medical services; Cross, UNICEF, UNDP;
C. Field constructions and transportation; B. Free the Children, OXFAM, International
D. Maintenance of UN-owned vehicles and Committee of the Red Cross;
equipment. C. International Committee of the Red Cross,
UNICEF, Doctors Without Borders, World
4. While you are in the field on a patrolling Bank;
mission, you notice that a local man’s human D. UN Development Programme (UNDP), Doctors
rights are being violated. What do you do? Without Borders, UNHCR.
A. Ignore it and move on. It is a local government
issue;
B. Offer assistance to the man;
C. Report the incident through your chain of
command;
D. Assume that someone has already sent it to
the UNHCR.

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 7. As an UNMO, you are in a mission assigned 8. As a UN Military Observer, you will:
to a UNMO Team that follows a Military A. Always carry a personal weapon;
Component Organization. What is your
B. Patrol and report on isolated areas;
chain of command? Use the chart for
reference and select all that apply. C. Never negotiate or mediate between factions;
D. Not be involved with Prisoner of War
Military Component Generic Organization exchanges.

Force Commander (FC)

9. The Humanitarian Assistance Coordinator:
Chief of Staff (COS) A. Commands over humanitarian elements;
Military Staff B. Provides international and field coordination to
both agencies and NGOs;
Chief Military Observers
Formed Units (CMOs) C. Never provides advice to the political, military
and police components;
Infantry Task
Units Forces Sector HQ D. Performs no coordination whatsoever.

Engineers UNMO Teams

Medical
10. Which of the following individuals provides
Transport Logistics UNMO Teams leadership and exercises command over
Source: UN Infantry Battalion Manual <www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
assigned forces in a peacekeeping mission?
documents/UNIBAM.Vol.I.pdf>. A. Humanitarian Coordinator;
B. NGO Organizer;
A. Your chain of command is directly to your
C. UNMO;
country’s senior military in the mission;
D. Force Commander.
B. The Force Commander has military control
over all assigned military;
C. Your chain of command is through your sector
HQ to the Chief Military Observer;
D. None of the above.

ANSWER KEY
1C, 2. See definitions in text, 3A, 4C, 5D, 6A, 7B, 8B, 9B, 10D

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LESSON 5
UN CIVIL-MILITARY
COORDINATION (CIMIC)
 LESSON
5

LESSON OBJECTIVES

5.1 The Need for This lesson provides information on United Nations Civil-Military
Civil-Military Coordination. It addresses how civilian and military peacekeepers
coordinate their efforts and work together to achieve the peace operations’
Coordination mandate and goals. After completing this lesson, the student should be
5.2 Definition and able to:
Principles of UN • Explain what Civil-Military Coordination is;
Civil-Military • Explain the principles of Civil-Military Coordination;
Coordination • Explain how Civil-Military Coordination is practised; and
5.3 CIMIC in Practice • Given a scenario, explain the role and relevance of Civil-Military
5.4 Confidence-Building Coordination to the UNMO.

Operations
Introduction
5.5 Role of the UNMO
The large number of multi-dimensional actors present in today’s complex
peace operations, in addition to the broad range of issues they deal with,
have made coordination among the various multi-functional actors a
crucial element in the success of these missions. Coordination is needed
among the various components of a United Nations peace operation;
between the UN mission and other international, bilateral, and NGO
components; and between the UN mission, the local government or
administration, and the parties to the conflict.
International and local multi-dimensional actors components work together as one integrated
include the humanitarian relief community, the mission, we need to use Civil-Military Coordination
peacebuilding and development community, mechanisms and structures to facilitate
military peacekeepers, civilian police, and others coordination, support, joint-planning, and the
involved in the criminal justice system, human constant exchange of information among them.
rights organizations, election specialists and
observers, and those responsible for conflict
prevention and peacemaking.

5.1 The Need for Civil-Military

Coordination
Most modern peacekeeping operations are
deployed in response to complex emergencies.
Complex emergencies usually imply intra-nation
conflicts, and medicine, food and water shortages,
refugees, and/or Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs).

Peacekeeping operations that respond to complex

emergencies require a multidimensional structure.
This is commonly referred to as a complex Members of the Nepalese contingent of the United Nations Stabilization
peacekeeping mission. Complex peacekeeping Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) participate in CIMIC (Civil-Military
missions typically consist of the following Cooperation) activities in an orphanage located in Kenscoff. (UN Photo
components: #407783 by Logan Abassi, 08 September 2009)

• The Special Representative of the Secretary-

General (SRSG) is responsible for conflict 5.2 Definition and Principles of UN
prevention, peacemaking, and the overall Civil-Military Coordination
management of the peacekeeping operation;
• The Peacekeeping Force (PKF) is responsible United Nations Civil-Military Coordination (UN
for establishing a safe and secure environment; CIMIC) refers to the coordination mechanisms
and procedures used by the UN System in UN
• The Humanitarian Coordinator is responsible for peacekeeping missions and by UN humanitarian
coordinating the humanitarian relief effort of the and development agencies.1
various UN humanitarian agencies, international
organizations (IOs), and non-governmental NOTE: CIMIC is known by other names or
organizations (NGOs); acronyms in different countries and organizations.
• UN Police (UNPOL) are responsible for The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and
monitoring the local police force or, in some some nations, mostly those in Europe and North
missions depending on the mandate, ensuring America, use other concepts with approximately
law and order; the same intent as CIMIC, such as Civil-Military
Cooperation or Civil Military Operations (CMO).
• A Human Rights Unit is responsible for
monitoring human rights and for human rights UN Civil-Military Coordination refers to all of the
education and advice; and actions taken to ensure that there is a continuous
• The United Nations Development Programme process of coordination and feedback among all
(UNDP) and the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) the components of the UN mission and others in
are responsible for leading the long-term 1 DPKO/DFS. Policy on CIMIC in UN Integrated
recovery and reconstruction efforts. Peacekeeping Missions. < https://docs.unocha.org/
sites/dms/Documents/DPKO%20UN-CIMIC%20
In order to ensure that all of these different %282010%29.pdf>

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the mission area in order to achieve an integrated capabilities; and
peace operation. The definition adopted by the
• Combining effort: By combining effort through
UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations in its
mutual support and by coordinating different
Civil-Military Coordination policy document of 25
initiatives to coincide over the same time
September 2002 is as follows:
period, one can achieve the power of leverage,
such as achieving more together than each
UN Civil-Military Coordination is the system of
component would have been able to achieve on
interaction, involving exchange of information,
its own. Through the exchange of information,
negotiation, de-confliction, mutual support, and
joint-planning, mutual support, and ongoing
planning at all levels between military elements
coordination and feedback, the mission will
and humanitarian organizations, development
achieve a holistic effort. For instance, through
organizations, or the local civilian population, to
coordination, the various components involved
achieve respective objectives.
in a Disarmament, Demobilization, and
Reintegration (DDR) campaign – including the
Note that for the purposes of DPKO policy, the term
UN Peacekeeping Force, UN Military Observers,
“Civil-Military Coordination” includes civilian police.
UN Police, UN agencies, international and local
NGOs, local authorities, conflicting parties, the
Principles of CIMIC
local community, and former combatants and
their families – will mutually enforce each others’
The following three principles lie at the core of all
efforts and, in so doing, develop a positive
Civil-Military Coordination:
momentum around the DDR campaign that will
• Recognizing interdependence: Interdependence help each component overcome the obstacles it
is the realization that each component’s success faces in its own area of specialization.
is dependent on the success of the other. For
instance, the electoral component cannot 5.3 CIMIC in Practice
successfully organize an election if others such
as UN Police and the Peacekeeping Force do CIMIC activities include information-sharing, joint
not help to create a safe and secure environment planning and evaluation, negotiation, coordination,
within which elections can take place. If so, mutual support and cooperation, and confidence-
coordination, mutual support, joint-planning, building. The exchange of information is at the
and the continuous exchange of information core of all coordination. It can take place through
on progress and setback become a critically meetings, through exchanging written and/or
important aspect of the mission’s overall success; electronic information, and through joint operations
centres. The success of the CIMIC effort is directly
• Avoiding duplication: In the absence of
linked to the quality and quantity of information
meaningful coordination, you will experience
shared.
overlap, duplication, and an overall uneconomic
and inefficient application of resources. Different
Joint planning and evaluation is the most advanced
components will use time and resources to
form of coordination and the most difficult to achieve
collect the same information. Many components
but, when applied, is also the most effective.
will focus on the same high-profile cases while
Coordination is when initiatives, campaigns, and
neglecting the less-high-profile, often more
programmes are synchronized and linked so that
inaccessible cases. The more meaningful the
they compliment one another. Mutual support and
coordination, the more efficient the overall effort
cooperation is when one component assists the
will be. For instance, if the medical units of a
other to achieve an objective, such as when the
Peacekeeping Force Battalion, a local clinic, and
PKF provides a security escort for a humanitarian
medical non-governmental organizations do not
relief convoy. Confidence-building is those efforts
coordinate efforts, they may all cover the same
aimed at improving the confidence that the local
area and perhaps neglect others. However, if they
government, parties, and population have in the
coordinate their efforts, they can spread out and
peacekeeping operation and the peace process.
cover a much wider area, with each providing
a service according to their resources and

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Coordination

Coordination should take place at all levels

(headquarters, sector/region/district, and local)
and in all areas (security, humanitarian relief,
reconstruction, human rights, electoral, etc.) where
more than one component are working together.
At the headquarters or mission-wide level, a Joint
Operations Centre (JOC) or similar body, where
all the mission components are represented, is a
crucial management tool for the SRSG to ensure
overall coordination.

Coordination in the UN Context

Cooperation and mutual support can take place

in many ways and between most components.
For example, the Peacekeeping Force (PKF) can
support others in the following ways:
• The PKF will normally not use 100% of its own
transport capability because it would have
been deployed with some excess capacity in Military contingents from the United Nations Mission
anticipation of any unforeseen developments. It in Haiti (MINUSTAH) joined forces to hold a Civil-
can provide other organizations with this unused Military Cooperation, or CIMIC day, for local residents
and students in Haiti’s capital Port-au-Prince’s Bel Air
capacity or access to cargo space on its aircraft,
neighbourhood. Doctors, dentists and engineers were in
ships, and/or vehicles. This is one of the most attendance at an all-girls school, providing medical and
used and useful support activities that takes dental attention and clearing the surrounding streets of
place within a UN mission. garbage and debris. (UN Photo #493057 by Logan Abassi,
27 October 2011)
• The PKF usually also has an engineering
capability with some capacity factored in for 5.4 Confidence-Building Operations
the same reasons. Again, this capacity can be
used under certain conditions to assist with the Confidence-building campaigns, aimed at
emergency provision or maintenance of roads, strengthening the confidence of the local
water, and electricity or construction services. population in the PKF, the UN operation, and the
• Although PKF medical units are deployed in peace process in general, is usually an important
support of the PKF, medical personnel often element of any peacekeeping operation. Most UN
find it possible to assist the local population with peacekeeping operations will deploy with a Public
some basic medical care or with education and Information component, and in most cases the PKF
assessments. will also have a small public information capacity.
The PKF will undertake its confidence-building
• The PKF will have its own independent campaigns through:
means of communication, and it can
provide communication services to others • CIMIC Patrols that specifically include in their
in an emergency when their normal objectives the gathering of information for
telecommunications systems are inoperative. humanitarian purposes (through the use of a pre-
developed questionnaire), and the establishing
• The PKF is also often the only institution with the of good relations with local populations through
capacity to provide specialty services, such as disseminating information about the UN mission;
weather forecasting and air traffic control. and

L E S S O N 5 : U N C I V I L - M I L I TA R Y C O O R D I N AT I O N ( C I M I C ) | 69
 • Organizing cultural and social activities. For • Construction: Pitching tents or rebuilding
example, in East Timor, various PKF battalions schools, hospitals, etc.;
respectively organized sporting events, beach
• Water: Providing potable water or helping to
clean-up, and other environmental events,
purify water and fix pumps and pipes; and
and they trained local farmers in agricultural
techniques, such as how to better utilize their • Manpower: Providing manpower to off-load
water buffalo for preparing rice paddies. equipment, pitch tents, etc. In most cases,
however, the UN will make use of the skills
available within the local population. This
5.5 Role of the UNMO provides them the opportunity to earn money,
learn new skills, and identify with whatever
Civilian, military, and police peacekeepers can
project it may be.
support each other and the local community in
many ways. Some of the most common ways
that a soldier can become involved in support of
humanitarian efforts are by:2
• Providing security: Guarding relief supplies,
securing roads, and guarding refugee camps;
• Gathering information: Gathering humanitarian
information during CIMIC Patrols and other
contacts with local communities;
• Escorting convoys: Providing security escorts for
humanitarian convoys;
• Transport: Providing access space for
humanitarian goods on ships, flights, and trucks;

Members of the Chilean and Brazilian contingents of the United Nations

Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) conduct rehabilitation works
and CIMIC (Civil-Military Cooperation) activities in engineering. (UN Photo
#407768 by Logan Abassi, 08 September 2009)

2 UN Infantry Batallion Manual, Volume II.

“Quick Impact Projects”. <http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/documents/UNIBAM.Vol.II.pdf>

70 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. Who is responsible for leading long-term 6. What kind of operation is aimed at

recovery and reconstruction efforts? strengthening the confidence of the local
A. UNDP and UNICEF; population in the PKF, the UN operation,
and the peace process in general?
B. The UN Police;
A. Electoral observation;
C. The Humanitarian Coordinator;
B. Convoy escort operation;
D. The Peacekeeping Force.
C. Traditional peacekeeping operation;
D. Confidence-building operation or campaign.
2. CMOCs, JLOCs, and UNHOCs are all
examples of:
A. CIMIC Coordination Centres; 7. List some of the ways that PKF can help the
local populace.
B. Offices that are used to register local
school-aged children;
C. Areas where PKF are in-processed; 8. The three main principles in CIMIC are:
D. Organizations at UNHQ that help in the field. A. Dependence, Duplication, and Combined
Effort;
B. Overlapping Efforts, Cooperation, and
3. From the following, select the example(s)
Dependence;
of cooperation and support to the local
populace: C. Recognizing Interdependence, Avoiding
Duplication, and Combining Effort;
A. Restoration or enhancement of water service
and purification facilities; D. Coordination, Limited Assistance, and
Duplication.
B. Provision of public sanitation;
C. Acquisition of basic medical equipment and
medical supplies;
D. All of the above.

4. CIMIC projects can include:

A. Building new barracks for the local military;
B. Building a new house for the local regional
administrator;
C. Building a new school to replace the one
destroyed during conflict;
D. Financing a new project for the country’s senior
politician.

5. List five ways that Peacekeeping Forces can

support CIMIC projects. Describe at least
three of them.

L E S S O N 5 : U N C I V I L - M I L I TA R Y C O O R D I N AT I O N ( C I M I C ) | 71
ANSWER KEY
1A, 2A, 3D, 4C,

5.
• The PKF will normally not use 100% of its own transport capability because it would have been
deployed with some excess capacity in anticipation of any unforeseen developments. It can provide this
unused capacity or access to cargo space to others on its aircraft, ships, and/or vehicles. This is one of
the most used and useful support activities that takes place within a UN mission.
• The PKF usually also has an engineering capability with some capacity factored in for the same
reasons. Again, this capacity can be used under certain conditions to assist with the emergency
provision or maintenance of roads, water, and electricity or construction services.
• Although PKF medical units are deployed in support of the PKF, medical personnel often find it possible
to assist the local population with some basic medical care or with education and assessments.
• The PKF will have its own independent means of communication, and it can provide communication
services to others in an emergency when their normal telecommunications systems are inoperative.
• The PKF is also often the only institution with the capacity to provide specialty services, such as
weather forecasting and air traffic control.

6D

7. Communication; Specialty Services; Confidence Campaigns; CIMIC Patrols; Cultural and Social
Activities; Engineering Capabilities; Transport; Medical Services.

8C.

72 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
LESSON 6
STRESS MANAGEMENT
 LESSON
6

LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide peacekeepers with the basic concept
6.1 Stress and Stress of stress and how to deal with stress symptoms. By the end of Lesson 6,
Management the student should be able to meet the following objectives:
6.2 Types of Stress
6.3 Stress Response to a • Define in general terms what stress is;
Critical Incident • List and explain three types of stress; and
6.4 Identifying • Explain stress management techniques and guidelines.
Stress-Related
Disease Introduction
Peacekeepers and UNMOs are usually competent and resilient
professionals working under extraordinary conditions. They are at
increased risk of stress due to the hazardous, austere, and isolated
environments in which they work. The occupational complexities that
characterize peacekeeping operation personnel’s prolonged separation
from family and other support systems exacerbate these risks. The stress
that peacekeepers undergo in this context represents a predictable
occupational hazard and a normal, natural response to such extraordinary
circumstances. It is therefore important to promote resilience and
functional stress management through education, prevention, and
advocacy.
6.1 Stress and Stress Management
Stress is a normal reaction to an abnormal
situation. Stress is the physical and psychological
process of reacting to and coping with events or
situations that place pressure on a human being.
It serves the function of self-preservation or
protection in a threatening situation, enabling one
to:
• Concentrate full attention on a particular threat;
• Mobilize maximum physical energy; and
• Prepare for action in order to respond to the
threat.
Kenyan soldiers the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) and a
Stress serves, and has always served, a purpose. member of the pro-Government Rask Kimboni Brigade (left) rest in the
For our prehistoric ancestors and for us, stress centre of Kismayo, a port city in southern Somalia. They are shown close
had and still has great informative value. It is part to a former police station after a combat engineering team inspected the
of what has allowed humans to survive up to the area for a suspected improvised explosive device (IED), left behind by the
militant extremist group, Al Shabaab. (UN Photo #531248 by Stuart Price,
present day.
05 October 2012)

Stress Management Important Qualities to Know about Stress

The concept of stress management has become a • Stress is inherent to survival;

very trendy topic, yet sometimes it remains unclear • Stress is necessary for human development;
what exactly it means.
• Stress is initially positive, but too much is
Stress management refers to the process of unhealthy;
identifying and analyzing any problems related • Stress is addictive; and
to stress, as well as the application of a variety
of tools to alter either the source of stress or the • Stress is manageable.
experience of stress.
The Stress Reaction
The main objective of stress management is to
simply enable an individual to function at his or her The stress reaction is a positive and normal
optimal level in a healthy and positive manner. It reaction, necessary for the protection of the
is important that UN personnel of all components individual, and necessary for optimal performance.
are able to live healthy lives, perform their duties It prepares the individual for performance in an
safely, and feel good about their work rather than urgent situation or in response to a threat. This
overwhelmed or under-supported. reaction can be observed in the following physical
manifestations:
The United Nations has stated that avoiding • The pupils widen, improving vision; and
negative side effects in individuals during or
following their participation in a peacekeeping • The pulse increases, bringing increased blood
operation is a primary goal. Psychologically flow to muscles.
stable and content personnel increase operational
readiness and efficiency.1 This reaction is often illustrated with the example
of the three Fs: Fright, Flight, and Fight, the three
1 UN DPKO Civil Affairs Handbook. Chapter possible reactions in a stressful situation. Each
6. Available at: <www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/ individual’s reaction to stress differs, depending on
documents/civilhandbook/Civil_Affairs_Handbook. the prior life experiences that have influenced him
pdf>.

LESSON 6: STRESS MANAGEMENT| 77

 to do so. Physical fitness, proper nutrition, and
rest increase one’s resistance to physical as well
as psychological trauma. Spirituality may support
an individual in times of uncertainty, difficulty, or
danger.

6.2 Types of Stress

The type of stress experienced depends on its
characteristics of frequency, duration, and intensity.
Peacekeepers are exposed regularly to both
minor and major incidents, which can result in the
build-up of stress.

Three types of stress are described in order of

increasing intensity:

Members of Tchaka Dance, a Haitian dance troupe, and psychosocial • Basic stress;
mobile teams from the International Organization for Migration (IOM)
work with displaced Haitians to help them overcome the emotional stress
• Cumulative stress; and
caused by the 12 January earthquake. Here, residents of the internally • Traumatic Stress, or Critical Incident Stress.
displaced persons camp at the collapsed Bellevue Country Club perform a
dance exercise. (UN Photo #430942 by Sophia Paris, 10 March 2010)
Basic Stress
or her. When an individual confronts a situation
for the first time, it is difficult and stress will be a Everyone experiences basic stress (also called
guiding power in resolving the situation. However, basal or minor stress) on a daily basis. This can
if similar circumstances have been confronted generate tension, frustration, irritation, or anger.
before, the individual will have familiarity and
learned techniques that will reduce the overall A person’s reaction is mostly determined by
stress of the same situation. his or her physical and psychological strength.
Peacekeepers should be aware that they will often
Factors that influence the way individuals cope with be confronted with stressful situations, and even
stress include: more so if the mission is in a conflict zone.
• Past experience with similar situations;
Typical causes of basic stress in the field include:
• Education and professional skills;
• Lack of influence on own situation;
• Pre-deployment training;
• Lack of food variety;
• Age;
• Repetitive or boring duties;
• Physical fitness;
• Limited possibility for contemplation, privacy, or
• Self-esteem; and separation from other members of the unit;
• Approach to life. • Minimal recreational possibilities; and
• Limited contact with loved ones at home.
With each bit of education and skills comes a
new set of solutions that can serve in potentially
Basic stress is unavoidable but may vary according
new and stressful situations. With training comes
to the normal circumstances of individuals. For
experience, as well as the confidence among peers
example, for individuals in a steady relationship at
and teachers, which will also support effective
home, the stress of being away from a significant
stress management. Also, it is easier to find
other while deployed may constitute a major stress
solutions if a person trusts in his or her own ability

78 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
not experienced by other individuals not in such observe one or more of these traumatic situations
relationships. in a conflict zone is very high. The trauma is
exacerbated because very often the peacekeeper
Cumulative Stress is unable to assist or change the plight of helpless
victims.
Cumulative stress is the result of more minor, basic
strains that occur too often, last too long, and have Typical examples of critical incidents that can occur
become too severe. This type of stress is subtle, in peacekeeping are:
but pervasive. It happens when people suffer
• Friends or self being affected by road traffic
prolonged and unrelieved exposure to a variety of
accidents;
stressors.
• Local atrocities;
Cumulative stress is frequently due to a
• Being under direct fire;
combination of personal, work, and incidental
events, which generate frustration. When it • Negative news from family or friends at home;
goes unnoticed, or when it is not well managed, and
cumulative stress can result in burnout.
• Direct physical threat or hostage situations.
Typical situations are:
• Repetitive situations with lack of respect from 6.3 Stress Response to a Critical
superiors; Incident
• Periods with overwhelming responsibilities; Few people will be unaffected by a critical incident,
• Periods with insufficient rest; and however, reactions may differ considerably. It is
important to accept that the reaction to stress is
• Periods with non-defined operational danger. as individual as all other reactions to physical,
psychological, or emotional situations. Some
Both basic and cumulative stresses may derive individuals handle cumulative stress and CIS with
from simple daily activities or a lack of them. In a minimal problems. Some are grossly affected. This
peacekeeping mission, it is very important to have does not make one individual better than the other.
something valuable to do. Living in an unfamiliar
environment with little or no privacy requires Some find that CIS is easier to live with than
challenging activities and a strong sense of cumulative stress, as the reactions are more
fulfilment to avoid demoralization and stress. accepted by others than with cumulative stress,
where a connection between a situation and the
Critical Incident Stress (Traumatic Stress) reaction may be more obscure. The severity of
reactions will depend on various factors relating
A traumatic or critical incident is usually defined as to the incident as well as to the individual (e.g.
an event out of the range of normal experience, or suddenness, intensity, duration, available social
a sudden and unexpected event that causes one support; individual’s past experience, personal loss,
to lose control. It involves the perception of a threat perception of threat, personal ability to cope, etc.).
to life and can include elements of physical or
emotional loss. Some reactions are immediate. Others may occur
days, weeks, or even several months or years after
This type of stress, Critical Incident Stress (CIS) the incident, resulting in Post-Traumatic Stress
is less familiar than basic stress or cumulative Disorder (PTSD).2
stress and is more difficult to deal with. It provokes
unusually strong physical and emotional reactions Critical incident stress-related reactions are
experienced in the face of such a critical incident. normal reactions experienced by normal people

The possibility that peacekeepers will encounter or 2 International Committee of the Red Cross,
Coping With Stress.

LESSON 6: STRESS MANAGEMENT | 79

following an abnormal event. These reactions or knowing what to do and what not to do are
symptoms can interfere with an individual’s ability equally important. If a person experiences a
to cope at work or at home. For a vast majority of stress reaction, and is prepared for it, they can
people, most symptoms will diminish in intensity acknowledge what is behind the reaction, relate to
and frequency within a few days or weeks. In some it, and deal with it.
severe cases, they may last months or years after
the event. Dealing with Stress

Preparing for Stress It is important for peacekeeping personnel to

recognize the signs of stress and to be able to
Suddenness and unpredictability are usually the cope with the effects of traumatic situations.
essence of a critical incident. One can never Most stress can be managed. Determination and
really be fully and totally prepared to face such an self-discipline are keys to finding the source(s) of
event. Nevertheless, planning a military action and stress and coping with it before it has escalated to
planning ways to address stress in oneself or in an uncontrollable level.
groups have the same characteristics. They must
be based on experience, practice, and training. The following guidelines have been found to
By understanding the situation in the mission and be effective in stress management strategy
finding out what situations you may be expected to development:
confront, one can begin to cope in advance.
• Identify sources of stress;
It is important that officers share information with • Know personal limitations;
their units. Operational and emotional parameters
• Manage time well;
should be explained to all. Training and planning for
how to manage one’s own stress or that of others • Be assertive, but not aggressive;
must be part of preparations. Training must be
• Accept creative challenges;
repeated in in-mission training sessions.3
• Get enough sleep;
As with any military operation, intelligence,
• Rest or conserve strength;
planning, and briefing on stress management must
be followed by individual practice and preparation • Eat regularly;
so that everyone maintains the knowledge needed
• Control intake of alcohol, tobacco, etc.;
to respond optimally.
• Make time for relaxation and physical exercise;
• If individuals are prepared for situations they may
encounter, they have a chance to be prepared to • Develop satisfying friendships and relationships;
meet the way they might be affected;
• Have a positive attitude; and
• If individuals are hit by a stress reaction and are
• Have a sense of humour.
prepared for it, they may acknowledge what is
behind the reaction, relate to it, and deal with it in
Non-Productive Stress Management
an appropriate manner;
• All people who have had stress-related reactions Many see alcohol as a way to relax. Limited
should be identified and offered follow-up upon consumption of alcohol is acceptable in social
return from mission; and settings, but alcohol as a means of relaxation
only creates a new problem instead of solving
• National experience on stress management
the problems of stress. The use of alcohol as a
should be collected for the good of future
recreational drug is unacceptable. Excessive use of
deployments.
alcohol or driving under the influence of alcohol is a
major problem in many peacekeeping missions.
When preparing for stress management,
3 UN DPKO, United Nations Stress Management
Booklet. 1995.
8 0 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A
U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
Sex also does not solve or heal stress-related
reactions. DPKO strongly advises against having
sex at the mission. Having sex with commercial
sex workers or others from the local population is
a violation of the Code of Conduct and jeopardizes
the mission.

6.4 Identifying Stress-Related

Disease
Many people do not react to subtle changes in
their own emotions or behaviour but may identify
it in others. If you identify changes that may be
stress-related in yourself or others, you should
take necessary action and seek treatment, when A woman poses in front of a graffiti representing the sun in Dili, Timor-
appropriate. Leste on the occasion of the observance of the World Mental Health Day.
(UN Photo #201198 by Martine Perret, 06 October 2008)
How does too much stress affect an individual?
Some examples of each type of reaction include:
• It is often easier to identify stress reactions in • Physical symptoms: fatigue, cold sweats,
others than in oneself;
elevated blood pressure, increased heart
• If one recognizes it in him or herself, accept it rate with pains resembling angina pectoris or
and seek support in dealing with it; and systematic tremors;

• If one recognizes it in others, they should help • Cognitive symptoms: temporary confusion,
them to get the support they need. difficulty concentrating, slowing of thought
processes, difficulty in understanding situations
The symptoms and reactions of stress-related and making decisions, racing ideas;
disease may be physical, such as fatigue, cold
• Emotional symptoms: anxiety, feelings of guilt or
sweats, elevated blood pressure, and increased
sadness, feeling defeated and apathetic, anger,
heart rate with pains resembling angina pectoris
irritability, having a scapegoat mentality, feeling
(systematic tremors); cognitive side effects such
all-powerful, excited and invulnerable; and
as temporary confusion, difficulty concentrating,
slowing of thought processes, difficulty in • Behavioural symptoms: dangerous driving,
understanding situations and making decisions; hyperactivity, endless discussions and senseless
emotional side effects such as anxiety, guilty arguments, staying too long in the office.
feelings, sadness, feeling defeated and apathetic,
anger, irritability, scapegoat mentality, feeling Reactions to stress may also show in the
all-powerful, excited, or invulnerable; or behavioural performance of the individual.
changes, such as dangerous driving, hyperactivity,
• Concentrating on the tasks at hand may become
endless discussions, senseless arguments, and
increasingly difficult;
staying too long in the office.4
• Individuals normally in command of their
Symptoms of Stress-Related Disease performance start forgetting appointments and
decisions, change their priorities, and become
The reactions and symptoms of stress-related forgetful; and
disease may be physical, cognitive, emotional, or
• Individuals who are normally decisive suddenly
behavioural.
stop making decisions.

4 Ibid.

LESSON 6: STRESS MANAGEMENT | 81

The physical side of stress reactions most often Stress management is like mental first aid and
experienced are: should be approached in the same manner:
• Spells of dizziness and nausea; • Observe that someone (maybe yourself) is in
need of help.
• Higher than normal pulse with a feeling that the
heart rushes away in periods; and • Identify the agent or cause that has initiated the
process, leading to a need for help.
• Episodes of sweating.
• Change the situation of the person so that this
Although the range of emotional reactions to process can no longer affect him.
trauma is limited, such reactions may vary from
• By caring and applying your knowledge, you
one individual to another. The time it takes
start reversing the process.
for these reactions to appear, as well as their
severity, depends on the person’s character • Continue caring until the process is fully
and vulnerability at the time. These reactions reversed.
typically manifest themselves when a normally
• If you cannot reverse the process fully, seek
well-balanced individual starts displaying episodes
professional help.
of:
• Unprovoked anger; If you cannot manage your own stress, ask
someone for support. If you see somebody in need
• “Emotional incontinence” – good things become
of support, do not shy away. Instead, apply what
good “beyond belief” and sad things become sad
you have learned. Listen, comfort, and support
“without limits”;
others. If you identify physical, behavioural, or
• A feeling of sadness or depression without any emotional changes, or changes in performance,
known reason; and look for stress factors. If you believe that stress
may be the cause of the changes, seek to identify
• A feeling of not being able to perform to
which stresses are present and how they might be
expectation.
addressed. If possible, remove the individual from
any influence that may add to the stress.
Stress reactions lead to a number of other changes
in the individual. A number of reactions may lead
Most situations can be solved at the unit level. It is
to a change in eating habits. These changes may
no shame to the units or to the individuals involved
include bulimia, anorexia, or an increase in eating,
if this level of support is not sufficient. In these
caring less about weight changes. In addition,
cases, refer to professional stress management.
those who are normally impeccably tidy may
become less particular with their personal hygiene.
Behavioural changes often lead to withdrawal from
the company of others. Always beware of those
who suddenly become “invisible.”

The normal emotional state of an individual

fluctuates between happy and unhappy, with an
average around “content”. In a mentally healthy
individual, every day will have its highs and lows.
Stress reactions often make highs and lows go
away, and the person becomes emotionally “flat”.
The most important warning sign for a “quiet
sufferer” is the withdrawal, as the person becomes
a quiet nonentity and is easily overlook.

82 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. Stress reactions are normal reactions to an 7. Which of the following is a non-productive
abnormal or difficult situation. way to reduce stress?
A. True. A. Seek help or support within your unit;
B. False. B. Use of alcohol and recreational drugs;
C. Increase exercise and recreation;
2. List and describe the three types of stress, in D. Meditation and spiritual reflection.
the order of increasing intensity.
8. Difficulty concentrating, temporary
3. Cumulative stress is the result of which confusion, and the slowing of thought
factors? processes are all examples of:
A. Normalcy and frequency; A. Physical symptoms of stress;
B. Abnormality, boredom, and frequency; B. Cognitive symptoms of stress;
C. Frequency, duration, and intensity; C. Emotional symptoms of stress;
D. Simplicity, severity, and frequency. D. Behavioural symptoms of stress.

4. When unmanaged or unnoticed, cumulative

stress can result in burnout.
A. True.
B. False.

5. Basic stress frequently results in:

A. No symptoms;
B. Tension, frustration, irritation, or anger;
C. Lack of sleep and increased sickness;
D. Severe chronic health conditions.

6. What are some of the factors that contribute

to basal and cumulative stresses? Select all
that apply.
A. Lack of influence;
B. Little variation in food;
C. Few work challenges;
D. Limited sleep and privacy;
E. Limited recreation.

ANSWER KEY
1A, 2. Basic Stress, Cumulative Stress, Critical
Incident Stress or Traumatic Stress; 3C, 4A, 5B, 6.
All of the above; 7B, 8B.

LESSON 6: STRESS MANAGEMENT | 83

LESSON 7
ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS OF
UN PEACEKEEPERS
 LESSON
7

LESSON OBJECTIVES
Peacekeepers and UNMOs represent the UN and their own countries.
7.1 Code of Conduct Their conduct, both negative and positive, impacts on the success of
7.2 Cultural Awareness the whole mission. The aim of this lesson is to provide a standard of
behaviour for peacekeepers in the field, particularly in the areas of cultural
7.3 Gender and awareness, gender, and child protection. By the end of Lesson 7, the
Peacekeeping student should be able to meet the following objectives:

7.4 Child Protection and

Child Soldiers • List the “Dos and Don’ts” of the Code of Conduct;
• Explain the consequences of failing to abide by the Code of Conduct;
• To provide UN peacekeepers the information required to improve their
ability to work and live in a multicultural environment;
• Be familiar with the concepts of cultural awareness and how to work
effectively within a multicultural environment;
• Explain the impact of conflict on the roles and relationships of men and
women;
• Explain how the presence of peacekeepers may further impact these
roles in positive and negative ways;
• Describe the role of peacekeepers in protecting children in situations of
armed conflict; and
• Explain the impact that violent conflict has on children.
Introduction circumstances or others may challenge this
support.
The UN embodies the aspirations of the people of
the world for peace. In this context, the UN Charter In the following portion of this section, each
requires that all peacekeeping personnel must principle is explained and accompanied by relevant
maintain the highest standards of integrity and ‘Dos and Don’ts’ to guide peacekeepers. Some of
conduct. Peacekeepers, whether military, civilian these guidelines will often apply to more than one
police, or civilian, must comply with the guidelines principle.
on International Humanitarian Law for Forces
Undertaking UN Peacekeeping Operations and all
applicable portions of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights as the fundamental basis of all
their standards. It is imperative that peacekeepers
understand and respect the differences in cultures,
understand the significance of gender relations in
the work they undertake, and uphold the rights of
children in situations of armed conflict.

7.1 Code of Conduct

Peacekeepers represent the UN and are present
in the mission area to aid in the recovery from
the trauma of conflict. As a result, they must
consciously be prepared to accept social A Danish peacekeeper for the UN Multidimensional Integrated
constraints in their public and private lives in order Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) helps prepare an aircraft to
to do the work and to pursue the ideals of the UN. transport a Cambodian company of explosive ordnance disposal (EOD)
experts trained by the UN Mine Actions Service (UNMAS) from Bamako to
Peacekeepers are accorded certain Privileges
Gao, in northern Mali, for service. (UN Photo #588768 by Marco Dormino,
and Immunities through agreements negotiated 14 May 2014)
between the host country and the UN solely for
the purpose of discharging peacekeeping duties.
Expectations of the world community and the Impartiality
local population will be high and the actions of
peacekeepers must be correspondingly high. Their The impartial and objective pursuit of the mission’s
actions and conduct will be closely observed. mandate, regardless of provocation and challenge,
is essential to preserving the legitimacy of the
The following guiding principles summarize the operation and the consent and cooperation
core values of the UN in its task of maintaining of conflicting parties. The effort to maintain
international peace and security. They must be impartiality, however, must not promote inaction.
borne in mind by every peacekeeper: On the contrary, peacekeepers must discharge
their tasks firmly and objectively without fear
• Impartiality: Even-handedness. Not being or favour. Importantly, neither side should gain
favourable, preferential, or supportive of any unfair advantage as a result of the activities of a
group, person, or plan over another; peacekeeping operation.
• Integrity: Honesty. The ability to know and do
what is morally right; Do

• Respect: Acceptance of others’ ways. Giving • Remain impartial at all times; and
value to others’ rights, customs, behaviours, and • Understand the mission mandate and
wishes even if they are very different from your any subsidiary directives and operational
own; and instructions.
• Loyalty: Unqualified support. Always fully
supporting someone or something even when

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 Don’t The most obvious example of a lapse in integrity
is undertaking some form of misconduct, even
• Take any action that might jeopardize the
one of a minor nature. Misconduct includes any
mission;
act, omission, or negligence that is in violation
• Make any unauthorized press statements; of Human Rights; UN values; mission SOPs
or directives; or any other applicable rules,
• Improperly disclose or use information; or
regulations, or administrative instructions.
• Become involved in any illegal sexual liaisons.
Don’t
Integrity
• Wilfully damage or misuse UN property or
equipment;
Personal integrity will establish both credibility and
authority for the UN peacekeeper. It is essential to • Use a vehicle improperly or without
the establishment of trust with the host population authorisation;
and as an expression of commitment to the
• Participate in any illegal activities or corrupt or
achievement of the mission mandate. Integrity
improper practices;
involves behaving professionally at all times
whether or not you are under observation. • Attempt to use your position for personal
advantage, such as to make false claims, to
accept benefits, or to engage in criminal acts; or
• Enter into any improper sexual relationships.

Respect

Within a UN peacekeeping mission there will

usually be a wide diversity of nationalities, races,
religions, and cultural backgrounds. Part of the
strength of the UN lies in this diversity, and some
cultures and behaviours may be vastly different
from your own. Treat all people with dignity and
respect. Show respect and understanding of
diverse points of view, and demonstrate this
understanding in your daily work. Examine your
own biases and prejudices, and avoid stereotypical
attitudes. Also, exercise restraint at all times in the
An Indonesian peacekeeper serving with the UN Multidimensional expression of personal views.
Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic
(MINUSCA) speaks with a civilian resident of the capital Bangui. (UN
Do
Photo #591907 by Catianne Tijerina, 12 June 2014)
• Respect the environment of the host country;
Do
• Treat the inhabitants of the host country with
• Conduct yourself in a professional and respect, courtesy, and consideration;
disciplined manner;
• Support and aid the sick and weak; and
• Support and encourage proper conduct;
• Respect all other peacekeepers regardless of
• Properly account for all money and property rank, ethnic or national origin, race, or gender.
assigned to you; and
• Care for all UN equipment placed in your charge.

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Don’t Each peacekeeper should be issued a card as a
reminder of his personal code of conduct. Read it
• Be abusive or uncivil to any member of the
frequently, and do not violate the code. There will
public;
be serious personal consequences for you and
• Use unnecessary violence or threaten anyone in possibly for the UN mission if you violate the code.
custody; If cards are not issued, the Code of Conduct and
behaviour of peacekeepers should be found in the
• Collect unauthorized souvenirs; or
SOP.
• Commit any act that could result in suffering of
the local population, especially women, children, Consequences of Violations of the Code of
or the elderly. Conduct

Loyalty The immunities and privileges of the UN were

briefly discussed in Lesson 2. These privileges
Remain loyal to the values, objectives and goals and immunities are granted to you by the
of the UN and the mission mandate. You are in Secretary-General for the performance of your
the mission to serve the interests of the UN and official duties and in the interest of the UN. They
the international community. Do not pursue any are not for your personal benefit. Depending
national or personal agenda. Stand by decisions on your category (formed military contingent,
that are in the UN’s interests even if they are UNMO, UN Police, or civilian), the immunities
unpopular or different from your personal interests. and privileges apply in different ways. However,
If you are in a decision-making position, resist regardless of application, you are still liable to
undue political pressure from any faction or disciplinary action and, in serious cases, criminal
government. The sole consideration for all you proceedings for violations of the Code of Conduct.
actions and decisions is the interest of the UN. As an individual and depending on your category,
you are also liable to suffer various consequences
Do for your misconduct. The consequences will
also depend on the severity of your offence or
• Dedicate yourself to achieving the goals of the
misconduct.
UN in the mission regardless of your personal
views; and
Minor Misconduct
• Obey your UN superiors and respect the chain of
command. Minor misconduct is any act, omission, or
negligence that is a violation of mission SOPs,
Don’t directives, or any other applicable rules,
regulations, or administrative instructions, but
• Bring discredit upon the UN, or your country
which does not result in major damage or injury to
through improper personal conduct, failure to
an individual or the mission. It may include, but is
perform our duties, or abuse of our positions as
not limited to:
peacekeepers; or
• Improper uniform appearance;
• Pursue your own personal agenda.
• Neglect in performance of duty not amounting to
The Blue Helmet’s Code of Conduct a wilful or deliberate act;
• Intoxication while on duty or in public; and
The following ten rules included on the card of the
Code of Conduct for the Blue Helmets summarize • Negligent driving.
the “Dos and Don’ts” associated with the four
principles previously discussed.

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Serious Misconduct recommendation of the Force Commander or the
SRSG. For a civilian peacekeeper, this may lead
Serious misconduct is any act, omission, or to termination of your contract with the UN. No
negligence, including criminal acts, that is a misconduct, however attractive it may seem, is
violation of mission SOPs, directives, or any other worth the loss of your good reputation, your job,
applicable rules, regulations, or administrative or your career prospects;
instructions that results in serious damage or
• Criminal Proceedings: In very serious cases of
injury to an individual or to the mission. Serious
misconduct, especially where the laws of the
misconduct includes, but is not limited to:
host country have been broken, you may find
• Sexual abuse and exploitation of any individual, yourself facing criminal proceedings in the host
particularly children; country. The immunities and privileges that you
have as a UN peacekeeper do not in any way
• Harassment, including sexual harassment;
permit you to break the established laws of the
• Abuse of authority; land; and
• Breach of confidentiality; • Financial Liability: In cases of negligent damage
or loss of UN property, you may be liable to
• Abuse of UN privileges and immunities;
bear the financial cost of replacement. This
• Use, possession, or distribution of illegal money may be sought from you or your national
narcotics; contingent, which may in turn take disciplinary
action to recover the money from your salary.
• Embezzlement or other financial malfeasance;
• Wilful disobedience of lawful order; and Case Studies
• Driving while intoxicated or other grossly
The following case studies on the next three
negligent driving.
pages highlight different breaches of the Code of
Conduct and their implications. Each has a short
Whatever your position within the mission, your
scenario and a series of questions. After reading
misconduct may have wide consequences and lead
the scenario and questions, put your answers in a
to:
short paragraph.
• Erosion of confidence and trust in the UN;
• Jeopardizing the achievement of the mission;
and
• Jeopardizing the status and security of
peacekeepers.

Depending on the level of your misconduct, you

may find yourself subject to one or more of the
following consequences:
• Internal Disciplinary Action: You may be subject
to disciplinary action by your superior officer or
supervisor. This may include a verbal or written
censure, a reprimand, and/or retraining in a skill
area. Military peacekeepers may be subject to
the code of military discipline, resulting in fines,
detention, repatriation, or dismissal;
• Repatriation/Termination of Contract: You may
be repatriated to your home country on the

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Case Study 1 – “A Little Money on the Side”

During a peacekeeping mission, two peacekeepers decided to “make a little money on the side” by
buying alcohol cheaply from the UN PX shop and selling it to the locals for profit. They knew that
alcohol was expensive in local shops, so there would be a ready market for their trade.

In a short time, word spread around the local community that alcohol was on sale at one particular
UN position, and business boomed for the two soldiers. In order to secure more stock, and to avoid
raising the suspicions of the PX staff, the two soldiers encouraged other peacekeepers to buy alcohol
on their behalf in return for a share of the profits. Sales grew further until word of the operation
reached local shopkeepers and civic leaders. They complained to the UN Mission Headquarters
(UN HQ), which acted swiftly to close the illegal operation and discipline those involved, but not
before several articles had appeared in the local press creating adverse publicity about the corrupt
and unprincipled behaviour of the UN.

QUESTIONS:

1. Do you see any violations of the Code of Conduct in this story?

2. Were these soldiers doing anything wrong? If so, what?

3. What consequences do you think their activities will have on:

a. The community?

b. The other UN troops at the position?

c. The relations between the UN troops and the local community?

d. The image of the UN and the country that these troops came from?

4. Do you think the behaviour of the soldiers poses any dangers to themselves and their colleagues?

5. What appropriate disciplinary action do you think should have been taken against these soldiers?

6. What other measures can be put in place to prevent this type of behaviour?

ANSWER:

This case study is intended to draw attention to the temptations of participating in the black market.
The peacekeepers would have been aware that most items in the PX shop are specially priced or
discounted and are not intended for resale, and they should not have utilized this concession for
personal gain. In the real-life situation of this study, the PX was closed. Because prices were higher
on the local economy and it was a great distance for UN workers to get to the local business areas,
this inappropriate action of a few adversely affected the larger group.

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Case Study 2 – “Money for Love”

Peacekeepers have established their base on the outskirts of a small rural community. There is a
large local family living near the camp that often come to ask the guards at the gate for food, kerosene,
and other small favours. The family is quite friendly and poses no threat to the peacekeepers. There
are also three attractive teenage sisters in the family.

After a few weeks, one of the peacekeepers invites one of the sisters into the camp and begins
an affair with her. In a short time, other peacekeepers “capture” the other sisters. It is obvious that
the sisters are having sex with their newly found boyfriends but there is no evidence of rape. The
peacekeepers who are having affairs with the sisters are now seen visiting the families late in the
night and showering them with gifts of food and kerosene and other small but essential needs. The
girls’ parents usually retire into their house whenever the peacekeepers come to visit. They have
not openly expressed any displeasure with their daughters’ affairs, and they are obviously benefiting
from the gifts and money that are being given to their daughters. The sisters are also dressing better
than the other girls in the village.

There is some gossip in the village about the girls and their peacekeeper-boyfriends, and the local
young men have become somewhat unfriendly towards the peacekeepers.

QUESTIONS:

1. What violations, if any, of the Code of Conduct can you identify in this story?

2. Do you think the peacekeepers have behaved properly?

3. How do you think the girls’ parents feel about these circumstances?

4. How do think the local community feels about these circumstances?

5. What could be the possible consequences for the girls and the peacekeepers if these relations
are allowed to continue?

ANSWER:

This case study is aimed at drawing the attention of peacekeepers to the wider consequences
of sexual relations with members of the host population. Even when these sexual relations are
consensual, there are likely to be negative consequences. The parents of the girls may not approve
of their actions, but because of the survival benefits they derive from it, they do not complain.
The local community may also not approve of “strangers” taking their women and may express
their resentment in a number of ways. They may also feel inadequate because they may feel that
the peacekeepers are “buying” the women because they have money. This could be a source of
tension between the peacekeepers and the local community. In the real-life story from which this
case study was extracted, the local young men issued threats and physically assaulted any girl who
was thought to be having sexual relations with a peacekeeper. The girls were also threatened about
what would happen to them after the peacekeepers left.

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Case Study 3 – “Are These the Sort of People the UN Sends to Help Us?”

The scene is a bar very popular to peacekeepers. A group of them are spending a night out.
They have been there for about three hours, and from the loudness of their conversation and their
laughter, they have been drinking quite a bit. Other patrons of the bar are not looking too pleased,
but nobody has requested that the peacekeepers keep their noise down.

The trouble starts when one of the peacekeepers, while trying to stand up, stumbles a little and
knocks the drinks off the next table. Four local young men who have also been in the bar for some
time occupy that table. One of the local young men demands that the peacekeeper pays for his drink
and the broken glass and compensate him for his wet clothes. The peacekeepers disagree and
a loud argument begins. Other patrons join the argument, and there one local young man pushes
a peacekeeper. The peacekeeper retaliates with a punch, and soon a free-for-all starts in the bar.
More bottles and glasses get broken and tables and chairs pushed aside. One peacekeeper has
blood gushing from the side of his head. Another has a swollen lip and a torn shirt.

Other peacekeepers arrive and assist in restoring order. They also persuade the drunken
peacekeepers to leave the bar. As they leave, one local was heard to say, “Are these the sort of
people the UN sends to help us?”

QUESTIONS:

1. What violations, if any, of the Code of Conduct have occurred?

2. What were the basic causes of the bar fight?

3. How could this situation have been prevented?

4. To what dangers, if any, did the situation expose the peacekeepers?

5. How could this situation affect the credibility of the UN Mission?

ANSWER:

This case study is primarily intended to draw attention to the inherent dangers of peacekeepers’
excessive indulgence in alcohol, especially in public places. There are also lessons to be drawn
from the local’s comment on how such conduct affects the credibility of the UN mission in a wider
sense. Even though peacekeepers may not be prevented by regulations from patronizing public bars
in the host country, their conduct while there is under the keen observation of the host population.
Drunkenness and indulgence in drugs usually leads to the lowering of one’s guard and clouds
judgement. In public places within the host country, it is important that peacekeepers exhibit the
highest standards.

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 7.2 Cultural Awareness members. One level of culture deals with
observable aspects, such as clothing, language,
Until recently, the importance of understanding and food. Another level, which we cannot always
culture in peace operations was underestimated. see, includes our shared ideas, beliefs, and values,
Challenges associated with culture have arisen due which usually become apparent when people
to the expanded and complex nature of modern from different social systems interact. Individuals
peacekeeping operations. Today’s missions are also do not embody a single culture, but rather
multicultural and take place in diverse cultural multiple cultures. Many cultural groups exist within
contexts. Culture is a sensitive topic. It provides the larger ones, including age, gender, class,
understanding of group and individual beliefs, profession, and religion.
values, and behaviour, as well as how they are
interpreted. It is most important that peacekeepers Culture colours everything we see and do. It is
understand the differences in cultures and their impossible to leave our cultural lenses behind
effects to prevent misunderstandings. during our interactions, particularly the perspective
and experience through which we interpret events.
A number of factors play a role with a varying
degree in shaping a culture. They include:
• Urbanization;
• Ethnic background;
• Nationalism;
• Religion;
• Migration;
• Gender;
• Colonization;
• Language;
• Industrialization;
School girls from El Sereif, North Darfur perform traditional songs and
• Profession;
dances during the cultural and sports event organized by UNAMID.
(UN Photo #589356 by Albert González Farran, 20 May 2014) • Minority experience;
• Cross-cultural adjustments;
Culture • Education;
Many factors form and influence culture – hundreds • Personal culture: values, worldview, beliefs,
of definitions, concepts, and theories exist. A behaviours; and
simplified working definition of culture is that it is • Social background.
a system of both implicit and explicit meanings,
beliefs, values, and behaviours shared by members Dangers
of a community or a group, through which
experience is interpreted and carried out. Culture Human beings frequently make generalizations
determines the way we act, the manner in which about people and attribute characteristics to them.
we relate to others, and the way that we think about In other words, we create stereotypes. When we
and interpret events happening around us. do this with cultural groups, there is a danger of
developing negative stereotypes, which leads
Culture is acquired through the process of to prejudice. A cycle of prejudice begins when
socialization. We learn relative values and we start judging other cultures by our own set of
appropriate behaviours from our community standards to define the world around us.

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Lack of knowledge or an unwillingness to Religion
learn can result in an unintentional conflict or
misunderstanding. The prejudices are often In most of our societies, religion is an important
based on imperfect information and are normally factor. Peacekeepers and UNMOs should be aware
filtered through an individual’s background and of and sensitive to the religious beliefs and customs
experiences. The only way to break this cycle in the mission area. You will find other religions
is to be aware of cultural differences and try not only among local people but also among other
to understand their origins. When working in a peacekeepers. Respect all religions as you do your
culturally-diverse environment as peacekeepers, own beliefs.
we have to be careful to question our own cultural
expectations to avoid making stereotypes or
forming prejudices against other groups.

Culture in Peace Operations

Cross-cultural interaction in peace operations

occurs at various levels:
• National contingents;
• Diverse personnel who work for diplomatic,
humanitarian, and other civilian agencies;
• Military and civilian organizations involved in
establishing and sustaining missions;
• International staff and local communities; and
Women pray outside a mosque in Dili, East Timor, in observance of Eid al-
• Different ethnic groups in conflict. Fitr. (UN Photo #199859 by Martine Perret, 01 October 2008)

Understanding Cultural Differences

Family and Gender
The most striking and common differences that
In some cultures family ties are considered very
new peacekeepers will experience include the
important. Elders are most respected in some
following.
societies. As a rule, paying respect to elders and
being humble will never be wrong. Gender beliefs
Eating Habits
of the local community may be different from yours.
In some matriarchal societies, women do all the
Some nations use knives, forks, and spoons. Some
work and are the “providers” for the family. You will
use chopsticks and a spoon, while other nations
learn more on this subject in the next section.
have very high hygiene and use the clean right
hand instead of cutlery. Some nations eat from
Communication
individual plates, and others (such as Eritrea and
Ethiopia) have one big common plate. Do not be
Language is culture-specific. Cultural undertones
surprised.
always exist when a person is speaking in English
and is not a native of an English-speaking country.
Food
So, if you are not a native English speaker, you
may not always understand and may have to ask
Beef is not eaten in Hindu countries, Muslims do
the person to repeat or re-phrase. When speaking
not eat pork, and Christians keep cats, dogs, and
English to a non-native speaker, it is best to use
horses as pets. In some countries, people have no
short sentences. Also, avoid idiomatic language
problem with eating any animal that is available.
and complicated grammar. Humour is a positive
These habits are different for everyone, and it is
approach. But be aware that humour is not
important to understand and respect that these
cross-cultural and that your sense of humour can
differences exist.
make enemies.

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Body Language Building Cultural Awareness

Body language is very important, as it conveys Culture and cultural differences can have a
many things that you do not say. Different gestures powerful effect and can lead to misunderstanding
have different meaning in different cultures. A and conflicts. Cultural awareness is necessary to
smile, however, will never be misunderstood. A manage these differences, which we otherwise
polite handshake is accepted in most cultures, tend to measure against our own standards.
though there are exceptions where men do not
• As a first step, we need to fully understand our
shake hands with women. Men walking hand
own culture, how personal cultural experiences
in hand are quite common in many countries
have shaped our communication styles, and why
and indicate trust and friendship. In some other
we do things a certain way;
cultures, hand-holding may be related to sex.
• The next step is to understand the specific
Dress Code culture we would be working with; and
• Finally, we need to view cultural differences not
Dress code is different amongst various cultures. It
as weakness but as strengths that enable us to
depends upon customs, traditions, and the climate.
solve problems in a unique and creative manner.
Peacekeepers need to understand and acclimatize.
Culture of the Host Country
Traffic
If feasible, try to know at least the most current
Countries have different traffic conditions and
development in the local history of the mission
rules. These have to be understood and adapted
area. You can be sure that the parties have
to by the peacekeepers. Many casualties in
different opinions on the history, but basic facts
peacekeeping are not from combat, nor from
are helpful and make you a more convincing
sickness. Peacekeepers and UNMOs can die in
peacekeeper.
traffic accidents.
• Drive defensively and carefully; and Cultural Shock – Adaptation Stages
• Study the local traffic conditions.
The stages of the adaptation to a new culture are:
Time • Honeymoon;
• Initial confrontation;
The concept of time also differs between
cultures. The military has its own understanding • Adjustment crisis; and
of what being “on time” means, which may differ
• Recovery.
substantially from what is understood by civilians
or the local community. In some cultures, being
For a new peacekeeper or UNMO, it is normal to
late is a symbol of status and power. In one of the
face some discomfort. Some become homesick
missions, when asked, a local leader said, “You
or depressed, and others even get hostile towards
have the clock, we have the time.”
the host nation’s culture. How do you manage
culture shock? Speak out with your friends and
your commanders. Ask questions before getting
angry about attitudes or facts that you may be
misinterpreting. If you have previous experience in
peacekeeping, you may feel nothing, but help the
younger and newer soldiers to adjust.

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Maintaining Good Relations and men to play in public and in private. Gender
is about how we are expected to act and think
The knowledge and understanding of other cultures because we are male or female. Gender changes
is critical for the maintenance of good relations to across time and across cultures. Society’s beliefs
all the people in the mission. It will not only help about gender have a profound impact on the
you as an individual, but your organization will opportunities that men and women have and how
work more effectively, and the mandate will be and whether they have access to resources and to
easier to accomplish. Always remember that each their rights;
organization also has its own culture and values.
As you did for other people in the mission area, Unlike gender, sex is fixed, determined by biology
do your best to know and understand the culture at birth, and is universally recognized. We all
of all organizations, elements, and partners in UN know the physical differences between the sexes.
peacekeeping. Gender roles are determined by the roles society
give to men and women. Sex roles do not change:
women give birth and breastfeed children. This
7.3 Gender and Peacekeeping: is a sex role. Men cannot perform this function.
UNSCR 1325 However, both men and women can care for
children. This is a gender role; both men and
It is essential that peacekeepers and UNMOs women can perform this function;
of all nations, whether military, civilian police, or
civilian, understand the significance of gender Men have greater body mass, are generally
relations in the work they undertake. Experience in physically stronger, and can grow beards. This is
recent years has sadly demonstrated the negative determined by their biological make-up. However,
effects on a conflicted population of the presence both men and women can be soldiers, political
of peacekeepers who lack this appreciation, or leaders, or social leaders. This is determined by
who choose to act contrary to the principles and society and culture.
standards established by the United Nations.
Their failure to conform to these standards and to Both sex and gender roles have an impact on
respect the interests, needs, and desires of the the freedom of movement, the need for specific
population, particularly the women, has weakened services, such as reproductive health care for
the effectiveness of UN peace operations. women, and influence the kinds of work people do.

Without an understanding of how the relations Gender Roles

between women and men are structured, how
they are affected by violent conflict, and how the Gender roles are the social and cultural
mere presence of peacekeepers further impacts assumptions about what behaviors are “right”
on those relations, there can be little meaningful for women and men. Every culture, including
advance in the effectiveness of peacekeeping minorities within the dominant culture, has rules,
operations. At the same time, when such an beliefs, and attitudes about how men and women
understanding is present, UN peace operations should behave, the work they should do, and the
are meaningfully enhanced, and the chances of responsibilities they should fulfil. It is part of what
achieving sustainable peace are greatly improved. society believes is right and what a society values
in its men and women. It is important to note that
Gender and Sex gender roles:

Many languages lack a literal translation for the • Vary between cultures. Being submissive,
word “gender” in their vocabulary, so it is often subordinate, and discreet may be thought of as
impossible to translate. The following examples womanly in some cultures and not in others.
will illustrate the distinction between gender and Being tough, strong, and warlike may be valued
sex. Gender refers to the ever-changing roles that by some societies for its men. This can change.
the family, community, and state expect women We all have ideas of what women and men are
capable of and what roles they can fill; and

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• Also account for social differences. Not everyone social values and taboos and the absence
in society is seen in the same way. Poor women of traditional male protectors, women are
always work – often in and out of the home. vulnerable. Sexual violence is often a strategic
Women and men may be equally discriminated weapon of war, not a random act. All sexual
against if they are from a lower caste or place in violence is unacceptable. In wartime it is
society. Likewise, race is a significant factor in used to de-stabilize and destroy the enemy
society’s image of what is appropriate for men psychologically;
and women, and age can provide women with
• Trafficking and forced prostitution. Organized
more respect and recognition. On the contrary, in
crime often moves into the vacuum created by
some societies, discrimination may increase if a
the absence of law enforcement. Trafficking in
woman is a widow.
humans and forced prostitution has become
increasingly common in post-conflict societies.
Special Vulnerabilities
Women are vulnerable and desperate and are
easy prey to traffickers;
Though women are not always the only group
discriminated against in society, they often live at a • Absence of social services. Female-headed
heightened risk of the following threats: households are particularly affected by the
absence of social services and the increase in
• Sexual violence. Women are particularly
poverty due to the loss of income and lack of
vulnerable to sexual violence during armed
employment; and
conflict. Without the normal forces of law and
order, as well as the breakdown of traditional • Loss of access and rights. Because of their
social roles and the absence of male family
members, women are often unable to move
freely, to approach official structures, to get
financial assistance, or to claim rights to property
and inheritance.

Gender Discrimination

The following are further examples of discrimination

on the basis of gender:
• Denial of political rights to women (right to vote,
right to be elected);
• Lack of uniformity of laws (dress codes, freedom
of movement, property rights, divorce, children,
inheritance, etc.);
• Vulnerability to sexual crimes: rape, trafficking,
abuse (prostitution, soliciting, pornography, sex
with minors, etc.);
• Separation of men and women so that both
sexes can be victimized (specific actions to
kill, displace, rape or capture on the basis of
sex, e.g., separation of men and women in
Srebrenica: approximately 7,000 men and boys
Ex-combatants participate in skills training at the Booker were massacred, while scores of women were
Washington Institute, as part of the rehabilitation and raped and killed);
re-integration process in Kakata., Liberia. (UN Photo
#85566 by Kanalstein, 24 January 2005) • Sex-specific mortality rates (indicate specific
acts or omissions); and

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• Sex-specific unemployment (laws that prevent
women from employment, or employment in
certain categories).

Impact of Conflict

The following categories highlight areas of

gender inequality typically found in conflict and
post-conflict situations:
• Absence of Rule of Law, increased human rights
violations. Normal law and order systems and
traditional social systems and cultural taboos
collapse as a result of conflict. Sexual violence
is a prevalent feature of modern warfare. It is
used to terrify, intimidate, and destroy the enemy
psychologically; A delegation of United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (MONUC) female staff visited a women’s shelter
• Upheaval, migration, and displacement. Women for victims of sexual abuse in Goma and donated much needed supplies.
constitute the majority of refugees and Internally (UN Photo #349701 by Marie Frechon, 07 March 2009)
Displaced Persons (IDPs). Civilians, who are
mostly women, children, and the elderly, are Change in Roles
deliberately targeted in modern conflict;
Conflict can impact traditional gender roles in the
• Changes in responsibility. Men and boys go to following ways:
war, leaving the women to care for the home,
property, and family. Women’s roles change • New roles and responsibilities. During armed
when men are absent. They have to make all conflict, women also assume new roles and
family decisions in the absence of males. Some responsibilities within the family and the
women also go to war as soldiers, messengers, community. Many play a more public role than
camp followers, and “bush wives” (mostly against they do during times of peace. It may be difficult
their will); to revert to the previous roles after the conflict;

• Focus on ex-combatants. Post-conflict efforts • Contribution to the war and peace effort.
often focus on male ex-combatants and neglect Women contribute to the war effort in many
the role of women during and after conflict; and ways: messengers, suppliers of food and shelter,
safe houses, distribution of information, etc. They
• Unemployment, shortages, and disrupted also contribute to the peace efforts by mobilizing
social services. Conflict destroys or disrupts for action to stop the fighting, crossing the lines
government and social services, such as of fire, lobbying political figures, and more;
education and health. It causes shortages
in goods and services, as well as inflation of • Increased political participation. Women play
prices, growth, and often dependency on the a more political role, provide leadership and
illegal black market. The physical infrastructure support, and expect this to continue in the post-
(roads, bridges, transport, and power and conflict environment;
communication lines) are often damaged. • New skills and knowledge. They also develop
Women lose access to reproductive health care skills and knowledge – surviving in such
and schooling for their children. They often conditions is difficult – and they become
also lose their peacetime jobs, pensions, and more confident and knowledgeable about life
other necessities of life. Because of poverty and outside the domestic sphere. These positive
desperation, women and children are prey to features often go unnoticed by the international
organized crime and are open to the pressures community. Peacekeepers can contribute to
to earn a living. Some may be forced to turn to this education process by ensuring that they
begging and prostitution.

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 provide all possible support to leading women UN Security Council Resolution 1325 and
community members; and Subsequent Resolutions
• Women are likely to provide a fuller picture of
The UNSCR 1325 was adopted unanimously
community problems than men because they
on 31 October 2000. It was the first formal and
have remained throughout the conflict, taken
legal document from the United Nations Security
care of the children, the sick, and the elderly, and
Council that required parties in a conflict to respect
they have survived. This requires strength and
women’s rights and to support their participation
resourcefulness.
in peace negotiations and in post-conflict
reconstruction.
Gender, Culture, and Human Rights
The Security Council was concerned about
Culture changes over time. The comment is often
civilians in armed conflict, particularly women and
made that, as peacekeepers, “we are not here to
children, who constituted most of the victims and
change the culture.” This is true, but the fact is
were increasingly targeted by armed elements.
that peace operations will contribute to cultural
This in turn had an impact on the possibilities
change. Culture is always in a state of change;
for peace and reconciliation. Women played an
it is not static. Conflict will speed up and redirect
important role in the prevention and resolution of
cultural shifts. The international community is not
conflicts and therefore it was important that they
present to impose cultural values. That is why a
were equally involved in the process of maintaining
rights-based approach is used to focus on the
international peace and security. It was also
following points:
recognized the need to adopt a gender perspective
• Universally accepted human rights standards. in peacekeeping operations and the training of
Your personal cultural value system, or your personnel on women’s rights.
personal views of what men and women should
or should not do, is not the measurement to be The UN Secretary General was requested to
used. The UN Members States have agreed increase the participation of women at decision
on a set of universally recognized human rights making levels in conflict resolution and peace
(the Universal Declaration of Human Rights process; appoint more women as Special
and other such treaties), and these agreements Representatives and envoys; and expand their role
serve as the universally-accepted standards that in peacekeeping operations, particularly among UN
UN peacekeeping operations must adhere to, military observers, UN Police, human rights and
promote, and defend; humanitarian personnel. In this regard the Council
expressed its willingness to incorporate a gender
• Human rights culture. Peacekeepers must
perspective into peacekeeping operations.
project an appreciation for human rights in their
work. International Human Rights laws are based
The Security Council called upon all parties
on universally-shared values regarding respect
involved in negotiating and implementing peace
for the dignity and worth of the human person
agreements had to take into account the special
and the equal treatment of men and women.
needs of women and girls in armed conflict,
Perversion of these laws is partly a result of war
support women’s peace initiatives and implement
and conflict; and
international humanitarian law and human
• Respect and trust contribute to security. rights law that respects the rights of women and
Peacekeepers have a responsibility to respect girls. Parties to armed conflict were also urged
the local culture and, thereby, develop trust to take measures to protect women and girls
with the host population. This will increase the from gender-based violence such as rape and
peacekeepers’ own security. other forms of sexual abuse, and to respect the
humanitarian nature of refugee camps and take the
needs of women and girls into their design.

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Since the adoption of UNSCR 1325, additional
Security Council Resolutions have been passed to
fortify the Women, Peace, and Security agenda.
These include UNSCRs 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009),
1889 (2009), 1960 (2010), 2106 (2013), and 2122
(2013).

Peacekeepers and Gender Rights

Peacekeepers are obliged and expected to

uphold human rights at all times. As members
of UN missions, they are bound by the spirit
and principles of the UN Charter, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, and other relevant
international treaties and conventions. Human
Rights laws are founded on the principles of being
universal (for everyone), indivisible (meaning Eun-Bi Jeong, Nurse Officer, and two of her colleagues photographed next
rights cannot be selected; all apply), and equal. to clinic of the Korean Contingent Headquarters at UN Post 2-5 at the
Peacekeepers cannot choose which human rights vicinity of Tyre, South Lebanon. (UN Photo #542743 by Pasqual Gorriz, 23
October 2012)
to uphold and which to ignore based on personal or
cultural interpretations; they must uphold all. They
Power Imbalance
are bound to uphold the UN concept of human
rights, as per the Universal Declaration of Human
Peacekeepers are powerful because they have
Rights agreed to by most of the UN Member
money, mobility, access to food, water, other goods,
States.
and force. This causes a power imbalance between
the peacekeepers and the host population.
Protecting Gender Rights
• Use this power to do good. Most peacekeepers
The extent to which a peacekeeper may act to use this power to do good. The international
uphold Gender Rights depends on the mandate presence can have a positive effect by initiating
of the peacekeeping operation. Actions may and supporting efforts to stop organized
range from reporting to protecting, depending crime and improve the conditions of the local
on the mandate of the mission and the Rules of population, including that of women.
Engagement (ROE).
• Do not allow others to abuse power. Some
• Reporting. There will always be a need to report, peacekeepers have, however, used their
even when you may also act to protect human powerful position to abuse vulnerable
rights. Obtain as much information as possible populations. They do this by hiring prostitutes,
of the alleged human rights abuse (make notes, thus encouraging prostitution, including with
take photos), and report it as soon as possible to children; by spreading HIV/AIDS in the process;
your superior. Report on the what, where, when, by getting involved in or even unknowingly
who, and how of the situation. encouraging organized crime involving
prostitution and the trafficking of women; by
• Protecting. If you are allowed or obliged by
abandoning children they have fathered; and by
the mandate of the mission to act to protect a
abandoning women who have been promised
person’s rights (such as the right to life), this
marriage or other benefits in exchange for
will be made very clear in your orders and
a sexual relationship. This compounds the
ROE. There will be no specific ROEs for use for
difficulties these communities face. Such
protection of Gender or Human Rights; the ROEs
behaviour is illegal and morally unacceptable
will apply to all situations that may require the
and will not be tolerated by the United Nations.
use of force. ROEs are mission-specific, as they
depend on the mandate and other factors.

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We should not allow a few irresponsible people to 7.4 Child Protection and Child
impact negatively on the credibility of the UN and Soldiers
the peace operation and, therefore, on our ability to
achieve our overall goal of sustainable peace. In recent years, the Secretary-General and the
Security Council have actively undertaken the task
Sexual Relationships in Peace Operations of placing the issue of child rights in situations
of armed conflict squarely on the UN peace
This question and answer has been included and security agenda. The Security Council has
here because this question is often asked in expressed its resolve to give special attention
relation to this topic. If you as a peacekeeper or to child rights and protection and has adopted
UNMO decide to engage in sex in a peacekeeping four resolutions devoted to child protection in
mission, please make certain you are aware of the times of armed conflict. Resolutions 1379 (2001),
consequences your actions will have on the local 1325 (2000), 1314 (2000), and 1261 (1999), and
community, yourself, your home country, the UN 1820 (2005) call upon parties to armed conflicts
mission and UN rules and regulations. to include child protection provisions in peace
agreements and to address child rights concerns
Question: Am I allowed to have sex in a throughout the consolidation of peace in the
peacekeeping mission? aftermath of conflict.

Answer: As a UN peacekeeper, you are under Pursuant to the Council’s recommendation, the
obligation to uphold international human rights Secretary-General has submitted annual reports to
standards. Remember the eyes of the whole world the Council on Children and Armed Conflict since
are on you. Your actions will not only be judged as 2000 and has referred to child protection concerns
at the individual level, you will now be judged as a in scores of recent other reports to the Council.
national of your country and a representative of the
UN. In recognition of the critical role peace operations
play in providing protection to children, the Security
Your actions must be guided by: Council has explicitly incorporated the protection
• International human rights standards; of children into the mandates for a number of UN
missions since 2001, and it has endorsed the
• The UN Peacekeeping Code of Conduct; deployment of Child Protection Advisers when
• In case of formed military units, the national laws required.
of your country and your military disciplinary
codes; Many peace operations without such explicit
provisions also address child protection concerns
• The specific instructions in this regard from your in the execution of their mandate, often in
superiors; and collaboration with the United Nations Country Team
• The laws, culture, religion, and values of the host (UNCT).
country.
Understanding Child Protection
Always be guided in your personal action by the • Definition of a child. The United Nations
knowledge that, on- or off-duty, you represent the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN CRC)
United Nations. Think of the consequences of your defines a child as a person under the age of 18
actions and how they will impact others. years. Regardless of what local laws apply to
children in the country of the mission, the UN
CRC definition guides the behaviour of mission
personnel. By respecting the UN CRC definition
in their own behaviour, mission personnel will
be contributing to the protection of children and
improving their development opportunities.

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• Children are vulnerable. Children are vulnerable
at all times, but particularly in situations of
armed conflict. Both boys and girls are affected
by conflict, but girls are particularly vulnerable
to sexual exploitation, family, and community
violence, and discrimination made worse
by conflict. Boys are vulnerable to forced
recruitment by armed groups or forces. Conflict
increasingly affects women and children. In
many conflict-affected areas, children comprise
as much as half or more of the population,
making them the majority not a minority. Gender
must be a cross-cutting concern, as special
attention needs to be given to the vulnerability of
girls in all considerations. Jordanian blue helmets with the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti
(MINUSTAH) distribute school supplies, including backpacks, to students
• Childhood should be protected. Children need at the Foyer des Enfants School in the low-income Diquini neighbourhood
special protection in view of their young age, of Carrefour, on the outskirts of Port-au-Prince. Sixteen schools and
small size, and lack of maturity. They are also nine orphanages have benefitted from donations made by MINUSTAH’s
learning about life, and there are many things Jordanian contingent. (UN Photo #501572 by Victoria Hazou, 01 December
they do not understand, as well as many dangers 2011)
they do not suspect. This is why they need the
• The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of
protection of adults.
discrimination against Women; and
• War violates every right of a child. War violates
• The Rome Statute of the International Criminal
a child’s right to life, food, shelter, security,
Court.
education, sexual integrity, non-discrimination,
health, and many others. Armed conflict takes
CRC Guiding Principles
away a child’s right to grow up and develop in
peace and security so that he/she can achieve
The Convention on the Rights of the Child has
their full human potential.
three key principles that should guide all of the
actions of adults towards children:
The Rights of a Child
• Non-discrimination (Article 2): No discrimination
In peacekeeping missions, there are personnel on the basis of race, gender, colour, religion,
from many different backgrounds and cultures. ethnicity, etc.
The concept of childhood is understood
• Best interest of the child (Article 3): Acting in the
differently in different contexts, but in the UN
best interest of the child means doing what is
context, peacekeepers are obliged to uphold the
best for the child and not what is best for you.
internationally accepted and agreed upon common
For example, if you have a child who needs to
standards for child rights, which are stated in the
go to school, and there is an excellent school
following documents:
across town, you will make the effort to send that
• The Geneva Conventions and Additional child to that school, although it would be more
Protocols; convenient for you to send the child to a school
that is located near your home.
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
and the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of • Participation (Article 12): States Parties shall
Children in Armed Conflict; assure to the child who is capable of forming his
or her own views the right to express those views
• The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of
freely in all matters affecting the child, the views
Refugees;
of the child given due weight in accordance

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 with the age and maturity of the child. For this • Mines and violence. A disproportionately high
purpose, the child shall in particular be provided number of children become victims of mines
the opportunity to be heard in any judicial and because they are more often exposed to mined
administrative proceedings affecting the child, areas since they play in close proximity to these
either directly or through a representative or an danger zones. Children also often witness
appropriate body, in a manner consistent with violence, such as the killing of their parents and
the procedural rules of national law. the rape of female adults or older girls. Often
they become victims of violence themselves.
• Child soldiers. Boys and girls are often forced
to become soldiers, or they join one of the
fighting factions because it is their only means
of survival. As child soldiers, they are often
exposed to drugs and participate in or witness
severe human rights abuses and violence that
will affect them for the rest of their lives. Girls are
often forced to become camp followers and are
treated as sex slaves or “bush wives” that have
to cook, clean, and sexually serve their masters,
on whom they are dependent for their survival.

Effect of Conflict on Children

• Traumatized children. Children who have
witnessed violence, especially perpetrated
A sick displaced child recovers inside the African Union-United Nations
Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) base in Khor Abeche, South Darfur, against close relatives; children who have been
following attacks by an armed group on 22 March, 2014. (UN Photo victims of violence; and children who have been
#585122 by Albert González Farran, 06 April 2014) perpetrators of violence (and often all three) are
typically traumatized. They find it very difficult to
Impact of Conflict on Children adjust to normal life.
• Basic needs. War violates every right of a child. • Malnourished children. The lack of food and
A conflict situation often results in a situation health care, especially among younger children,
where some children’s basic needs, like food hamper physical and mental development and
and water, health care, and shelter are severely can cause health problems suffered later in life.
affected. Armed conflict also usually causes
• Orphans and street children. Children whose
basic social services like education and clinics to
parents are killed during the war, or who
seize functioning.
get separated from their parents during the
• Refugees. Many children become refugees or conflict, end up having to fend for themselves
internally displaced when they flee from the as street children, or they may be treated as
fighting and violence, and some get separated unaccompanied children in a refugee context
from their parents. or as orphans by state institutions. Countries
recovering from war typically do not have
• Sexual abuse. Because of the general
developed social welfare systems, and the
lawlessness, the breakdown of social taboos
children in these categories not covered by
and the lack of peacetime cultural and social
international humanitarian efforts are most often
protection measures, the sexual abuse of
left to fend for themselves.
children increases considerably during war.
Those close to the fighting, such as child
soldiers, camp followers, and girls who are
forced to clean and cook for soldiers are most at
risk.

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Child Soldiers NGOs will focus humanitarian programmes
specifically on the needs of children to assist
A child soldier is any person who is under 18 and them with basic needs (food, water, sanitation,
who is part of a regular force or armed group in health care, and shelter), education, and other
any capacity, other than purely as family members. developmental necessities.
It does not only refer to those carrying arms
but includes cooks, porters, messengers, and
those accompanying such groups, including girls
recruited as concubines or forced into “marriage”.

The recruitment and use of child soldiers is

governed by the 1977 Additional Protocols to the
Geneva Conventions, the 1989 United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child, and in
Africa, by the 1991 OAU African Charter on the
Rights and Welfare of the Child. The International
Criminal Court (ICC) also refers specifically to child
soldiers.

Reporting on Child Soldiers

Peacekeepers, particularly United Nations Military Here, a formed police unit (FPU) officer from the African Union-United
Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) interacts with a child in
Observers, have an important role to play in
the new settlement in the Zam Zam camp for Internally Displaced People
reporting on child soldiers. They are often based (IDP) in North Darfur. (UN Photo #584976 by Albert González Farran, 05
closest to the front lines or go on verification April 2014))
missions to frontline areas and are, thus, likely to
have the most frequent contact with child soldiers.
• Collection of data. Research will be undertaken
When child soldiers are encountered, UNMOs
to map the extent and type of problems so
should take the time to complete a Child Soldiers
that the prevention, humanitarian assistance,
Reporting Checklist, which would typically be
protection, and advocacy and education
distributed to UNMOs in such missions. The
programmes can be designed according to the
checklist will help them to gather information such
real needs of the situation. This kind of research
as names, numbers, sex, place of origin, physical
will also help the programmes to be designed
condition, and post-conflict expectations of the
in ways that will be most effective according to
child soldiers. The information will be very useful
local customs and cultures.
to the Child Protection Unit in the mission; to those
agencies and NGOs specifically mandated to deal • Advocacy and education. Work will be
with child protection issues, like UNICEF; and in undertaken to advocate child protection issues
the planning and execution of the DDR programme. and to educate local authorities, fighting factions,
politicians, peacekeepers, and others. This will
Child Protection in Peace Operations typically extend to the peacebuilding phase,
where new lawmakers will be encouraged to
• Prevention. Work will be undertaken to make the
adopt or strengthen laws promoting the rights of
local authorities and armed factions aware of the
children.
rights of children and to establish monitoring and
support structures in order to prevent the abuse • Building institutions. Work will be undertaken to
of the rights of children, or to mitigate it where it build new institutions, as well as rehabilitate and
has already occurred (for example, in the case of support existing institutions that will provide care
child soldiers). and protection for children.
• Humanitarian assistance. Some agencies and • Personal contributions. Peacekeepers often

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 feel the need to make positive personal young as 8 or 9 who have been recruited. They
contributions to the welfare of children. There include both boys and girls.
are many examples of good work carried out by
• It is estimated that girls constitute 40 percent
peacekeepers on behalf of groups of children
of all child soldiers. They are not only soldiers,
or individual children. However, efforts to help
but are used as “wives” (i.e. sex slaves) for male
the situation of children need to be coordinated
combatants.
through the appropriate mission structures, UN
or non-governmental humanitarian agencies. • Women and girls constitute a massive 80
Peacekeepers should not assist individual percent of civilian victims of conflict.
children, projects, or programmes without
first consulting specialist colleagues and/or What Can the Peacekeeper or the UNMO Do?
people associated with credible child-focused
organizations such as UNICEF, Save the The extent to which a peacekeeper may act to
Children, IRC, and others. uphold Human Rights of the Child depends on
the mandate of the peace operation. Actions may
range from reporting to protecting, depending
on the mandate of the mission and the Rules of
Engagement (ROE).
• Reporting. There will always be a need to report,
even when you may also act to protect human
rights. Obtain as much information as possible
of the alleged human rights abuse (make notes,
take photos) and report it as soon as possible to
your superior. Report on: What, Where, When,
Who, How?
• Protecting. If you are allowed by the mandate
of the mission to act to protect a person’s rights
(e.g., the right to life), this will be made very
clear in your orders and ROEs. There will be
no specific ROEs for the protection of Child
Rachel Mayanja (third from right), Special Advisor of the Secretary-
General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women, meets with the or Human Rights; the ROEs will apply to all
five founders of Empowering Hands, a peer-support group established situations that may require the use of force.
by former female child soldiers in Uganda. (UN Photo #160242 by Ryan ROEs are mission-specific, as they depend on
Brown, 02 November 2007) the mandate and other factors.

Facts and Figures Peacekeepers are expected to protect children

within the limits of the mission mandate and to
The following is a list of facts and figures provided respect their rights both in their duties and in their
by UNICEF1: personal behaviour:
• More than 300,000 children under 18 have
In their daily work, peacekeepers should:
taken part in hostilities around the world. It is
estimated that 100,000 of these are in Africa. • Report violations when found, and, if specific
The child soldiers are reported in government, mandate allows intervention, follow ROEs;
government-affiliated, and non-state armed
• Uphold and promote child protection through
groups.
example; and
• The majority of child soldiers are between the
• Provide indirect assistance through security
ages of 15 and 18, but there are children as
and other support for humanitarian assistance.
1 UNICEF. Fact Sheet on Child Soldiers. <http:// For example, they can help with the logistics for
www.unicef.org/emerg/files/childsoldiers.pdf>

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 the distribution of humanitarian relief or with the
demobilization of child soldiers.

In their individual behaviour, peacekeepers should

keep the following in mind:
• Children are defined by international standards
and UN DPKO disciplinary procedures as
anyone under the age of 18.
• Codes of conduct do exist, and clear disciplinary
standards and procedures are in place and will
be enforced.
• Serious breaches of the Code of Conduct
may not only result in repatriation but also in
prosecution under national or international law.
• The credibility of an entire mission can be
undermined by the behaviour of individuals.
• Recent scandals involving UN peacekeepers
have rocked the international community.

Documented reports of the exploitation and abuse

of children and women in Somalia, Kosovo, Sierra
Leone, Eritrea, and Mozambique by peacekeepers
or UNMOs have severely damaged the credibility of
the UN.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. The four principles of the Code of Conduct 5. International human rights laws are:
are: A. Based on universally-shared values regarding
A. Impartiality, integrity, respect, and loyalty; respect for the dignity and worth of the human
B. Integrity, professionalism, respect for diversity, person and the equal treatment of men and
and loyalty; women.;
C. Impartiality, commitment, respect, and loyalty; B. Applicable only in certain situations;
D. Impartiality, diversity, integrity, and respect. C. Only represented by the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights;
D. Based on gender.
2. An example of serious misconduct is:
A. Harassment, including sexual harassment;
6. Sexual violence towards girls and women
B. Breach of confidentiality;
during armed conflict is:
C. Embezzlement or other financial malfeasance;
A. Not a typical consequence of war;
D. All of the above.
B. Generally not considered a weapon of war;
C. Prevalent due to the absence of law
3. Which of the following best describes enforcement;
culture? Select all that apply.
D. Acceptable under certain circumstances.
A. A shared system of meanings, beliefs, values,
and behaviours;
7. Peacekeepers often represent a power
B. A system of beliefs that have nothing in
imbalance with the local population. This
common;
power should be used to:
C. A system that has nothing to do with our
A. Hire prostitutes;
behaviour;
B. Profit from organized crime;
D. The way that we act and relate to others.
C. Abuse vulnerable populations;
D. Do good and improve local conditions.
4. The village elders believe that all UNMOs
are deceitful and dishonest because a former
UNMO stole money from the local market. 8. According to the UN Convention on the
In fact, the locals believe that all UNMOs Rights of the Child, what is the official
are thieves and refuse to deal with them at definition of a child?
all. This is an example of: A. A person under the age of 16;
A. Ignorance; B. A person under the age of 18;
B. Objective behaviour; C. A person under the age of 21;
C. Stereotyping; D. A person who is not married.
D. Rational thinking.

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9. The extent to which a peacekeeper may act to
uphold Human Rights of the Child depends
on the mandate of the peace operation.
Actions may range from ________ to
_________, depending on the mandate of
the mission and the ROE.
A. Ignoring, reporting;
B. Ignoring, accepting;
C. Reporting, protecting;
D. Defending, accepting.

10. Serious breaches of the Code of Conduct may

not only result in repatriation but also in:
A. Prosecution under national or international law;
B. Extended paid leave;
C. Counselling services;
D. None of the above.

ANSWER KEY
1A, 2D, 3A, 4C, 5A, 6C, 7D, 8B, 9C, 10A.

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LESSON 8
UN SAFETY AND SECURITY
 LESSON
8

LESSON OBJECTIVES
8.1 UN Security This lesson will provide you with overall information on UN management
Management and strategies, policies, and principles for safety and security. More specific
information about these topics while deployed in the field will be found
Strategies in Lesson 13. The aim of this lesson is to provide the student with the
8.2 Security Responsibilities knowledge required for increasing their understanding of safety and
security awareness in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. By the
and Principles end of Lesson 8, the student should be able to state their knowledge of:
8.3 HIV/AIDS
8.4 Local Medical Threats • UN Security and Safety Principles
8.5 Landmines and • Individual security responsibility;
Explosive Threats: Be • The five basic principles of personal security; and
Informed and Prepared • The actions to take for residential security, car accidents, or hijackings.

Introduction
UN personnel, including UNMOs, are finding themselves in more diverse
security environments than ever before. It is critical to have a clear
understanding of not only the overall safety and security principles,
but also the basic individual principles and responsibilities in order to
ensure that each person can effectively perform their duties. UNMOs
normally operate in small teams from different nations, and a common
understanding of safety and security is crucial to their ability to survive
when facing dangerous situations. To achieve this, one key success
factor is to maintain a standardized set of training modules and common
induction training in the mission area. UNMOs will not only encounter
operational security hazards, but also a number of safety issues such as
potential exposure to diseases, toxic waste, and industrial smoke.
8.1 UN Security Management and • To support implementation and monitor
Strategies compliance with those security policies,
standards and operational procedures;
In all peacekeeping missions, an agreement will be • To ensure the most cost-effective provision and
reached with the host government for the security employment of security personnel by taking
of UN personnel and property. However, in most advantage of economies of scale and through
peacekeeping missions, conflict and crisis exist centrally directed recruitment, selection, training,
and government authority may not be present deployment and career development.
in all areas. As with agency operations, the host
government has the primary responsibility for Every UN agency and organization has a Security
security. Focal Point. The primary tasks for this person are:

In a peacekeeping mission, the force has the • To manage all security matters;
capability to defend itself; therefore, they can, in • To interface with DSS to support agency field
many instances, provide their own security. In a operations;
Military Observer mission however, observers are
not armed and security responsibility reverts back • To coordinate among different elements; and
to the host government, local authorities, or even • To ensure that staff comply with system-wide
a regional peacekeeping force, if one is present in security policies, procedures, and instructions.
the country.

8.2 Security Responsibilities and

Principles
The UN Security Management System is an effort
lead by the UN Department of Safety and Security
(DSS) and supported by other agencies. What
was once known as the UN Security Coordinator
(UNSECOORD) has been integrated into DSS.
DSS takes the lead to establish UN security policy
and coordinate the UN system-wide security
management plan. Specific functions of DSS
include the following:1
• To support and enable the effective conduct of
United Nations activities by ensuring a coherent, Cadets for the Southern Sudan Police Service train under the guidance
effective and timely response to all security- of UN Police of the UN Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) at a training academy
related threats and other emergencies; in Rajaf. The UN officers administered courses in Special Weapons and
Tactics (SWAT), VIP-protection and crowd-control methods.(UN Photo
• To ensure effective risk mitigation through #455479 by Tim McKulka, 04 November 2010)
the establishment of a coordinated security
threat and risk assessment mechanism within
the framework of a common, system-wide Head of Mission (HOM)
methodology;
• To develop high-quality, best-practice security As you have already seen in an earlier lesson,
policies, standards and operational procedures there are specific roles and functions of the Head of
across the United Nations system, including the Mission, both SRSG and FC. In this lesson, we will
appropriate degree of standardization; stress the role and functions of the Head of Mission
in terms of their security responsibilities. The
Head of Mission (HOM) can be either a Special
1 UN Department of Safety and Security. Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG,
“History”: <https://trip.dss.un.org/dssweb/aboutus/ Civilian), a Force Commander (FC, Military), or a
history.aspx>.

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY| 113

 on security-related issues regarding the force. The
CSO is responsible for accomplishing the following
duties:
• Brief staff and dependants on security measures;
• Ensure that locally recruited staff understand
security measures;
• Establish the travel clearance system; and
• Provide staff with appropriate security
instructions.

The CSO may be supported by an alternate

designated official who is a member of the Senior
Management Team (SMT). The system also
includes Area Coordinators (AC). Military officers
are usually appointed as AC, and a UN agency
Members of the United Nations Police (UNPOL) serving with the United individual is appointed as the Deputy AC. The
Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Lest (UNMIT), lecture school children AC is responsible for coordinating the security of
on traffic and road safety, as well as other responsibilities of their local both the mission and the UN agencies operating
police. (UN Photo #204903 by Martine Perret, 07 November 2008)
within the area. This extends the control of the
Chief Military Observer (CMO, Military). The HOM Designated Official to remote areas and ensures
is responsible for the security of all personnel that there is good security coordination between
assigned to the mission, and he/she reports to the the mission and the UN agencies operating within
Secretary-General through the Under-Secretary- the area. The Area Security Management Team is
General for Peacekeeping Operations. In some formed, and all agencies are included in the Area
cases, the HOM is responsible for the security of Security Plan. Once the mission leaves the country
not only mission personnel but also UN agency at some point in the future, the UN agencies will
personnel. In this case, the HOM has the title of assume the primary AC responsibility so that there
Designated Chief Security Officer. is a seamless transition from mission responsibility
for security to agency responsibility and for security
Chief Security Officer (CSO) within the area.

Each newly established peacekeeping mission has Security Plan

a security section, which is managed by a Chief
Security Officer (CSO). This individual is a mission Every country and every mission will have
appointee and is responsible for advising the HOM a Security Plan. The Plan may be simple or
on security matters affecting the mission. The elaborate, depending upon the country and the
CSO focuses primarily on the security needs of the mission. Every member of a peacekeeping mission
civilian component but routinely advises the HOM should be aware of his or her responsibilities
with regard to the implementation of the Mission

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114 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
Security Plan. breast milk. The virus is passed to others through
the exchange of fluids or through sharp objects
8.3 HIV/AIDS infected by these fluids. When in the body, the virus
seeks out and enters the so-called T-cells, cells
It is essential that peacekeepers and UNMOs of all that protect the body from infections.
nations understand the significance of HIV/AIDS
prior to taking on peacekeeping duties anywhere The virus enters the specialized cells that protect
in the world. Revelations in recent years shows the body against infections. The virus multiplies
that peacekeeping operations may be playing and renders the cell useless. After a period of time,
a role in the spread of HIV/AIDS between high there are no longer enough cells to protect the
prevalence areas and low prevalence areas. This individual from infection, and the patient suffers
is a situation involving the individual peacekeepers, more and more often from infections.
the troop-contributing countries (TCC), the host
countries, UN DPKO, and the medical fraternity The Spread of HIV2
at large, including the World Health Organization
(WHO). Failure to conform to existing prevention All spread of the HIV virus is avoidable and
and prophylactic measures in curbing this menace preventable with the correct behavior and
has far-reaching consequences to UNPKOs. precautions. However, the HIV virus continues
to spread around the globe through the following
Sexual Relationships in Missions ways:
• Sexual spread. In more than 80 percent of
Peacekeepers are strongly discouraged from
cases, the virus spread through unprotected
entering into a sexual relationship with any member
sexual intercourse as sexual fluids are
of the host population, as these relationships are
exchanged. The virus concentration in these
normally unbalanced in favour of the peacekeeper.
fluids is high. The chances of spreading increase
If, however, they have sexual relations, it is
where one or both have an open sore or are
expected that they behave responsibly and
bleeding. The spread is facilitated by any kind
protect themselves, as well as their partner, from
of unprotected sex, such as intercourse, anal
the spread of HIV or other Sexually Transmitted
intercourse, oral sex, or any other form of sex
Infections (STI).
without a properly-worn prophylactic.

The UN strongly advises that UNMOs and • Spread through infected needles and utensils.
peacekeepers do not engage in penetrative The next largest group are infected through
sex while in the mission. As it is, however, a the use of infected “medical utensils”, such as
fact that many peacekeepers do, the mission those used in ritual scarring and circumcision.
makes condoms available to all UNMOs and The spread will also occur through improperly
peacekeepers. Condoms are the only relative cleaned medical equipment or through the
protection against the spread of HIV when sharing of needles in drug abuse.
engaging in penetrative sex with a person who
• Mother-to-child. An infected mother may pass
may carry the HIV virus. Condoms are the only
the virus to her baby in pregnancy, during birth,
protection available to prevent spread, and must
or by breast-feeding.
be used whenever penetration is a part of the
sexual act, whether it is between man and woman • Blood transfusions. The use of improperly tested
or between men. They are equally important blood or blood products may lead to the spread
as protection in oral, anal, or vaginal sexual of infection.
intercourse.

The Effect of HIV/AIDS on your Body

2 See “HIV Transmission” CDC < http://www.
The HIV virus is concentrated in bodily fluids. The cdc.gov/hiv/basics/transmission.html> for more
highest concentration is in blood, sexual fluids, and information.

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY | 115

 • First aid and resuscitation. No HIV infection has
been observed resulting from mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation. In normal first aid, one should use
rubber gloves when possible. If no gloves are
available, a thorough wash with soap and water
is sufficient. If the first-aid helper is bleeding,
the bleeding area should be covered and sealed
before performing first aid to avoid blood-to-
blood contact.

Factors Influencing the Spread of HIV

While the virus does not discriminate along lines

of nationality, race, religion, age, or socioeconomic
status, people living under the following
circumstances or with the following conditions may
A large red ribbon is mounted on the façade of the UN Human Rights find themselves much more vulnerable to infection:
Office’s Palais Wilson in Geneva, Switzerland, in a campaign to fight
discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS. Every 30-Swiss-Franc • Populations on the move. In refugee situations,
donation illuminates one light towards efforts to fight discrimination. women and children may be abused or raped in
(UN Photo #462302 by Christine Wambaa, 28 January 2011) situations where sex is exchanged for security,
food, water, or drugs.
How HIV Does Not Spread
• Poverty. The chances of getting infected are
Those who are HIV-positive can live a normal, influenced by the status of the immune system
responsible life. when challenged by the HIV virus. Poverty
influences living conditions as well as nutrition,
• Normal parent/child activities. All normal thus influencing the chances of getting infected.
activities between parents and children are safe.
Poverty may also factor into a person becoming
They can share a bed, a bath, or a meal, and
a commercial sex worker.
they may play, share affection, emotions, and
interact like everybody else. • STIs. Sexually Transmitted Infections enhance
the chance of getting infected. This is due to the
• Non-sexual boyfriend/girlfriend activities. The increased discharge and the vulnerability of the
normal, non-sexual, exchange of love and
sexual surfaces.
affection like hugs, kisses, and touch do not
spread the HIV virus between people. Sexual • Promiscuity. Frequently switching sex partners
activities that do not include direct contact or the use of commercial sex workers,
with another person’s sexual fluids are safe. especially while unprotected, greatly increase
Unprotected penetration, i.e., without a condom, the chances of getting infected and infecting
is the only dangerous sexual activity. others. All unprotected sex is an opportunity for
transmission of HIV.
• Caring for the sick. Caring for the sick is not
dangerous as long as one takes normal hygiene • Commercial sex. Engaging in commercial sex
precautions, even if the patient suffers from an means exposure to and sharing any infections
HIV-related disease. from all previous sexual encounters of both
partners. Commercial sex workers as a group
• Sharing food or drink. Drinking from the same may have up to a 90 percent HIV infection rate in
bottle or sharing food with someone who is HIV-
some areas. The United Nations does not accept
positive is normally safe.
any engagement in commercial sex by UNMOs
• Insects. Insects, such as mosquitoes, do not lead or UN peacekeepers.
to significant exchange of blood, and therefore,
• Violent sex. Violent sex increases the chances of
do not lead to the spread of HIV.
bleeding and, therefore, the chances for getting

116 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
 infected. procedure. As a person’s HIV status may affect his/
her standing and acceptance in the community,
• Circumcision in women. Women who are ritually
the status should only be known by those he/she
circumcised often bleed during intercourse,
chooses to share the results with.
and sex rarely gives the normal lubrication that
protects the female sexual surfaces.
The result of a test is only important if you know
• Men having sex with men. Sex between men is how to cope with the knowledge and are supported
more likely to provoke microscopic bleeding and, in finding how to adjust your life to whatever the test
therefore, facilitate the spread of HIV. might show. It is, therefore, not acceptable to test a
person without offering the support of counselling.
Alcohol and Drugs Testing may be done as a rapid screening test.
This test is intended to avoid false negative tests
The use of alcohol for relaxation and in social and may produce false positive tests. More specific
contexts influences behaviour in a negative way. tests should be used for verification to avoid the
It reduces the normal social control, and it may inclusion of false positive tests.
lead to actions and behaviour that is not seen as
acceptable, even to the individuals themselves. The Advantages of Knowing Your Status

In areas of conflict, recreational drugs like Knowing your status will help you to protect
marijuana, kat, cocaine, and pharmaceuticals are yourself and others. Knowing you are HIV-negative
often readily available, as are drugs for intravenous and discussing it with the counsellor may help
use. All these drugs influence behaviour and you choose a lifestyle that helps you remain
reduce inhibitions. With intravenous drugs, there HIV-negative. Knowing you are HIV-positive and
is an additional risk of spreading HIV through the discussing it with the counsellor may help you
sharing of needles. choose a lifestyle that helps you not infect others.

Voluntary Confidential Counselling and Knowing your status can also be beneficial to your
Testing3 lifestyle. As the progress of disease is influenced
by lifestyle, a person who knows if their status is
The United Nations advocates every person’s HIV-positive may be able to adjust their lifestyle
right to Voluntary Confidential Counselling and to more optimally protect their health. This could
Testing. Mandatory testing is not supported, but it influence choices about nutrition, the discontinued
is accepted if it is a national decision to perform use of tobacco, alcohol, or recreational drugs, extra
mandatory testing. The HIV status of UNMOs care for rest or sleep, and the planning of future
and peacekeepers should be confidential. While activities.
the UN does not request to know the HIV status
of peacekeepers, the UN does, however, insist Additional medical considerations can also
that an UNMO or peacekeeper should not have be taken into account. A person knowing their
any medical history or medical examinations that status will have been told by the counsellor of the
suggest any stage of AIDS. medical signs of HIV-related diseases, which may
influence the course of the disease by addressing
Psychologists show that the important side of these diseases early. There are also a number of
a test is the possibility to change the behaviour affordable regimens that influence the frequency of
according to the test result. Behavioural change chest infections and tuberculosis.
is more consistent if following a voluntary testing
If you, your family, or your society can help you get
3 Security Council “Security Council Presidential treatment or support your treatment, it is important
Statement Recognizes ‘Significant Progress’ to know your status at the earliest possible time.
Addressing HIV/AIDS Among Peacekeepers, but
Says Many Challenges Remain.” 18 July 2005,
<www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8450.doc.htm>.

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY | 117

The Window Period 8.4 Local medical threats
When infected by the HIV virus, it takes time before UNMOs are assigned to duties in different parts
the virus concentration is high enough to convert of the world. Consequently, local medical threats
your test from negative to positive. The time before will have great variations depending on the climate
this happens is called the window period. The (e.g. tropical, arctic, desert, coastal, mountainous,
window period may last up to six weeks. In this or inland) and other local characteristics. Factors
time, you may be infected and have the ability to to consider that can impact health include
transmit the disease, even though the test may be humidity, temperature (heat injuries or frost bite),
negative. Testing after risky behaviour should take wild animals, hazardous animals and insects,
place immediately after the incident and then again hazardous plants, sand/wind/dust, snow/wind/
after six to 12 weeks. cold, environmental pollution, food-borne and
water-borne diseases, as well as epidemics and
UN Engagement and Global Figures infectious diseases among the local population.

The pandemic of HIV/AIDS is a global concern The Medial Intelligence Information provided to
as it influences every aspect of life. In varying Troop Contributing Countries (TCC) and UNMOs
degrees, all nations are affected. In most societies, should explain what medical threats you will face
the disease is stigmatizing, and people known or in the UN Mission Area of Operation you are
suspected to be HIV-positive are often socially deploying to, and which preventive measures to
excluded. Children are born with HIV and parents be taken; such as prophylaxis against Malaria or
die from AIDS. The productive population is vaccines that are required to be documented.
decimated and those who are left are not able to
maintain their independence and support their Further information should be given during the UN
relatives. In many areas, there is a lack of teachers, Induction Training and also found in the SOP.
medical personnel, and uniformed security forces.
Medical services are congested and treatable Malaria4
diseases are often neglected.
It is essential that UN Military Observers and
Over the last decade, the UN has introduced a peacekeepers of all nations, both uniformed and
number of UN Security Council resolutions and civilian, understand the importance of malaria prior
programmes. The results have been significant; to taking on peacekeeping duties anywhere in the
worldwide, the number of people newly infected world. Statistics indicate that malaria is one of the
with HIV has fallen continuously – dropping 33 leading causes of death of peacekeepers, together
percent from 2001 to 2011. In 2012, 290,000 fewer with traffic accidents. Many peacekeeping missions
children under the age of 15 were infected with HIV require deployments in areas of high prevalence
than in 2001. of malaria. However, malaria may be prevented
with very simple measures to be undertaken by
Certain medical advances may also help alleviate the individuals and the units in the field. It is, thus,
the suffering of some. In 2013, the WHO published critical that all peacekeepers be informed and
new guidelines that simplify treatment and extend trained on how to avoid being sick and how to
the benefits of antiretroviral medicines to a larger identify and react immediately to the symptoms.
group of people. Earlier uptake of antiretrovirals will
help people with HIV to live longer, healthier lives, UN Engagement
and substantially reduce the risk of transmitting
HIV to others. The move could avert an additional Why is the United Nations concerned about
3 million deaths and prevent 3.5 million more new malaria? There are more than 200 million cases
HIV infections between 2013 and 2025. of malaria each year worldwide. This has a major

4 See CDC “Malaria” <http://www.cdc.gov/

malaria> for more information.

118 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
influence on productivity and security. Malaria kills vessels.
more than one million people every year, of which
75 percent are children. The course of malaria is When more and more red cells burst, the patient
worse in immuno-compromised patients. This leads becomes anaemic. This leads to a feeling of
to malaria becoming more deadly in the present heaviness and reduced ability to perform physical
HIV/AIDS pandemic. activities. The products of the burst cells may lead
to a slight jaundice, where the skin gets a slight tan
How Malaria Attacks the Body and the white in the eyes becomes yellowish. In
cleaning the blood, the liver and spleen grow. As an
Malaria is a significant cause of death in enlarged liver or spleen is quite brittle, the patient
peacekeeping missions on the African continent. may suffer internal bleeding following minor trauma
Approximately 10 peacekeepers die from malaria to the abdomen.
every year. Nearly all of these deaths are
avoidable. Malaria is a leading cause of death Symptoms of Acute Malaria
in peacekeeping missions. In some contingents,
one-third of the soldiers have clinical malaria every The first symptoms are similar to those associated
month. This is avoidable! with the flu. The patient does not feel well and
experiences headache, muscle and joint pain, and
Malaria is a disease that spreads from person a slight fever. After a while, the patient typically
to person through the Anopheles mosquito. A experiences a feeling of being cold and shivers
disease that spreads to humans through an animal while the temperature rises to a spike of high fever.
or insect is called “vector borne”. The mosquito The fever goes down while the patient is normally
breeds in water and hot, humid climates, and most sweating profusely. After this, the patient feels
often bites at night. The parasite that causes the relatively well until the fever comes back at irregular
disease multiplies in the body and spreads from intervals. After about a week, the fever spikes
the infected person to non-infected people through become regular with an interval of 48 to 72 hours.
the mosquito. Reducing the number of vectors
can control the spread of vector-borne diseases. UNMOs and peacekeepers must understand and
Protecting against vectors can determine whether relate to the symptoms of malaria:
the individual gets the disease or not.
• Bouts of fever that come and go until after 7-10
days, when it becomes rhythmic with 48-72
A person gets infected through the bite of the
hours between bouts;
female Anopheles mosquito. The bite injects
parasites that infect the liver. After having multiplied • Fever comes with pains in muscles and joints,
for approximately ten to twenty days in the liver, the and it may simulate influenza; and
parasites are released into the bloodstream and
• Enlarged spleen or liver and jaundice may
enter the red blood cells. This causes the clinical
characterize later symptoms.
disease of malaria. These 10 to 20 days are called
the incubation period, and it is part of the disease
If you suspect malaria, you should always seek
as the number of parasites increases in this period
medical assistance. Always react to fever, unusual
even if the patient has no symptoms.
fatigue, and the flu. As the early symptoms have
a lot in common with the symptoms of influenza,
When the parasite enters the red blood cells, the
it is easy to mistake them for a “normal” flu. If you
cells eventually burst. Often so many cells may
suddenly get flu symptoms, you should always
burst that the patient becomes anaemic. The
remember that you might have malaria. If you feel
products of the burst cells may cause jaundice,
unusually tired and worn out after a “two-day flu”,
and they may also cause the liver and spleen to
suspect malaria. If you have an irregularly high
grow as they are performing the task of clearing the
fever, you should suspect malaria.
blood from the products of the burst cells. Other
products may cause other cells in the blood to stick
Only patients having had malaria repeatedly should
together in small clots that may close the tiny blood
be treated as outpatients. All other patients should

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY | 119

 be observed as inpatients. In cases of anaemia, Active physical and pharmaceutical prophylaxis
jaundice, or circulatory problems, the patient significantly reduces the chance of being infected
should always be seen in a hospital. Medical
evacuation (MEDEVAC) is vital in any case of People from areas with a high rate of malaria are
mental confusion or convulsion, as well as with considered semi-immune.5 This does not prevent
reduced production of urine. them from getting malaria, but it generally seems
to lead to a milder form of the disease, with
less complications. Some do, however, become
severely ill.

By controlling factors in the environment, it is

possible to reduce the number of mosquitoes.
This is called vector control. You can influence the
environment to prevent the disease by following
these precautions:
• Drain pools of stagnant water, as mosquitoes
breed there;
• Cut grass and brush short;
• Cut low hanging branches;
• Use spray or fog to kill mosquitoes;
• Dip uniforms, tents, and mosquito nets in
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (left) inspects a mosquito net, a key chemical repellents that repel mosquitoes (such
malaria preventer, at Mwandama Millennium Village, Malawi. (UN Photo
as Peremetrine); and
#438259 by Evan Schneider, 30 May 2010)
• Cover doors and windows with nets to avoid
letting mosquitoes into buildings. Cover your bed
Death from Malaria with a mosquito net.

People die from malaria because burst cells Individual Action to Prevent Infection
may make other cells sticky and facilitate them
• Attire: The Anopheles mosquito only bites at
in forming small blood clots. Small clots may get
night. The individual should therefore dress in
stuck in the thin vessels of vital organs and cause
a way covering as much skin as possible to
malfunction. Parasites may “steal” vital nutrients
prevent mosquito bites.
and oxygen from normal cells. This may result
in vital organs breaking down after first having • Repellent: Skin not covered by dress should
functioned badly. Death follows this breakdown. be treated with repellent. Less than 30 percent
DEET is recommended for this.
In endemic countries, 75 percent of those dying
• Drug Prophylaxis: Prophylaxis does not stop you
from malaria are young children. In peacekeeping
from being infected, but it nearly always protects
missions, most of those severely affected come
you from developing malaria. The United Nations
from non-endemic countries and have never had
expects every peacekeeper to use prophylaxis
malaria prior to being deployed to a mission.
and it reimburses all contributing countries for
Individuals with an immune system affected by
providing prophylaxis to their peacekeepers. The
other disease or drugs become more severely
United Nations follows the advice of the World
affected. This is an important cause of death in
Health Organization in recommending a weekly
HIV/AIDS patients.
5 Centers for Disease Control, 2012 (Human
How to Prevent Malaria Factors and Malaria; <http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/
about/biology/human_factors.html/>, accessed 30
Malaria is, to a large extent, a preventable disease. October 2014).

120 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
 dose of Mefloquine (Lariam) as prophylaxis, which
reduces clinical infections hundredfold. Note that a
different treatment may be required in geographic
areas where Mefloquine-resistant strains are
known to be present.

Tuberculosis (TB)

One of the other major diseases that the United

Nations has been combating over many years is
tuberculosis (TB). Treatment has saved some 20
million lives between 1995 and 2011. Since 2006 the
TB cases has been decreasing. Multidrug-resistant
TB is a major global challenge.
Irene Dithabolo (right), one of the women peacekeepers at the Platoon
1 of 14th Infantry Battalion of the United Nations Organization Mission
TB is a common and, in many cases, lethal infectious
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), works as a medic at
disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria. the Operations Emergency Care at Camp Ndromo, in Bunia. She is seen
TB normally attacks the lungs, but other parts of the attending to a fellow UN peacekeeper. (UN Photo #130167 by Martine
body may be affected as well. It is spread through the Perret, 25 October 2006)
air when people with a TB infection cough, sneeze, or
otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air. The incubation period is 2 to 21 days. Humans are
Treatment is difficult and requires multiple antibiotics not infectious until they develop symptoms. First
over a long period of time. Prevention relies on symptoms are the sudden onset of fever, fatigue,
screening, such as through tests and X-rays, and muscle pain, headache, and sore throat. This is
vaccinations. followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, rash, symptoms
of impaired kidney and liver function, and in some
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) cases, both internal and external bleeding (e.g.
oozing from the gums, blood in the stools).7
The Ebola virus has caused one of the largest public
health emergencies of recent times. If you are in an People are infectious as long as their blood and
area at risk of the virus, an awareness of the disease secretions contain the virus. For this reason, infected
and proper precautionary measures are necessary patients receive close monitoring from medical
to protect mission staff from the contagious professionals and laboratory tests to ensure the
illness. Check with the mission to see what kind virus is no longer circulating in their systems before
of procedures are in place for reporting suspected they return home. When the medical professionals
exposure or symptoms. determine it is okay for the patient to return home,
they are no longer infectious and cannot infect
Ebola spreads through human-to-human anyone else.8
transmission via direct contact (through broken skin disease Fact Sheet No. 103; <http://www.who.int/
or mucous membranes) with the blood, secretions, mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/>, accessed 30
organs or other bodily fluids of infected people, and October 2014).
with surfaces and materials (e.g. bedding, clothing, 7 Ibid.
and equipment) contaminated with these fluids.6 8 Global Alert and Response, Geneva, WHO, 2014
6 World Health Organization, 2014 (Ebola virus (Frequently asked questions on Ebola virus disease;

Ebola Virus DisEasE: awarEnEss anD

PrEcautions for PEacEkEEPing PErsonnEl
Want to learn more about protecting against Ebola Virus Disease?

Register for the POTI course, Ebola Virus Disease: Awareness and Precautions
for Peacekeeping Personnel. It’s free! Enrol here: <www.peaceopstraining.org/
P R O D U C E D I N C O L L A B O R AT I O N W I T H

The World Health Organization (WHO) courses/ebola-awareness-and-precautions/>

Peace Operations Training Institute
®

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY | 121

8.5 Landmines and Explosive
Threats: Be Informed and Prepared
In areas of conflict, it is important to be
knowledgable about the safety and security
regulations in place to mitigate the risks of
explosive threats or other hazards that may be
present. These threats include the presence of
landmines, explosive remnants of war (ERW),
and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). A
more detailed, technical description of these
devices and how they may affect the context of
an UNMO’s work is available in Lesson 13 of this
course.

Make sure you know whom to contact for help

in case of a mine, ERW. or IED emergency.
Ensure that you and your teammates have
received appropriate mine and ERW awareness
and first-aid training, and make sure that you
are familiar with your organization’s safety
procedures. Carry with you at all times the
UN Mine and ERW Handbook, as well as any
country-specific information corresponding to
your area of operations. Keep updated contact
details of the mine action centre and agencies,
UN security officers, and medical facilities on
hand. Verify and update emergency contacts on
a regular basis.

Pass new information to your head office, the

local Mine Action Centre, UN Security Officers,
and mine action agencies, so that they can share
it with other organizations and staff members.

<http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/faq-ebola/
en>, accessed 30 October 2014).

122 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. In a Military Observer mission, observers are 6. Every member of a peacekeeping mission

not: should be aware of his or her responsibilities
A. armed; with regard to the implementation of the
___________________.
B. entitled to self-defence;
A. Medical supplies delivery;
C. neutral;
B. Annual safety demonstration;
D. representing the UN.
C. Mission Security Plan;
D. Latest Security Council Resolution.
2. Security is the primary responsibility of:
A. The TCCs;
7. What is the only relative protection against
B. The UN;
the spread of HIV when engaging in
C. The host government; penetrative sex with a person who may carry
D. The military observers. the HIV virus?
A. The proper use of condoms
3. Which entity takes the lead to establish B. Anti-virus medication
UN security policy and coordinate the UN C. Soap and water
system-wide security management plan?
D. Spermicide
A. UNSECOORD;
B. Department of Safety and Security (DSS);
8. _____________ is a preventable disease that
C. Department of Safety Observation; spreads from person to person through the
D. Military Safety Focal Point. Anopheles mosquito.
A. Ebola Virus Disease
4. Managing all security matters, interfacing B. Malaria
with DSS, and ensuring that staff comply with C. Tuberculosis
system-wide security policies, procedures,
D. Hepatitis
and instructions are responsibilities of the
_____________?
A. Security Focal Point; 9. How does the Ebola Virus Disease spread?
B. Safety Contact; A. Through the air
C. United Nations Chief of Security; B. It is genetic
D. Host Country. C. It is transmitted through exposure to radiation
D. Via direct contact through broken skin or mucous
membranes with the blood, secretions, organs
5. The _______________ is responsible for
or other bodily fluids of infected people, and
the security of all personnel assigned to the
with surfaces and materials such as bedding,
mission, and reports to the Secretary-General
clothing, and equipment contaminated with these
through the Under-Secretary-General for
fluids.
Peacekeeping Operations.
A. Security Focal Point;
B. Head of Mission (HOM);
C. Secretary of Peacekeeping Safety;
ANSWER KEY
D. Host Country. 1A, 2C, 3B, 4A, 5B, 6C, 7A, 8B, 9D

LESSON 8: UN SAFETY AND SECURITY | 123

LESSON 9
NEGOTIATION, MEDIATION, AND
LIAISON
 LESSON
9

LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide the student with the basic guidelines
9.1 Communication for communication and negotiation in the peace operation environment.
Principles After completing this lesson, the student should have an understanding of
the importance of communication and negotiation in the peace operation
9.2 Principles of
context and be familiar with some basic tools and techniques that can be
Mediation, used for this purpose. The student should also be able to explain:
Negotiation, and
Liaison • The role of communication, negotiation, and mediation in the context of
9.3 Preparing for peace operations;
Negotiations • The basics of cross-cultural communication;
9.4 Conducting • How to plan and conduct a negotiation; and
Negotiations in UN • How to use interpreters.
Peace Operations
9.5 Working with Introduction
Interpreters
As a representative of the United Nations in a peacekeeping mission,
the primary task is to manage conflict so that it does not escalate into
violence. Where it has escalated into violence, the task is to contain and
de-escalate the situation until it returns to a non-violent state.
At the peacekeeping mission level, a variety of guidelines that help one to manage these situations
techniques are used whenever tension arises among people of a common culture and language
in order to de-escalate the potential for violent are typically absent in the peacekeeping context.
conflict, as well as to facilitate and support the People often misunderstand each other because
peace process among the parties to the conflict of their cultural and language differences. This
and other stakeholders. These techniques situation is further aggravated by an already tense
include a complex combination of operational political and social climate often characterized
and structural conflict prevention and conflict by mistrust, rumours, and mutual preconceived
management. At the management and command negative stereotypes. In this environment, every
level, this implies communication, negotiation, individual can additionally benefit from improving
and mediation with both parties to the conflict and his or her communication and negotiation skills.
any other stakeholders. At the individual level,
every civilian, police, or military peacekeeper will
eventually find themselves in a situation where he/
she will be interacting with others with the objective
of reaching an agreement between them. It does
not matter if the person is somebody involved in the
mission or from the host nation.

The communication environment in a

peacekeeping mission is much more complex than
an environment under normal circumstances. The
peacekeeper will typically be communicating with
somebody from another culture, without a common
language, often in the context of a threatening or
tense situation where people are stressed and
easily irritable.
Two young Egyptians gaze in wonder at the language of their ancestors,
Apart from having to deal with each-other, every Karnak. (UN Photo #388000 by Jeffrey Foxx, 01 January 1974)
civilian, police, and military peacekeeper will find
themselves in situations where they will interact
with the local population. This will range from The secret to more successful communication,
friendly social interaction, to shopping for food negotiation, and liaison in the peace operation
or other commodities, to work-related official context is awareness and preparation. Every
communication. The individual peacekeeper will minute spent on learning, planning, and preparation
also have to manage conflict among friends and will influence the outcome of the next negotiation.
colleagues that are stressed by the situation; An individual’s ability to communicate and negotiate
between civilian, police, and military peacekeepers will improve with experience and practice.
with different cultures, religions, and languages and
often very different working styles, approaches, This lesson serves as an introduction to
and techniques between international and local communication and negotiation. It creates
staff in the mission and between peacekeepers awareness for the type of situations the
and other internationals and people from the host peacekeeper will have to deal with and suggests
country. some tools and techniques for understanding the
conflicts that one is dealing with and preparing to
Because of the nature of the work, people will often confront, including conducting negotiations and
approach UN personnel with complaints, criticisms, working with interpreters.
or demands. These situations can quickly and
easily deteriorate into disputes and even violence
if not correctly managed. The normal cultural

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Due to the multinational and cross-cultural nature process among the parties and local people.
of peace operations, most peacekeepers will not be Typically, you want the parties to know your
able to communicate directly with the local people strength, and you will inform them of your
of the host country in their own languages. The movements. Your presence is, thus, transparent.
United Nations will typically employ local people There is no secrecy or stealth; your visibility is
as language assistants to assist the peacekeepers your strength. That is why you wear blue helmets
with translation and interpretation. and have white-painted vehicles.
• In war, you achieve victory by defeating your
9.1 Communication Principles opponent through combat. In peacekeeping, you
achieve peace through managing the conflict, by
Why are communication and negotiation skills
containing it at manageable levels. By keeping
necessary?
the conflict from becoming violent, you provide
your political and humanitarian colleagues with
Communication and negotiation are the primary
the stable and secure environment they need to
tools peacekeepers will use to achieve sustainable
facilitate the peace and to provide humanitarian
peace. The principle factors that will influence
assistance. The primary tools you will use to
successful negotiations are your knowledge of:
manage the conflict are communication and
• Your own mandate; negotiation.

• The interests of the other party(s);

9.2 Principles of Liaison, Mediation,
• The cultural and historical context within which and Negotiation
the negotiations are taking place; and
These strategic communication concepts and
• The importance of cross-cultural sensitivity
processes provide vital information and create
summarized as “Respect others and do no
important relationships between parties involved
harm.”
in the peace process. Negotiation, mediation, and
liaison may be conducted independently but more
UN Military Observers are frequently engaged in
normally as an adjunct to other conflict resolution
tasks related to communication and negotiations.
activities.
To further illustrate this idea, consider the following
Liaison
points listed below. They are generally aimed at
soldiers in order to explain how the peacekeeping
In modern peace operations, liaison and
context is different from war, the primary
coordination at different levels are an important
environment all soldiers are trained for:
factor to success. UNMOs are frequently engaged
• In war, you are one of the warring parties. In in such tasks. Liaison has a wide range of
peacekeeping, you are the neutral third party. functionalities, such as:
You are not part of the conflict – you stand above
• Liaison with friendly forces (i.e. NATO Forces);
it.
• Cross-border and boundaries liaison;
• In war, your aim is victory, which implies defeat
to the enemy. In peacekeeping, your aim is to • Passage of information;
assist the parties to achieve peace. You have
• Medical assistance;
no enemies or opponents in peacekeeping. You
work with the warring parties to achieve peace. • Exchange of prisoners of war (POWs);
• In war, you want to surprise the enemy; hence, • Exchange of bodies;
you wear camouflage and try to conceal your
• Liaison with civil authorities (i.e. local police,
presence, strength, and movements from the
local administration, fire and rescue services,
enemy. In peacekeeping, your visible presence
hospitals);
emphasizes your role as the neutral third party
and helps to instil confidence in the peace • Liaison with governmental organizations (GOs),

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 non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
international organizations (IOs), and other
agencies; and
• Liaison with Host Nation armed forces and
warring factions or opposing parties.

An UNMO should establish and maintain contacts

within the Area of Operation (AOR) and initiate and
arrange liaison meetings as required. Ensure that
the local population knows the objectives of the
UNMOs and the peacekeeping forces.

Mediation

Mediation is intervention in a dispute by an

acceptable, impartial, and neutral third-party Navi Pillay (centre), UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, and
Adama Dieng (centre left), Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on
who has no authoritative decision-making power.
the Prevention of Genocide, meet with Taban Deng Gai (right), South
This person assists parties to voluntarily reach Sudanese rebel chief negotiator, during their three-day visit to the
their own mutually-acceptable agreement. If the country. The visit by the senior UN officials comes in the wake of mass
peacekeeper is called upon to assist two parties to killings earlier in the month in Bentiu and Bor. (UN Photo #587100 by
reach an agreement, he/she is mediating between Isaac Billy, 29 April 2014)
the two parties. In arbitration, the arbitrator has
While these high-level negotiations will more
some enforcement capability, but in mediation,
likely require the participation or leadership of a
the enforcement capability is absent. Another key
senior official such as a COM or Chief Military
consideration: in mediations, the UN peacekeeping
Observer (CMO) meeting with party leaders,
representative will act as a go-between to the
negotiations can take place at any level with
parties of the conflict. In negotiations the UN
peacekeeping personnel, such as with individual
peacekeeping force representative will act as an
UNMOs at isolated Observation Posts who may
interest holder.
find themselves trying to control an incident or
arbitrating in a local dispute.
Negotiation

Negotiation is not capitulation. Some people may

Negotiation is communication with the aim of
associate negotiation with capitulation, giving up,
reaching an agreement where all parties have
or giving in to the other side’s demands. This is a
concurred in order to de-escalate and resolve
misconception. Negotiation describes a process,
conflicts. It includes any communication with the
not an outcome.
aim of reaching an agreement. Every time two or
more people communicate with the aim of reaching
Purpose of Negotiation in the Peacekeeping
an agreement, it is a negotiation. It is an essential
Context
part of UN peacekeeping.

UN peace operations take place after two parties

The most important negotiations will be aimed at
have signed a ceasefire or peace agreement. The
achieving an overall political agreement between
role of the UN peace mission is to assist the parties
the parties. Successful political negotiations
to the conflict to implement the ceasefire or peace
provide the framework and direction within which
agreement. This means that the UN is there to
humanitarian and military activities take place. It
assist the parties to change their behaviour from
may prove difficult or impossible to reach formal
the previous state they were in – from a state of
agreements if a government has broken down, or
violent conflict to a new state of positive peace.
in territory where the de facto government is not
Positive peace goes beyond peace and is defined
recognized by the international community.
as the absence of violence, to include the presence

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 or population through an area controlled by one
of the parties, such as a roadblock;
• Roles and relationships between peacekeepers
and the parties to the conflict or local authorities,
such as a patrol moving through a village;
• Prevention of escalation or reoccurrence of
conflict by parties agreeing to certain behaviour,
such as a patrol encountering fighting between
two villages;
• Resolution of disputes with or between parties or
between local people, villages, or communities
(depending on the mandate); and
• Coordination between peacekeepers amongst
A traditional community leader (right) of the Misseriya tribe talks
themselves or with parties, the local authorities,
with women from Ngok Dinka tribe advocating the need for peaceful and/or community leaders for a specific event,
coexistence between Misseriya and their Dinka neighbours on the route such as a marriage or other traditional ceremony
they share in search of pasture and water. (UN Photo #136867 by Fred in a sensitive area, making arrangements for a
Noy, 16 November 2006) vaccination campaign, coordinating the return of
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) or refugees,
of justice, fairness, and the rule of law. or coordinating humanitarian relief distribution.

The peacekeepers assist the parties in Military Issues

implementing the ceasefire or peace agreement
by monitoring the ceasefire and by helping them UN Military COMs/CMOs may have to negotiate
to avoid a return to violent conflict. Experience the terms on which they will deploy in support of
has shown that if we use force to suppress violent political or humanitarian agreements. It is important
conflict, it will remain under control only for as long for the military COM/CMO to ensure that he/she
as that force continues to be applied. That is why is not committed to an operation that is militarily
negotiation is necessary, so that the voluntary unsustainable or unrealistic.
cooperation of the parties can be obtained and thus
improve the probability of achieving a sustainable Representatives of a peacekeeping operation
peace over time. may negotiate with the parties in order to
establish freedom of movement to monitor and
Negotiation and mediation may be conducted enforce political or military agreements, such as
either as part of a deliberate process or as an ceasefires or demilitarization. Agreements made
immediate response to a life-threatening incident. at a higher level may need to be re-negotiated
In these cases, it is important to remember that on a case-by-case basis, for example, in order to
the negotiator representing the UN peacekeepers establish Observation Posts, to cross confrontation
handling the incident may often be perceived as lines and zones of separation, and also to monitor
part of the problem. When there is no chain of troop movements and deployments.
command, identifying other people of influence,
such as a local political or religious leader, could be Negotiators
crucial in resolving the problem.
There may be a scope for establishing a
Whenever peacekeepers negotiate with other negotiating team to deal with routine matters in
parties in a peacekeeping context, the subject of order to allow the COM/UN CMO to step in, either
negotiation is likely relevant to one of the following to add weight when negotiations are in danger
topics: of failing, or to finalize agreements. Negotiators
• Freedom of movement of peacekeepers, NGOs, should have the sufficient rank, status, and

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credibility compared with the rest of the Parties. stated positions.
Negotiating teams may include experts from
different branches. That means that UNMOs might 3. Understand the cultural and historical context
be engaged as experts, while others lead the team. within which you operate.
Large delegations should be avoided.
By being sensitive to the cultural and historical
Coordinated Objectives context you operate in, you can avoid critical
cultural mistakes and improve your credibility and
Different negotiators from the peacekeeping acceptability.
operation may end up talking to the same leaders
of the parties. This should be avoided by having Guidelines of Negotiations
the UN peacekeeping force de-escalate conflict
between local negotiation counterparts. If they are Several essential features of any successful
going to have any success in their negotiations, negotiation useful for achieving results that can be
individually or collectively, they need to be further developed are listed:
coordinated. This can be achieved by providing
• Impartiality. If parties believe a negotiator is
clear direction from the highest level on what
no longer impartial, their trust, cooperation,
objectives should be sought from negations and
and open-hearted relationship will be lost and
where it is possible to compromise. Regular liaison
negotiations probably will be unsuccessful.
between the agencies and individuals engaged in
negotiations at each level is necessary in order to • Long-Term View. Negotiators should recognize
be effective. that it takes time to change from opposing
positions to common ground and to establish
Principles of Negotiation a culture of negotiations in which the Parties
become used to meet and solve small problems
Successful communication and negotiation together in preparation for handling crises
depends on your understanding of the following and tackling larger challenges. A short-term
three principles: negotiating success, won by conceding an
apparently small point, may be damaging and set
1. Understand the mandate and role of the UN in a long-term precedent.
the conflict (in other words, your interests).
• Imagination. Imagination and lateral approaches
are vital for the identification of common ground
You need to have a clear understanding of your
between the Parties, development of incentives
own interests, such as what you want to gain from
and disincentives, and finding ways to overcome
the negotiations. In the peacekeeping context, your
the many barriers in conducting successful
interests will derive from the mission’s mandate,
negotiations.
the policies of your unit, and the instructions you
have received. For instance, if you are manning a • Acting with Determination. The parties will have
checkpoint, the instructions you have received will more at stake and may have fewer constraints
be about who should and should not be allowed to on their actions than negotiators from the
move through the checkpoint. international community. Faced with parties
under emotional pressure, the negotiator or
2. Understand the interest(s) of the other party or representative must also be prepared to act with
parties. determination.
• Cultural Awareness. Negotiators should be
You need to anticipate and understand what the
aware of how cultural issues may inflict on their
other parties’ interests are and what it is that they
negotiations.
want to gain from the negotiations. You can do
so to a large degree by studying their previous
Cross-Cultural Communication
statements and actions in order to detect any
changes in policy. Your focus should be on
Cultures are different – when it comes to
identifying their real underlying interests, not their

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culture, there is no right or wrong. Cross-cultural even if you are waiting for interpretation.
understanding, tolerance, and sensitivity start
• Paraphrasing: Listen and restate in your own
within the mission, among the various cultures
words what another person is saying. For
present in the mission. Multi-nationality is a key
instance: “So, what you are saying is...”
strength and principle of peacekeeping. It shows
that the world is working collectively for peace • Communicating openness: Be open to hearing
and it contributes to impartiality. The parties to the perceptions and needs of others, even if you
the conflict may be more to find peacekeepers disagree with what they are saying. For instance:
representing only one nation as partial or merely “How would that work if...”
seeking to advance their own national interests;
• Reframing: Shifting the focus from positions
thus, the presence of many different nationalities
to interests, encouraging flexibility expressing
is a critical factor in the UN’s ability to project
something in a different way. For instance: “In
impartiality and neutrality.
other words, what you want is…” and
Peacekeepers need cross-cultural communication • Non-verbal communication: Non-verbal
skills in dealing with the various cultures of the acknowledgement that you are listening (eye
host country. Most countries have more than one contact when culturally appropriate, body
indigenous culture. focused on the person); paying attention (not
looking away, etc.); hearing what is being said
Show respect and do nothing to offend. The (nodding); and being genuinely interested in
foundation of cross-cultural communication is solving the problem. Note that non-verbal
respect. The golden rule is to do nothing that will communication is culture specific. Make sure
offend the other culture. If you are professional, you know what your non-verbal communications
humble, friendly, and respectful, your chances of mean in the local context and avoid taboos.
not offending anybody are very good.
9.3 Preparing for Negotiations
Take note that every culture has developed
customs and traditions to regulate formal Preparations are crucial to a successful
communications like negotiations and mediations. negotiation. The more prepared you are, the
Find out what the cultural expectations are, and try better your chances of successfully calming and
to incorporate certain practices into the negotiation managing a potentially violent situation.
so that it is conducted according to local custom
and tradition. However, peacekeepers, especially Military
Observers, may often find themselves forced to
With this in mind, remember that UN standards and respond to an impromptu situation where there
guidelines should always be maintained. If these is no time for preparation. For instance, they
are in conflict with local culture and tradition, follow may come across a village dispute on a patrol,
UN standards and guidelines. Explain the rationale or they may be forced to deal with a situation at
for why those standards or guidelines are being a checkpoint or at their post, or they may come
used. across a roadblock while on convoy escort duty.
By being generally well prepared, peacekeepers
Basic Communication Techniques can be armed with the knowledge to deal with most
impromptu situations.
The following basic communication techniques
are useful in most communication and negotiation A clear aim should be defined to determine what
situations: is to be achieved. This will take into account many
factors including the objectives and capabilities of
• Emphatic listening: Listen actively with
the belligerents as well as a realistic judgment of
understanding, even if you do not agree with
what is possible. In practice, the initial aim may be
what is being said. Be alert and focused on
no more than to get competing factions to meet,
the person speaking. Do not speak to your
and future objectives may be discussed and refined
colleagues when the other person is speaking,

132 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
during subsequent meetings.

Specific preparations will include researching the

background, history, and status of the issue to be
discussed to help the negotiator or mediator to
identify those arguments that the belligerent parties
may employ.

Identification of options, limitations, minimum

requirements, areas of common interest, and
possible compromises are essential. The UN PK
Force negotiator has to be clear on those points
that must be achieved or protected and those that
may be used as bargaining chips.

If possible a thorough study of the participants General Christian Houdet (centre, front row), and General Mahboob
who will attend the meeting should be made. This (right, front row) of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic
should include their cultural origin, personality, Republic of Congo (MONUC), attend a disarmament negotiation meeting
authority, influence, habits and attitudes. with Cobra Matata, Ituri militia Commander of the Patriotic Force of
Resistance. (UN Photo #133294 by Martine Perret, 28 November 2006)

If hosting the meeting, specific arrangements

should take account of the following: advance.

• Location. When conducting formal negotiations In review, before facing a negotiation situation:
or mediation the site should be secure and
neutral. Other important considerations of the • Make sure you are knowledgeable about the
location are accessibility, communications and local history, culture(s), and conflict;
comfort. In the control of an incident those • Be well briefed on your own mandate and orders
persons relevant to defusing the problem (e.g., convoy protocols); and
should be identified and persuaded to conduct
negotiations away from those more immediately • Create a foundation for the negotiation by
involved in the incident. gathering information about the specific problem
you are facing.
• Administration. Administrative organization
should include such items as arrival and Additional Considerations
departure arrangements, and the provision
of parking, communications, meals and UN Military COMs/CMOs should be aware of
refreshment. The meeting should have an the complications created by certain features of
agenda, a seating plan and note-takers, and a negotiation and need to address the following
supplemented by interpreters and other advisers issues before and during the process of any
on specialist subjects. Separate rooms will negotiations that occur:
likely be required by each Party to allow them to
confer in private. • The identification of decision-makers during
negotiations;
• Attendance. Attendance should be at an
appropriate and equal rank level. Offence • The use and exploitation of the media during and
may be caused if senior representatives from after the negotiations;
one Party/Faction are required to meet with • The security of decision-makers;
junior representatives from another. To avoid
unmanageable numbers attending, the size of • The use of two track negotiations;
each party should, where possible, be agreed in • Communications and mobility;
beforehand. A policy on the carriage of weapons
and protection teams should be announced in • Maintaining secrecy and confidentiality;

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• The political recognition of parties to the there is any chance that your behaviour may cause
negotiation; insult, inform the other party beforehand so that
there is an opportunity to discuss and resolve the
• The use of joint commissions; and
issue outside the formal negotiations. There should
• The use of interpreters and translators. be no surprises to either party in the introduction
stage. Refreshments should normally be offered
9.4 Conducting Negotiations in UN or received. Introductory small talk is essential to
Peacekeeping Operations1 make the participants feel more at ease.

Previously in the lesson, negotiation was defined After welcoming introductions, you should explain
broadly as communication with the aim of reaching the purpose of the meeting and present the
an agreement. This section describes the process agenda. If there was no time to prepare an agenda
of carrying out actual negotiations. The structure beforehand, ask the participants at the meeting to
follows the three stages of negotiations: the identify the points that need to be discussed, and
introduction (start), the substance (discussion), and agree on the order in which you will deal with them.
the conclusion (end). Any actual negotiation event
or session will always have these three stages, To close the introduction phase, take time to
regardless of whether the session was planned in discuss the “rules of procedure” according to
advance or is an impromptu session. which the meeting will be run. The parties should
voluntarily agree to these rules and commit to
Procedure following them. Rules of procedure typically include
such issues as the role of the chair or facilitator
The selection of individuals, or groups of (in the case of a mediation), languages to be
individuals, who are acceptable to the Parties, used during the proceedings, and not allowing
is fundamental to the successful conduct of any interruptions. Other potential rules include
negotiations. Essentially there are three stages in setting the maximum time allowed for any one
the process of negotiation and mediation: speaker, how decisions will be made, who will be
responsible for taking notes, where formal minutes
Stage I: Introduction will be kept and how they will approved, and how
joint statements will be presented to the media.
When you are the host or the facilitator of the In some cases, these rules of procedure may be
meeting, it will be your role to welcome the other very basic, in others, more elaborate. The host or
parties to the meeting and to start by introducing facilitator must used their own judgement.
your delegation. Once you have introduced your
delegation, you should give the other party or Once the host/facilitator and the other party are
parties the opportunity to do the same. Be sure to comfortable with a common understanding of
follow the appropriate local customs and protocol. the process of the negotiation and the rules of
You should only deviate if you feel that the local procedure, the negotiating group may move on to
traditions are incompatible with United Nations the substantial discussions.
policy and international standards and norms, such
as including female members in your delegation in Stage II: Substance (The Discussion)
a culture where only men will normally participate in
this kind of formal meeting. In this kind of situation, Substantive sessions will normally start with an
explain why you are not following local custom by opening statement by each party. This is typically
providing them with information on the relevant UN a statement that sets out the overall position and
policies and international standards and norms. If main arguments of the party. Allow each party to
present their case. Listen attentively, and be sure to
1 For more information, see Handbook on UN demonstrate through your non-verbal language that
Multidimensional Peacekeeping Operations; you are listening.
December 2003, <http://www.peacekeepingbest-
practices.unlb.org/Pbps/library/Handbook%20 It is important to consider these guidelines and
on%20UN%20PKOs.pdf>.

134 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
characteristics throughout the substance of the
discussion:
• Preserve options. The opposing forces/parties
should be encouraged to give their views first.
This will enable the negotiator to re-assess
the viability of his position. If possible, he/she
should avoid taking an immediate stand and
he should never make promises. In general,
such discussions should lead to generating
different options, such as a list of things that can
be done to avoid the recurrence of an incident
in the future. The next step is the reduction of
the list to a list of options the parties can agree
on that will achieve the desired effect and that
can be implemented. When you feel all parties Djibril Bassolé (centre, arms extended), Joint African Union-United
have reached a common position, the proposed Nations Chief Mediator for Darfur, exhorts calm from a group of
agreement can be summarized and presented protesters outside the University of Zalingei, West Darfur, where Mr.
for formal agreement in a draft. The agreement Bassolé and his negotiation team, including Qatari State Foreign Minister
Ahmed bin Abdullah al Mahmoud (right of Mr. Bassolé), met with civil
should include or be followed by further
society leaders. At least one protester was killed and several wounded
discussion on the steps that need to be taken to during clashes with security forces. (UN Photo #457473 by Albert
implement the agreement. González Farran, 01 December 2010)

• Show restraint and control. Belligerent parties

about you. When responding, do not respond to
are often deliberately inflexible. They may distort
allegations or emotions. Correct factual data if it
information and introduce false problems to
is presented incorrectly by the other party. If UN
distract attention from discussions that might
action resulted in deaths, injuries, or destruction
embarrass them. Visible frustration, impatience,
of property that may be subject to a claim and/
a patronizing manner, or anger at such may
or investigation, be careful not to pre-empt the
undermine the negotiator’s position. Loss of face
outcome of such an investigation or commit the
is likely to increase the belligerence of faction
UN to the payment of claims. Instead, explain the
leaders. Wherever possible, respect should
procedure for making claims and how they are
be shown for the negotiating positions of other
processed, and explain the investigative process.
Parties. Speakers should not be interrupted;
unless incorrect information and matters of • Avoid argument. It is likely at some point in
principle are to be corrected, with appropriate the peacekeeping context that an opening
evidence. Facts should take preference over statement will convey a complaint. Make sure
opinions. Whilst remaining impartial, the the complaint in question is very clear, detailed,
negotiations should be conducted in a firm, fair and factual. In most cases, it will be a good idea
and friendly manner. Don’t give any information to put the complaint in writing and to provide
about the opposite side, which can be of value the other party with a copy. If necessary, the
to the counterpart. Always be restrained if the negotiator should remind participants of previous
counterpart expresses anything about the UN agreements, arrangements, accepted practices
Force or the morale, methods, politics of the and their own pronouncements. However, this
opposite side etc. Try to get the counterpart should be done tactfully and accurately with
to accept a possible solution, which the UN regard to facts and detail.
peacekeeping force has prepared.
• Encourage compromise. Partial agreement or
• If the UN is being criticized, which is often areas of consensus should be carefully explored
the case in the peacekeeping context, listen for compromise solutions. Related common
attentively and do not show displeasure and/ interests may offer answers to seemingly
or disagreement through your non-verbal intractable differences.
communication. Do not take it personally; it is not
• Create linkage. Linkage is the connecting of aims

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 to each other; e.g. making the achievement of an The last item on the agenda is agreement on the
aim a precondition in order to achieve another. date, time, and place of the next meeting, and/
or an agreement on when any working groups,
Summary sub-committees, or verification mechanisms
established through the agreement will start their
As facilitator, host, or as one of the parties, you can work.
summarize what has been said by listing the items
that each party stated were important for them to As per the introduction and throughout the rest
achieve. Such a list can serve as a basis for further of the meeting, it is important to follow the proper
discussion. custom and protocol during the closure of the
meeting according to the local culture and tradition.
The facilitator, host, or chair can then use this
summary or list of issues to suggest a process, Reporting on Negotiations
the priority or order in which these issues could be
discussed, and the purpose for discussing them. Negotiation and mediation always take place
among a small group of representatives of the
The substantive discussions should close with a parties. The agreements reached need to be
summary of all the agreements reached during implemented by a much larger group. Thus, the
the meeting, and these should preferably be put follow-up and information-sharing with these wider
in writing in the form of minutes, confirmatory constituencies are of vital importance.
notes, and/or a joint declaration, statement, or
communiqué. In the peacekeeping context, you should prepare a
Situation Report (SITREP), in other words, a short
The parties should also consider how and when report for immediate release in order to brief higher
they want to release the news of the agreement headquarters and other elements. This could be
to the public and the media, as well as how much a verbal radio message or a short written “flash
information should be released. If the agreement report”. It should contain the essential information
is of such a nature that the media would be that higher HQs or other elements need to know
interested, it is always a good idea to compose an until a more detailed report arrives.
agreed-upon statement or communiqué. You want
to avoid continuing the negotiation in the media. As mentioned in the end of Stage II, a short
summary of what was agreed upon for release to
Stage III: Conclusion and Follow-up the media and wider community, if appropriate,
should be agreed to during the negotiation and
Once the representatives have concluded the mediation. Where available, consult with public
drafting process and the parties have informally information specialists to prepare for this step.
agreed to the text, the facilitator, chair, or host can
call the meeting to order and present an equal part A detailed report should be prepared, filed, and
of the final agreement. However, it should be noted sent to the appropriate higher HQs and all relevant
that they also have the option of asking one of the departments. Partners from other organizations
other parties to present if they so desire. and/or colleagues from other departments at your
level should be briefed. The report should include
Sometimes, some further negotiations on the copies of all the documents, your assessment of
wording of the agreement may arise but should be the situation, and your analysis of the future. It
kept to a minimum to prevent the whole agreement should include an analysis of the negotiation and
from unravelling. Once all parties agree, the formal mediation and should be detailed enough to serve
agreement should be recorded, and/or all parties as a thorough briefing for your replacement, should
should sign copies of the agreement. Each party this problem re-occur during his/her tour of duty.
should leave the meeting with signed original
copies in all the languages agreed upon during the If it was agreed as part of the process, formal
introductory phase. minutes or confirmatory notes need to be prepared
so that they can be considered for approval at the

136 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
next meeting. • Interpreting local media sentiments towards the
UN and UN Forces/UNMOs.
Effective follow-up is as important as a successful
negotiation. Without a follow-up, achievements Interpreters are a necessary force multiplier and
by negotiation or mediation could be lost. The an effective Force Protection (FP) aid when used
outcome of the negotiations or mediation has to be efficiently.
promulgated to all interested Parties. Background
files should be updated with all relevant Interpreters should be available at all levels of
information, including personality profiles of the the UN organization. All patrols should have an
participants. Agreements have to be monitored, interpreter at their disposition when performing
implemented or supervised as soon as possible. their patrol. All UN Installations/Bases/Positions
The immediate period following a negotiated should also have interpreters available to
agreement is likely to be the most challenging one, support for different duties and situations.
and require close monitoring, supervision and the Organizational assets frequently involved in
readiness to act. negotiations with members of the local military and
civilian leadership need skilled and trustworthy
9.5 Working with Interpreters interpreters. For all types of negotiations and
mediations where issues of restricted nature might
Due to the multinational nature of peace be covered, the use of military interpreters is
operations, most peacekeepers will not be able desirable both of FP and the interpreter’s personal
to communicate with the local people in the host safety considerations.
country directly through their own languages. There
might be more than one language used in the
mission area. To fulfil their tasks, members of the
UN peacekeeping operation at all levels need to
be able to communicate with members of the local
population. This will be the case from the guard
who is approached by locals bringing forward
all types of questions, all the way to the Force
Commander who needs to negotiate with civilian
and military leaders at his level. The only way to
overcome this challenge is to use interpreters to
assist in the communication.

In a peacekeeping operation, there are usually

two types of interpreters: UN military interpreters
and locally employed interpreters. In some cases,
the UN may bring their own international civilian A UN nuclear inspection team protesting the lack of access to the
employed interpreters. The United Nations Fallujah Military Transport Command. Acting Chief Inspector David Kay is
will typically employ local people as language at far left. Next to him is United Nations interpreter Bachir al-Okla with
Iraqi military commanders on the right. (UN Photo #296814 by Pernaca
assistants in order to support peacekeepers with
Sudhakaran, 28 June 1991)
translation and interpretation.

Interpreters are used for:

Considerations and Guidelines
• Translating negotiations between members
of the UN PK Force/UNMOs and local
There are different types of considerations to be
representatives at all levels;
taken depending first of all if you have military or
• Supporting patrols, OPs, and CPs with direct locally employed Interpreters at your disposal.
language translation capacity; and Military Interpreters are nationally trained soldiers

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 to explain the culture or context when necessary
in addition to interpretation, while making a clear
distinction between the interpretation and the
contextualization.
• Brief the interpreter of the physical position you
want them to take, e.g., half a foot behind you on
your right when standing and talking, or seated
to your left when sitting down.
• Do not show disrespect in front of your
interpreter towards the country, religion, people,
culture, food, leaders, or one of the parties in a
conflict situation. Think of the interpreters and
other local staff as your ambassadors to the
local community. Interpreters and other local
Mrs. Nane Annan (left) speaks through an interpreter with one of the
staff live and work within their own communities
mothers at a child feeding centre run by Médecins Sans Frontières, and their educated status may put them in an
when she toured the facility in Zinder, Niger. (UN Photo #85803 by Evan influential position among other locals. It is
Schneider, 23 August 2005) therefore probable that they will be asked by
family and friends about their experience of
with trained language efficiency in at least one working with the UN. One should also consider
of the languages of the mission area. As military how a relationship with the UN could affect
personnel they will normally fall under military the personal safety of an interpreter and avoid
jurisdiction and normally are therefore deemed exposing them to situations that may result in
to be trustworthy. If possible military Interpreters reprisals against them.
should be used when sensitive issues are
negotiated. Locally employed Interpreters are There are many mission-specific details to be taken
locals with a high enough English language into consideration in different UN Missions or areas
efficiency to be used as Interpreters. There are of operation when working with local interpreters;
many considerations both from a FP viewpoint these could be religion, or position of gender and
as well as considerations of the security of the culture. Some of these general considerations are
Interpreter to be taken when using local employed listed below:
interpreters.
• Loyalty: How loyal can your interpreter be to
Most interpreters in peacekeeping operations you, even in a difficult situation? Remember that
are not professionally trained interpreters. he or she lives in the area and will continue to
They are people with some knowledge of the do so after you have left. He/she has relatives
mission language, such as English, and the local and belongings in the area so he/she can be
languages. They have been hired by the UN pressured into giving away information even if
as “Language Assistants”. Very few Language he/she doesn’t want to do so;
Assistants would have received any formal training • Security: The interpreter moves with you and
in interpretation. This does not mean that they are your team; make sure that he/she also has
not dedicated; this only means that they are not protective gear (such as helmet, body armour).
formally certified professional interpreters. Thus, You are responsible of the security of your
one should have that understanding when working interpreter;
with them. You can also help train them to be more
effective using the following guidelines: • Respect: Remember to always treat your
interpreter with dignity, respect, and honour
• Brief the interpreter to repeat what is being said, in consideration of the UN’s standards and
not to give you a summary or evaluation. Also, according to the peacekeeper’s Code of
brief the interpreter not to analyze, value-judge, Conduct, regardless of his or her ethnicity,
or edit what is being said. Allow the interpreter religion, age, or gender.

138 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
• Economic integrity: In most UN Missions/ If you want to avoid miscommunication, you
Operations, the SOFA allows for the UN to should make the work of the interpreter as easy as
purchase goods such as tobacco and alcohol possible by:
tax-free. Do not sell these goods to your
• Using short sentences and encouraging others
interpreters to avoid accusations of involvement
to do the same;
with the black market. For the same reason,
avoid buying black market products from your • Refraining from using technical terms
interpreters. or abbreviations. In cases where this is
unavoidable, discuss it with the interpreter
• Blackmail: The interpreters that you work with
beforehand so that they can look up the terms
frequently get to know a lot about you. To
in a dictionary or prepare an appropriate word/
avoid becoming the subject of blackmail, avoid
phrase in the local language; and
discussing personal matters and take the other
considerations mentioned in this paragraph • Refraining from using culturally-specific idioms
seriously. or jokes.

Negotiating in Another Language Negotiating with an Interpreter

Our languages are extensions of our cultures. It As mentioned in the previous section, it is unlikely
requires great cultural sensitivity and knowledge that the Language Assistant assigned to your
of both cultures and languages to be able to section would have received any formal training as
correctly translate not only the words but also the an interpreter. Therefore, it will be helpful if you tell
content, emotion, and meaning of the words when the interpreter what you expect from him or her and
interpreting a conversation between two people how you would like them to position themselves
with different languages and cultures. when carrying out their duties. Brief your interpreter
on the topics at hand in advance so he/she can
It is therefore possible that most of what you are put him/herself into the right set of mind for the
saying to the other party is not being conveyed and situation.
understood in the exact same way as you said it
or meant it. Likewise, it is possible to assume that Also, do not let your interpreter run the meeting;
most of what you are told is not very accurate, you are the one who is negotiating. Talk to the
particularly what is said by or about the other other party, not the interpreter, in order to show
parties to the conflict. respect and recognition to the other party, as
well as to maintain your bargaining position. Look
There are many opportunities for misunderstanding at the person you are speaking to. Even if you
and misinterpretation. If something sounds out of do not understand their actual words, keep eye
context or does not make sense, double-check contact with the party or follow another appropriate
it for accuracy by paraphrasing or repeating the non-verbal tactic in order to show that you are
point. Check if the translation is correct by learning focused on them and their message in whatever
enough of the language to listen for key words or way may be culturally appropriate under the
have somebody present who can independently circumstances.
verify the accuracy. You should be able to detect
mistranslations in order to protect how you and the
peacekeeping force are being presented to others.

Plan to devote twice the amount of time when

conducting a meeting, negotiation, or mediation
with interpretation, as each statement will need to
be repeated. Your interpreter will also need breaks.
If the talks or negotiations are long, try to arrange
breaks for your interpreter so he/she is able to work
efficiently.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. In war, you achieve victory by defeating 4. In presenting opening remarks at a

your opponent through combat. Conversely, negotiation meeting between the parties of
what are the primary tools for victory in the conflict, the negotiator should:
peacekeeping? A. Give the necessary salutations, and then begin
the meeting in order to allow the maximum
2. During negotiations, the UNMO or amount of time for negotiations;
peacekeeper may have to: B. Greet everyone, and ask only the members of
A. Accept all restrictions and limitations that have the UN team to give their perspective as a way
been locally imposed, so that he/she does not to begin the negotiations;
alienate the negotiators; C. Skip the salutations and begin pressuring the
B. Ignore restrictions and limitations that have participants to reach an agreement quickly;
been locally imposed, in order to be able to D. Let someone else volunteer to lead the meeting
complete his/her mission; while you take notes.
C. Negotiate concessions to restrictions that have
been locally imposed, in order to be able to 5. If incorrect information is given at any point
complete his/her mission and comply with UN during a negotiation, the negotiator should:
standards;
A. State the actual facts and the evidence that
D. Do whatever is necessary to complete the supports them, without arguing;
mission.
B. Let it pass until an advantageous time arises to
speak the true facts;
3. During any negotiation meeting, the C. Just ignore it and move on;
negotiator should take note of the following
D. Accuse the participants of dishonesty.
social requirements:
A. Show respect and do nothing to offend, while
maintaining UN Standards and Guidelines; 6. As a negotiation meeting is ending, the
negotiator should:
B. Pay random compliments to each participants,
in order to avoid being accused of favouritism; A. Ask each person to repeat what they believe
has been agreed upon and appoint someone to
C. Give the major leaders the most amount
summarize the points of view;
of speaking time and attention in order to
enhance their importance and speed up B. Have everyone orally repeat what was said;
negotiations; C. Summarize each person’s point of view and ask
D. Because you are a UN Military Observer or each one to rethink their position before the
peacekeeper, your attitude really does not next meeting;
matter. D. Summarize what has been agreed upon and
make sure that it is in writing.

140 | U N I T E D N AT I O N S M I L I TA R Y E X P E R T S O N M I S S I O N ( U N M E M )
7. If a mediation session results in no 9. Emphatic listening, paraphrasing,
agreements, the negotiator may suggest that: communicating openness, reframing, and
A. Each party summarizes in writing their position non-verbal communications are:
on the main issues and list the areas in which A. Unnecessary during negotiations, arbitration,
they are willing to make concessions; and mediation;
B. They at least agree to meet again; B. Nice to be familiar with, but they are not vital to
C. The negotiator acts as an arbitrator to make the success of a negotiation;
the tie-breaking decisions required to reach an C. Not useful in most communication and
agreement; negotiation situations;
D. They agree to not meet again. D. Are useful in most communication and
negotiation situations.
8. Negotiation is:
A. Giving in to someone else taking over and 10. Main topics likely to be discussed during a
being in charge of the situation; negotiation headed by an UNMO are:
B. Any communication with the aim of reaching an A. Determine which Member State will lead the
agreement; rebuilding of the area after the conflict;
C. Giving up your rights to state your point of view; B. Exchange of prisoners, ceasefire lines,
accomodations for refugees, and separation of
D. The same as arbitration and mediation.
the parties in conflict (territory or otherwise);
C. The type of government that would be set up
after a peaceful settlement;
D. The appropriate amount of donor support
money from the various UN Member States.

ANSWER KEY
1. The primary tools you will use to manage the conflict are communication and negotiation.

2C, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6D, 7C, 8B, 9D, 10B.

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LESSON 10
MEDIA RELATIONS AND IMPACT
OF MEDIA
 LESSON
10

LESSON OBJECTIVES

10.1 The Importance of The aim of this lesson is to provide the student with basic information on
Media Relations media relations and how to participate in an interview. It will familiarize
the student with the importance and effect of the media in the success of
10.2 Peacekeepers’ peacekeeping operation. After completing the lesson, the student should
Actions and the be able to:
Media • State how the UN Public Information System promotes peacekeeping
through use of media;
10.3 The Public
Information Office • State how the behaviour of an individual may affect the mission;

(PIO) • State the UN’s media guidelines; and

10.4 Speaking to the • State the do’s and don’ts of an interview.

Media: Principles
Introduction
10.5 Impact of the
Internet and Social All peacekeeping operations attract media attention, but not all media
Media reports on peacekeeping missions are consistent in the same way. Some
local media tend to be biased. The tendency of taking sides is very likely.
Furthermore, the local media tend to be less informed than international
media and operate at a different level. International media, on the other
hand, tends to be more interested in a peacekeeping operation when the
level of conflict is high, particularly when problems are encountered or
failures occur. They become less interested as the peace process moves
forward.
Peacekeepers have to communicate with the local confident that the information structures within the
population through both the local and international mission would be able to deal effectively with any
media, broadcasting in that area and with the media situation. At the same time, they should also
international community through regional and understand that they might be required to play a
international media. The ability to disseminate role at some point in dealing with the media. If such
truthful, credible, and impartial information within an occasion arises, they will need to know how to
the region, and beyond, is consequently an react, without being manipulated by the media.
essential requirement of every peacekeeping
mission.

Information generated by peacekeepers or others

that is inaccurate, unclear, or untimely can be
harmful to the mission. Negative behaviour by
peacekeepers can do great harm, especially if
reported in the media. Information that is distorted
by the media can also be damaging. While it is the
job of the public information officers in the mission
to ensure that the media receives accurate and
reliable information, all peacekeepers are permitted
to respond to questions from the media, if they
choose to do so, about their specific activities or
areas of responsibility.

Therefore, all UNMOs and peacekeepers within

Choi Young-jin, Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head
the mission must understand the impact of of the United Nations Operations in Côte d’Ivoire (UNOCI), speaks to a
their responses to the media on peacekeeping journalist after the Security Council meeting. (UN Photo #480306 by JC
operations. They must understand that any McIlwaine, 18 July 2011)
irresponsible act on their part can have very
negative consequences for their national contingent
and the United Nations, especially if the media The media is interested in conflicts because
reports on it. UNMOs and peacekeepers also conflicts are the basis of news. This interest is
need to know how to participate in media-relation neither good nor bad but a professional activity
activities during their tour of duty. which requires a professional response. Most
international journalists are very professional and
10.1 The Importance of Media usually quite sympathetic to the United Nations and
Relations what it stands for. Local journalists may or may not
be as professional and can often be controlled by
UNMOs and peacekeepers need to understand one of the sides in the conflict.
that the media can play a significant role in a
peacekeeping operation. If the media is provided The UN needs to convey information about the
with accurate and timely information, they will use mandate and the peace process to the local
it to carry the UN’s messages. If the media is not population, which may be the target of false
given information about UN operations, they will information or hostile propaganda by parties to the
find other, perhaps less reliable sources or they conflict. The UN must provide accurate, reliable,
will speculate about outcomes, often negatively. and impartial information. This helps the peace
Peacekeepers need to know how the Public process. It does this through its own information
Information Office (PIO) is structured and how the structures, as well as through the media. The UN
Military Public Information Office (MPIO), if present, must also inform the international community about
and the military spokesperson work with the PIO its work, and it also does this through the media.
and the mission spokesperson. They should feel

L E S S O N 1 0 : M E D I A R E L A T I O N S A N D I M PA C T O F M E D I A | 145
 The media plays a very important role by informing damaged, and the values of the organization are
the world about UN peacekeeping. UN Public diminished.
Information can deal with the media at all levels
and is equipped to handle most situations. UNMOs and peacekeepers must understand
However, one of the most difficult situations to that any misbehaviour can have far-reaching
deal with is an irresponsible act by UN Military consequences and that prevention of misconduct
Observers and peacekeepers. is always the best option. They should behave
honourably and correctly at all times, showing
10.2 Peacekeepers’ Actions and the respect for their uniforms and national flag, as
Media1 well as the flag of the United Nations and the
blue shoulder patch they all wear. The United
Nothing damages the reputation of the UN or a Nations will not cover up or in any way be a party
national contingent more than the irresponsible to behaviour that undermines the values of the
acts committed by UN peacekeepers. This can organization.
take the form of sexual abuse, inappropriate sexual
activities, alcohol or substance abuse, lack of All UNMOs and peacekeepers must understand
respect or denigration of the local population, and that they are a potential source of information for
smuggling. Once the media learns of the reports the media and that certain rules apply when talking
of such incidents, the effect is devastating for the to the media. The Secretary-General encourages
national contingent, the mission, and the UN. The transparency and openness with the media. For
local population loses trust in the international uniformed peacekeepers, this means they may
community, which is seen as a negative rather talk about their own work or area of responsibility
than a positive force. The reputation of the UN is in a factual manner. With minimal training,
peacekeepers will be able to do this. Local media
is always present, but their reliability to report
accurately varies. They may be partisan or under
the control of one side. They may lack professional
training. Local media must be dealt with patiently
and carefully.

International media will maintain a presence in

the region, often through a local correspondent
who will have been trained or an international
correspondent if the peacekeeping operation is
becoming interesting. This could occur either
because the conflict is warming up or because the
peace process is reaching a critical stage.

Peacekeepers must get used to the idea of doing

their jobs while the media watches. This means
they must be careful to project the right image at all
At a one-day workshop on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA), hosted times.
by the National Council on Child Welfare (NCCW), in Khartoum, Sudan,
a participant holds up a copy of the Daily Telegraph article about SEA
allegedly committed in South Darfur by United Nations personnel. (UN
Positive behaviour reinforces the ability of the
Photo #138056 by Fred Noy, 18 January 2007) UN to help move the peace process forward and
creates bonds of trust with the local population.
1 For more information, see Handbook on UN Positive behaviour means respecting the Code of
Multidimensional Peacekeeping Operations; Conduct. It can also take the form of helping the
December 2003, < http://www.peacekeepingbest- local community with simple projects – for example,
practices.unlb.org/Pbps/library/Handbook%20 repairing a school, interacting with the local
on%20UN%20PKOs.pdf>.

146 | METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
community, or playing sports. Such actions create Peacekeepers have been known to engage in
good rapport and win respect for the national wrongdoing while on mission. Although only a
contingent and the UN. small minority do break the rules about behaviour
and violate the Code of Conduct, the effects of
Negative behaviour, however, undermines the this minority can be far-reaching. Typically, sexual
reputation of the national community and the UN, misbehaviour by a few can damage the reputation
and it weakens the peace process. Parties to the of a whole contingent. Commercial sex workers,
conflict can exploit negative behaviour and use it many of whom may be below the age of 18, will
to delay the peace process. The local community’s try and attract the attention of peacekeepers.
expectations about the UN presence in their Peacekeeping missions in Bosnia, Kosovo, East
country are undermined, and respect for the Blue Timor, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the
Helmets is diminished. Democratic Republic of the Congo have all had
incidents of sexual misbehaviour reported by the
The media works 24 hours a day, and news of an international media. The damage to the reputation
event or incident can be disseminated around the of the national contingents involved and the UN has
world before the mission has time to verify the been considerable. The best practice is to avoid
facts, report to HQ, and prepare a response. The any behaviour in violation of the Code of Conduct.
print media, including magazines and newspapers, If this is accomplished, then the media has nothing
is expensive and requires time to be produced and to report.
distributed. However, radio and television have an
immediate and global impact. The availability of One of the best ways to create a bond between
satellite communications and portable audio-video the local population and the peacekeeping
equipment allows the media to transmit their contingent is by helping the local community with
reports directly from anywhere in the world. A small-scale projects, such as repairing utilities or
reporter will always be there, whenever and public buildings, providing medical assistance, or
wherever the news occurs. Because the media just engaging in sporting or cultural events with
works so rapidly, information about an incident or local people. The costs are normally small and
an event can be on television or radio around the the benefits large, especially when reported by
world before the peacekeeping mission has had the the media, which the UN Public Information Office
time to verify the facts and react officially. can help arrange. The reputation of the national
contingent can be enhanced around the world.
UNMOs and peacekeepers should be careful to
ensure that they do not distribute any information 10.3 The Public Information Office
to the media about any incident or event that will (PIO)
be investigated by other structures within the
mission. Any questions that they are asked by Each mission has a Public Information Office (PIO).
the media about such incidents or events must The PIO:
be referred to the UN Public Information Office in
the mission. Traffic accidents can occur between
• Will develop and manage the communications
strategy, assist the media, and ensure that the
UN vehicles and local vehicles in a peacekeeping
local population is informed about the mandate
mission; if local casualties result, the incident can
and the peace process;
quickly become serious. The UN must investigate
all accidents, but this takes time. Meanwhile, the • May operate its own radio station or broadcast
local media may use the incident to discredit the on local stations, produce video material for
UN, irrespective of who is at fault. The family of television, and publish informational brochures,
the victim(s) may try and make excessive claims posters, and pamphlets, all in a number of local
against the UN. Because insurance liabilities are languages;
involved, any comment, however well intentioned,
can be misconstrued or used against the UN. This
• Employs local staff, usually journalists, who have
good knowledge and understanding of local
sort of incident requires handling by the UN Public
customs and traditions;
Information Office.

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 • Will accredit journalists to have access to the UN 10.4 Speaking to the Media:
and will issue ID cards to reporters that can be Principles
checked by contingents in the field;
• Works closely with the military public information Nobody is obliged to speak to reporters if they
structures - the military spokesman and the do not want to. UNMOs and peacekeepers may
military public information officers attached to decline, politely, if they wish. However, past
contingents, implementing the communications experience shows that peacekeeping troops who
strategy; and talk to the media about their work can be very
effective in conveying positive messages.
• Is a resource that UNMOs and peacekeepers
can draw on for all sorts of useful information When talking about their jobs, UNMOs and
about the mandate, the peace process, and the peacekeepers should convey a sense of pride in
mission. The PIO can help contingents manage what they do because they are working for the
their media relations, and promote the positive UN. They should be positive about their role. They
image of contingents that engage in activities should always be factual and impartial in the way
that assist the local community. they convey information and should always speak
respectfully about the local population, which often
National Contingents should not hesitate to ask the lives in conditions of extreme poverty and hardship.
PIO for information or assistance. They should try and empathize with the situation of
the local people and avoid remarks that may sound
condescending or patronizing.

UNMOs and peacekeepers must remember that

they are ambassadors for their own countries and
the UN and should, therefore, present themselves
appropriately. It may happen that a reporter
interviews you in the field. When speaking with the
reporter, remember his or her name, as well as the
media organization they represent. If you do speak
to a reporter about your work, please let the UN
Public Information Office know about it. Contact the
military public information officer attached to your
contingent or your superior officer so they can pass
on the information.

Remember what you are allowed to talk about and

A peacekeeper of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic what you cannot say.
of the Congo (MONUC) tries out a video camera used by the Mission’s
public information officers. (UN Photo #185629 by Marie Frechon, 11 April
Do:
2008)
• Always refer reporters to UN information
personnel if they ask you any questions that you
are not authorized to answer. It is always better
to refer to an authorized person than to give a
wrong answer;
• Always be polite with the media, even if they
appear rude or unfriendly. They may be under
pressure to get the news; you should keep your
professionalism and maintain an educated and
polite attitude;

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• Stick to facts, as they cannot be refuted; and You may ask the UN Public Information Office in
the mission for a summary of the mandate. It is
• Be brief and precise. Time is the main limitation
useful to have this information, both for your own
of the modern media, as only so much news
understanding of the country’s participation in the
and images can be conveyed each minute. If
UN peacekeeping operation and also when talking
you speak too much or are unclear, the positive
to journalists. You will then be able to place your
image you want to present will be lost.
work in the context of the mandate.
Do not:
• Offer your personal opinion about the peace
process or about UN activities. Any answer you
provide may be regarded as an official opinion
or, if negative, may reflect badly on the mission
and the organization;
• Answer questions that are speculative, such as
“What will happen if….?” Speculations are just
that. You may be providing wrong information
that may affect the mission;
• Give any information about UN security plans
or procedures. The UN is an open organization
and has no secrets. However, security may be Major General Robert Mood (at podium) holds his first press conference
as Chief Military Observer and Head of the UN Supervision Mission in
affected; Syria (UNSMIS), in the Syrian town of Homs. (UN Photo #512955 by Are
• Discuss the state or activities of local or other Blikeng, 03 May 2012)
combatant forces; and
• Do not appear to support or favour one side over The media needs to reach the public. In most
the other. Remember at all times that you are countries, people like human-stories. High-ranking
impartial. officers are normally associated more with large
and impersonal organizations. However, soldiers
Remember that you do not have to talk to the are perceived as the true peacekeepers. Their
media if you do not want to. Politely but firmly messages and stories reach the public in an
decline an invitation to speak. informal and refreshing way. Thus, public opinion
will prefer to see an interview with a soldier than
The mandate of a UN peacekeeping mission is with a high-ranking officer.
your main mission. All that you have been tasked
to accomplish is designed to support the mandate. How to Handle an Interview
The mandate of a peacekeeping operation is
contained in a Security Council Resolution. This The basic rules for handling an interview are few
document constitutes the legal authority under and simple. The camera or the reporter should not
which the UN mission is operating. The mandate intimidate you. You are a professional, and you
will describe the aim of the peacekeeping mission, are executing your mission in a highly professional
and it will be periodically updated by the Security manner.
Council as circumstances change. While UNMOs
• Always look at the reporter, never at the camera.
and peacekeepers are not expected to remember
Looking at the camera will give viewers the
all of the details of a mandate, they should be
impression that you are not behaving naturally.
familiar with the main points. These may include
reference to the disarmament and demobilization • To avoid making mistakes or losing face with a
of illegal forces, transitional power sharing wrong answer, listen carefully to each question. If
arrangements, eventual elections, the restoration of needed, ask the reporter to repeat it to you. Gain
the rule of law, and so on. time to compose your answer and then stick to

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 what you know and can say. complete guidelines, remember not to compromise
the security of the organization, its mission, and its
• Speak naturally and with facts, avoiding
people.
exaggerated movements with your hands and
face.
10.5 Impact of the Internet and Social
If you speak and say “no comment”, the reporter Media
and the public will have the impression that you
are trying to hide something. It is much better As an UN Military Observer, there will be many
to answer with “I do not know” or to refer to a people observing your statements and opinions.
qualified officer. Answering with “yes” or “no” will These observations can carry over to the internet
give basically the same impression. Instead, use and become widely distributed through discussions,
small sentences. For example, do not answer the photos, and videos posted on social media
question “Do you like your work?” with simply “yes”. forums, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
Instead, state, “I enjoy my work with the UN” or a and YouTube. Any careless actions, behaviour,
similar short and clear answer. or lapses in judgement have the potential to be
witnessed and recorded by the public, and that
The expression “off the record” may suggest may be used in disfavour of you and also discredit
that what you say is only for the reporter and will the United Nations. UNMOs should refrain from
not be published or transmitted. However, this is posting criticisms, judgements, or opinions in a
professional terminology, and it applies basically personal way on these public forums, as this could
to professionals of the media. If you say something undermine the effectiveness of the mission.
of interest, the reporter may decide to use it. It is
better to decline to answer. The internet and social media has also been used
as a tool by insurgents to organize, recruit, and
garner populist favor.

Civil society and peacebuilders have also come to

depend on the internet and social media tools as
a mechanism to disseminate important live-saving
information in areas of crisis. Examples include
early-warning mobile applications that detect
rockets and missiles, giving non-combatants an
opportunity to take cover, and messaging systems
that provide SMS alerts and information about
where to find shelter, emergency supplies, or
how to report and locate displaced and missing
persons. These new and innovative lifelines are
becoming known as “peace tech”.

When used strategically in a formalized capacity,

“TXT-4-Peace” messages run on the screens in the General Assembly Hall social media can also be a very powerful tool
before the general debate of the sixty-third session, as part of the global for the UN role in the peace process. Missions
initiative of the United Nations Secretary-General to draw the attention
themselves are also embracing social media by
of the world leaders to the need for peace. (UN Photo #195934 by Mark
Garten, 24 September 2008) establishing official Twitter accounts and using
other forms of social media. This gives each
mission a chance to report and publicize its own
You represent the UN 24 hours a day and seven perspective on the ground, as well as assist others
days a week. Whatever you say may be received by sharing information and highlighting successes.
as the opinion of the organization. Provide
information as authorized. If you do not have

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. The UN Public Information Office: 8. What do you think about the alleged sexual
A. Discuss only factual matters in their own area exploitation by UN personnel of the local
of responsibility and divulge only misleading girls?
information about local forces;
B. Discuss only factual matters in their own area 9. Are you in favour of changing the mandate
of responsibility while not providing information of the mission?
about local forces which might be of use to
opponents;
10. What is your mission?
C. Say as little as possible about any subject;
D. Talk as much as possible to make sure that
your opinion is heard.

2. As an UNMO or peacekeeper, when you are

approached by the media or journalists, you
should do which of the following?
A. You do not have to talk if you do not want to;
B. This is the time to complain about the problems
in the mission;
C. Don’t worry about respecting the local people –
they know that the UN is superior;
D. Give your opinions regardless of what the local
customs and cultures may be.

3. How might the internet and social media

impact your duties as an UNMO?

Provide an appropriate answer for the following

frequently asked questions from the media:

4. Do you like being here?

5. How long will it take to bring peace?

6. There is still fighting going on. What do you

think will happen?

7. Aren’t you afraid that things are going to get

worse?

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ANSWER KEY
1D, 2A,

3. Statements and/or pictures/videos produced

and spread on internet or by social media by an
UNMO personally or by information given to others
may affect him/her and the peacekeeping operation
in a negative way. However, when used responsibly
and in an official, formal capacity, social media and
internet resources can help inform in a positive way.

4. Acceptable answer: I miss my friends and

family, but I am pleased I can help make things
better here. It is a good experience, even if the
conditions are difficult.

5. Acceptable answer: I do not know the answer to

that. It depends on many things. You should ask the
UN Public Information Office.

6. Acceptable answer: I cannot answer that

question. The UN Public Information Office can
help you with that.

7. Acceptable answer: I am a [soldier, police

officer, UNMO, or UN peacekeeper]. I have been
trained to do this, and I am confident that the UN
is doing everything possible to advance the peace
process.

8. Acceptable answer: I cannot answer that

question. The UN Public Information Office can
help you with that.

9. Acceptable answer: The mandate of the UN

peacekeeping mission is my mission, which I will
support. The UN Public Information Office can help
you with further information.

10. Acceptable answer: As a UN peacekeeper/

UNMO, my mission is to support the mission
mandate.

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LESSON 11
UNMO DUTIES PART 1 – GENERAL
 LESSON
11

LESSON OBJECTIVES

This lesson contains an introduction to UNMO duties and human rights

11.1 Introduction to UN norms and the role of UNMOs and peacekeepers in promoting and
protecting human rights. The aim of this lesson is to introduce UNMO
Military Observer
duties and human rights concepts and principles in order to enable them
Duties to perform their duties more effectively. After completing this lesson, the
student should be able to:
11.2 Demands on a UN
Military Observer • Understand the demands and requirements of being an UNMO

11.3 Demographic Study, • Understand how human rights apply to an UNMO’s work in a UN
peacekeeping operation;
Social Customs, and
• List some examples and characteristics of human rights;
Etiquette
• Explain how their work can affect human rights positively and
11.4 Applying Human negatively;
Rights in a
• Explain the standards on the use of force and firearms; and
Peacekeeping
• Explain what they can do with regard to human rights violations.
Environment: The
Role of an UNMO
Introduction
There is an obvious link between human rights violations and conflict.
Where violations occur, conflict is more likely to arise. As recent history
shows, post-Cold War conflicts have often been rooted in gross violations
of human rights. Therefore, addressing human rights problems is an
essential aspect of finding solutions to conflicts.
When conflict is ongoing, ensuring respect for Military Observer to ensure that all UNMOs receive
human rights by the parties is an important appropriate induction training. Such training will
confidence-building measure and can act towards be related to the mission’s role and functions, key
the de-escalation of hostilities. The just resolution UN policies and regulations, local conditions and
of disputes based on respect for human rights customs, UN Safety and Security, and the UNMO’s
is also an essential element of effective conflict- obligations and roles within the mission. For
prevention. UNMOs, the inductions training will normally also
include a driving test in order to get a UN Drivers
UN peacekeeping missions usually include in their Permit, an English test, and a Safety and Security
mandate human rights aspects. Increasingly, peace certification. If an UNMO fails one or more of the
settlements incorporate explicit obligations for critical tests, the UNMO may be returned to the
the concerned states to comply with international Troop Contributing Country (TCC) at their expense.
human rights norms. Thus, it is important for Other information and training will be regulated in
peacekeepers to be able to perform their tasks accordance with the needs in each separate UN
effectively to have a general awareness and mission.
understanding of human rights concepts, as well
as their relevance to the mission in which they
operate.

11.1 Introduction to UN Military

Observer Duties
All UNMOs are regarded as UNMEM, and will
operate unarmed under the UN Chapter VI or VII.
Lessons 11-14 are intended to give the UNMO
a more specific theoretical introduction to serve
in a peacekeeping operation led by the United
Nations. UNMOs are normally deployed in order to
monitor and supervise any military arrangements
that parties to a conflict have agreed to, such as
a ceasefire or armistice, withdrawal of forces, or
the preservation of a demilitarized or neutral buffer United Nations Military Observers (UNMO) meet with local officials
zone. The primary tasks of UN Military Observers in Unity State, Southern Sudan while investigating reports of violent
is to monitor and report on the Parties’ observance incidents in the surrounding areas. From left: Captain Rodrigo Ribeiro
(Brazil) and Major Anup Sanmotra (India). (UN Photo #459795 by Paul
of these military arrangements and the military
Banks, 12 November 2010)
situation in general in theirs Area of Responsibility
(AOR).
Since they are unarmed and not part of a formed
11.2 Demands on a UN Military military unit, UNMOs do not have any coercive
Observer authority and depend entirely upon the cooperation
of the conflicting parties for their security and
It is the same requirements on the UN Military effectiveness. However, since UNMOs represent
Observer whether he or she deploys to a UN the moral authority of the international community,
multidimensional operation (i.e. MONUSCO) or it is they can be an effective deterrent to violations of
in a single UN observer mission (i.e. UNTSO). To peace agreements. In peacekeeping operations
serve in a UN-led mission as an UNMO requires where military forces are present, the UNMOs work
solid training and preparations before deploying in conjunction with the force – though likely under
into the Mission Area. When entering a UN a separate chain of command. Since UNMOs can
Mission Area, it is the responsibility of the Head be drawn from any nation, they can enhance the
of the Military Component (HOMC) or the Chief international character of a PKO.

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The Nature of Today’s Conflicts Respect for human dignity, which is at the heart
of human rights, is a value common to the
The post-Cold War era has witnessed a new world’s cultures and religions. Initially, claims to
pattern of armed conflicts. While conflicts continue human rights were considered to be only moral.
to occur in many parts of the world and have However, as history progressed, human rights
increased in the last decade, they have mainly were formally recognized and came to be protected
been of an internal nature, involving states and by international law, national constitutions, and
non-state actors, which include irregular forces, domestic laws. That is why we say that they are
private militia, and guerrillas. They have often been legal entitlements.
rooted in ethnic tensions, fights for the control of
natural resources, the people’s struggle to achieve Characteristics of Human Rights
freedom from oppression, social justice, and a
democratic government. In several situations, Human rights can be characterized as follows:
conflicts have resulted in the phenomenon of
• Universal: Every human being, with no
“failed states,” where the government structure,
distinction, is entitled to human rights.
authority, legal, and political systems have
collapsed, rendering the protection of human rights • Internationally guaranteed: Human rights are
more difficult. established in international law, including treaties
and other documents.
The victims of today’s armed conflicts are
• Legally protected: They are guaranteed by
disproportionately civilians. A recent UN study
constitutions and domestic legislation.
noted that civilians accounted for up to 90 percent
of casualties during the 1990s, a sharp contrast • Protect individuals and groups: Some human
to World War I, where only five percent of all rights protect individuals (i.e., freedom of
casualties were civilian1. movement, right to vote, right to education), and
others protect groups as such (i.e., rights of
Civilians are deliberate targets of violence. Mass minorities, rights of indigenous people).
population displacement, the use of child soldiers,
• Cannot be taken away: Nobody can deprive a
violence against ethnic and religious groups,
person of his/her rights. Human rights can be
gender-based and sexual violence, deliberate
violated, as they often are, but this does not
destruction of property and crops, and mutilations
mean that they are taken away from the person
are some of the human rights violations that
concerned.
accompany contemporary conflicts. Thus, human
rights violations are, at the same time, the cause • Equal and indivisible: All human rights are
and consequence of conflicts. equally important. The realization of one human
right is linked to the realization of the others.
What are Human Rights? For example, in order to be able to express their
genuine political opinion through a vote, citizens
Human rights are entitlements that every person must be able to receive adequate information.
possesses by virtue of being human. These rights
• Oblige states and state actors: States and
are universal and are guaranteed to all, irrespective
state actors have the responsibility to abide
of their race, colour, sex, language, religion,
by international human rights instruments.
political or other opinion, national or social origin,
Violations can be punished through the individual
property, birth, or other status. While the term
prosecution of the concerned persons, as
“human rights” is relatively modern, the principle on
well as through punishment of the state by the
which it is based is as old as humanity: that certain
international community in the form of embargos,
rights and freedoms are fundamental to human
sanctions, and other measures.
existence.

1 UNICEF. “Patterns in conflict: Civilians are now

the target”. <http://www.unicef.org/graca/patterns.htm>

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The Legal Basis for Human Rights
Read the Original Documents
With the creation of the United Nations in 1945,
in the wake of the atrocities of the Second
International Bill of Rights
World War, human rights became a matter of
<www.un-documents.net/a3r217.htm>
international concern. The international community
recognized the need to develop commonly-agreed
Other Human Rights Treaties
minimum standards for the treatment of persons
<www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf>
by governments and agreed to take measures to
safeguard human rights.
form what is known as the “International Bill of
The UN Charter, an international treaty that is Rights”.
legally binding to all Member States, contains
important provisions on human rights. The Charter The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
recognizes international cooperation in promoting adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
and encouraging respect for human rights for all on 10 December 1948, represents the first
as one of the purposes of the organization (Article comprehensive agreement among nations as to the
1). The Charter states that the UN shall promote specific rights and freedoms of all human beings
universal respect for and observance of human (the UN Charter did not contain a definition of
rights and fundamental freedoms for all without human rights).
distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion
(Article 55). These include civil and political rights, such as
the rights to life, not to be subjected to torture, to
By joining the United Nations, Member States liberty, to equality before the law, to a fair trial, to
pledge to take action in cooperation with the UN to freedom of movement, to assembly, to asylum, to
achieve respect for human rights (Article 56). In the freedom of thought, conscience, religion, opinion
framework of the United Nations, the international and expression, and others. They also include
community has engaged in an extensive process economic, social and cultural rights, such as the
of setting standards with the objective of creating rights to food, clothing, housing and medical care,
a legal framework for the effective promotion and to social security, to work, to equal pay for equal
protection of human rights. This has led to the work, to form trade unions, to education, and
development of numerous treaties, declarations, others.
guidelines, and other instruments that detail the
contents of human rights, the obligations of states, The Declaration is not, by itself, a legally binding
and the mechanisms to protect them and monitor document (unlike the UN Charter and other
their implementation. international treaties). Encompassing as it does
legal, moral, and philosophical beliefs held true by
Treaties, conventions, and covenants are legally all peoples, it has a very strong moral and political
binding documents. This means that if a state authority. However, some of its provisions (for
is party to a treaty, it has an obligation to take example, the right to life, the prohibition of torture,
measures to protect and promote the rights and others) are considered to be part of customary
contained therein. international law and hence are legally binding for
all states.
International Bill of Rights
The two International Covenants are treaties and,
Among the many instruments developed by the therefore, set legal obligations on states parties.
international community, the Universal Declaration Most UN Member States have ratified the two
of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Covenants, thus committing to take action to
Civil and Political Rights, and the International ensure that the rights guaranteed by these treaties
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

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 are effectively implemented and enjoyed by people Human Rights and Host Countries
under their jurisdiction.
The state hosting a peace operation is bound to
There are also regional human rights treaties that protect and promote basic human rights based on
are treaties developed within a specific region and general international law. It is often party to one or
are open for ratification only to the states belonging more international human rights treaties and has,
to that region. So far, there are human rights therefore, undertaken the obligation to protect and
treaties for Africa, Europe, and the Americas. promote the rights contained in these treaties.

Peace agreements also increasingly incorporate

obligations for the parties to comply with
international human rights treaties and standards.
As an example, the Dayton Peace Agreement,
which put an end to the conflict in Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 1995, sets an obligation for the
parties to secure human rights and to comply with
a comprehensive list of human rights treaties, both
regional and international (Annex 6 on human
rights, Article 1). Thus, human rights are part of
the legal framework within which peacekeepers
operate.

Examples of Human Rights

Human rights touch upon all aspects of human

Students at Tripoli University, Libya, attend a first-ever human rights
workshop organized by the UN Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) to existence. These examples are non-derogable
commemorate anniversary of the UN’s 1948 Universal Declaration of rights; that is, they must be respected in all
Human Rights. (UN Photo #499886 by Iason Foounten, 11 December 2011) circumstances without exception.
• Right to life: No one shall be arbitrarily deprived
Other Human Rights Treaties
of life. No person or entity is allowed to take
the life of an individual, even in extreme
In addition to the International Bill of Rights,
circumstances, without due process of law.
a number of human rights treaties were also
developed within the United Nations to address • Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman
specific human rights issues. These include the: or degrading treatment or punishment: It is
important to explain that the prohibition covers
• International Convention on the Elimination of All
torture as well as other forms of less extreme
Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965);
ill-treatment. The prohibition is absolute. Torture
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of is illegal under ALL circumstances, including in
Discrimination against Women (1979); conflict situations or the fight against terrorism.
Torture under the orders of superior officers is
• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel,
also illegal and does not provide any protection
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
from prosecution.
(1984);
• Right not to be held in slavery: This also covers
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989);
modern forms of slavery-like practices, such as
and
human trafficking.
• International Convention on the Protection of the
• Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion:
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of
No one can be coerced to change or alter
their Families (1990).
religion or denied the practice of their individual
choice of religion.

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Other examples of human rights include:
• Fair trial: Every individual is entitled to a fair and
public hearing by competent, independent, and
impartial tribunals established by law, in the
determination of any criminal charges against
him/her or of his/her rights and obligations in a
suit at law.
• Right to liberty: Deprivation of individual liberty
is an extreme measure and can be justified only
when it is both lawful and necessary and is done
in accordance with internationally accepted
standards. Arbitrary arrest and detention are
prohibited.
• Freedom of movement: Freedom of movement Soldiers of the British battalion of UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR)
in pursuit of an individual’s needs is one of the monitor the movement of Bosnian Muslims at a United Nations
checkpoint in Stari Vitez, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (UN Photo #907 by
fundamental rights of the individual. In certain
John Isaac, 01 May 1994)
cases, this right can be limited by the state, but
only within very strict parameters. Restrictions to have access to and benefit from education
must be clearly specified in the law, and they that is relevant, culturally appropriate, and of
must be necessary to protect national security, good quality. Girls, the poor, and children from
public order, public health or morals, or the rights marginalized communities are particularly
and freedoms of others. It is advisable to explain vulnerable to exclusion.
this by referring to checkpoints and roadblocks.
Military and police often create roadblocks • Right to peaceful assembly and association:
and checkpoints that may amount to unlawful Certain limitations may be administered to
restrictions on people’s free movement if not protect the normal life and security of the
fulfilling the above conditions. citizens. These restrictions may be, for example,
in the form of administrative measures limiting
• Right to privacy: Military and law enforcement the date, time, and the modalities of the
officials need to pay particular attention to gathering and demonstration. However, the
this right in the performance of their security same conditions as above must be respected.
functions, such as during searches at
checkpoints or while gathering intelligence. Limitations
• Right to adequate housing: It is the right of
every human being to live somewhere in peace, Under certain specific conditions established
security, and dignity. It includes the protection in international human rights treaties, states
from forced evictions, that is, the removal of can impose some limitations on the exercise of
individuals, families, and communities from their some human rights. Limitations on rights are the
homes, land, or neighbourhoods against their exception, not the rule.
will.
When some rights can be limited, the permissible
• Freedom of expression: This includes the right limitations are specified in the text of the treaties.
of every individual to seek, receive, and impart In general, these limitations are only those that
information of any kind, only with the restrictions are determined by law and are necessary in a
specified by the law and necessary to protect democratic society to ensure respect for the
the rights and reputation of others, or to protect rights and freedoms of others, or to protect public
national security, public order or health, or safety, order, health, and morals. The effects of
morals. the limitations cannot be disproportionate to their
• Right to education: This includes the right of objectives. Limitations outside these conditions are
everyone without discrimination of any kind illegal.

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It is not up to the individual police, military, or public It can be held that International Humanitarian
official to determine when and how rights can be Law is designed to safeguard and maintain
limited. Cases and procedures for limitations must the fundamental rights of civilians, victims, and
be written in the law of a country, and they must non-combatants in the event of armed conflict.
respect the conditions set by international law. It
should be recalled, however, that non-derogable It is important to notice that, even in times of
rights could never be limited or suspended. conflict, human rights law continues to apply.
However, since an armed conflict situation would
Derogations typically qualify as a “public emergency”, it is
possible and likely that some restrictions and
Derogations – or temporary suspension – of derogations to some rights may be introduced by
some human rights are only allowed in instances states. Therefore, the highest level of protection
of public emergency that threatens the life of the to individuals should be provided by international
nation. The emergency must be officially declared humanitarian law. International Humanitarian Law
and made known to the population. Derogations does not allow for derogations.
must be strictly required by the exigencies of the
situation, and they must not cause discrimination UN peacekeepers must make sure that
on the basis of race, colour, sex, language, religion, International Humanitarian Law is fully observed
and social origin. The UN must be informed of the if they are forced to use military force. The United
derogations effected by a state. Derogations must Nations Secretary-General issued a bulletin in
be enforced for the shortest possible time. Any 1999 establishing that UN forces must apply
derogation from rights that does not respect the International Humanitarian Law in the conduct
above conditions is illegal. of their operations. The Rules of Engagement of
a peacekeeping force incorporate fundamental
Non-derogable rights may never be suspended rules of international humanitarian law. If any
and may continue to apply also in situations of confrontation occurs, they must be recorded and
emergency. Some of these rights are the right to reported. The rights of prisoners, civilians, children,
life; the freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman, and all non-combatants need to be preserved.
or degrading treatment or punishment; the right not
to be held in slavery; and the freedom of thought, There are some general rules that are common
conscience, and religion. to the four Geneva Conventions and the two
Additional Protocols. They are the following:
A public emergency might be declared in a conflict
• Humanitarian law applies in all situations of
situation, and as a result, certain rights might have
armed conflict;
temporarily been suspended.
• Principles of humanity must be safeguarded in
International Humanitarian Law (IHL) all situations;
• Non-combatants, prisoners, civilians and those
Another body of international law that is relevant
who are wounded, sick, or shipwrecked must be
to peacekeepers is International Humanitarian
respected and protected;
Law (IHL). IHL is applicable in cases of armed
conflict, both international and internal. It includes: • Persons suffering from the effects of war must
standards for the protection of victims of conflict be aided and cared for without discrimination;
and non-combatants (including wounded, sick,
shipwrecked, prisoners and civilians); the Geneva The following acts are prohibited in all
Conventions of 1949 and two Protocols of 1977; circumstances:
and rules regulating means and methods of
• Murder;
combat, also known as the Hague Law.
• Torture;
• Corporal punishment;

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• Mutilation; of the military or police, or any other person
acting in an official capacity or with official
• Outrages upon personal dignity;
instigation, consent, or acquiescence, without a
• Hostage-taking; valid and legal reason, by confining a person in a
prison or other detention facility.
• Collective punishment;
• Discrimination: This can be based on race, sex,
• Executions without regular trial; and
national or social origin, political opinion, colour,
• Cruel and degrading treatment. religion, language, birth, property, or other
grounds.
Reprisals against the wounded, sick, shipwrecked,
• Violence against women: It includes all forms
medical personnel and services, prisoners of war,
of physical, sexual, and psychological violence
civilians, civilian and cultural objects, the natural
whether occurring in the community, in the family
environment, and works containing dangerous
(domestic violence), or committed by public
forces are prohibited; and
officials.
Protected persons must at all times have access • Genocide: Acts committed with intent to destroy,
to a protecting power (a neutral state safeguarding in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or
their interests) or to the ICRC (International religious group, including:
Committee of the Red Cross) or any other impartial
humanitarian organization. - Killing members of the group;

Examples of Human Rights Violations - Causing serious bodily or mental harm to

members of the group;
Some of the human rights violations that
are frequently encountered in a conflict and - Deliberately inflicting on the group
post-conflict context and to which peacekeepers conditions of life calculated to bring
should be alerted include the following: about their physical destruction in whole or
in part;
• Summary executions are a grave violation of
the right to life, involving killings carried out by
- Imposing measures intended to prevent
government agents or with their complicity or
births within the groups; and
acquiescence. This may include death through
the use of excessive force by the military, police,
- Forcibly transferring children of the group
or security forces.
to another group.
• Torture is defined as severe pain or suffering,
• War crimes are grave breaches of the Geneva
whether physical or mental, inflicted by or
Conventions. They are prohibited acts committed
at the instigation of or with the consent or
against persons and property protected by the
acquiescence of a public official or person acting
Conventions, including wilful killing, torture, or
in an official capacity, for such purposes as:
inhuman treatment, illegal detention, hostage-
obtaining from the person on whom it is inflicted
taking, the arbitrary and unlawful destruction and
or a third person information or a confession;
appropriation of property, and others.
punishing that person for an act which he/she
or a third person has committed or is suspected • Crimes against humanity: These are serious
to have committed; intimidating or coercing him/ human rights violations. They include the
her or a third person; or for any reason based on following acts when they are committed as part
discrimination of any kind. It is prohibited in all of a widespread or systematic attack against any
circumstances. civilian population with knowledge of the attack.
These acts are absolutely prohibited under
• Arbitrary arrest and detention is the deprivation
international law:
of liberty by a public official, such as a member

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 - Murder; and abuses. Gender-based and sexual violence
and exploitation have increasingly become
- Extermination; weapons of warfare and have sadly become
typical of modern conflicts. Rape, trafficking,
- Enslavement; sexual slavery, forced prostitution, economic
exploitation, and lack of access to medical care
- Torture; are some of the violations that more often take
place in conflict and post-conflict situations.
- Deportation or the forcible transfer of the
population: This includes situations when Women are entitled without discrimination to
the inhabitants are forcibly evicted from all the protections established by human rights
their place of domicile and deported to an instruments and international humanitarian law.
alien land on any pretext. This has been In addition, they enjoy additional protections
frequently observed during ethnic conflicts; because of their vulnerability. For example,
they must be protected against rape, enforced
- Imprisonment or other severe deprivation prostitution, and any form of indecent assault.
of physical liberty; Trafficking and exploitation of prostitution are also
prohibited. Women are also to be protected against
- Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution discrimination in all fields of civil, political, social,
or sterilization, and forced pregnancy; economic, and cultural life.
Recent conflicts have seen the use of
rape as a weapon or a form of reprisal, Peacekeepers must be particularly alerted to
especially in ethnic conflicts with the intent the risks of violations against and exploitation of
to intimidate, humiliate, and degrade women. The international presence that follows
the opposing ethnic community. conflict has been linked to an increasing demand
The International Criminal Tribunal on the for prostitution and trafficking of women and
Former Yugoslavia has ruled that rape girls. Peacekeepers must absolutely refrain from
at the instigation of a public official in any form of sexual or economic exploitation.
situations of armed conflict is torture. These constitute crimes and human rights
violations, which are punished under national and
- Persecution against any political, racial, international law.
national, ethnic, cultural, religious
• Children: The special rights of children and their
or gender group;
most frequent needs in a peacekeeping context
were addressed in Lesson 6 of this course.
- Enforced disappearance; and
• The elderly: Elderly citizens are often overlooked
- Apartheid. when looking at conflict or post-conflict
situations. Unable to effectively withstand
Vulnerable Groups the pressure of war, they are easy prey for
humiliation and physical abuse.
In a peacekeeping environment, there are groups
• Minorities: Minorities are groups of residents
of the population that are particularly vulnerable
within a state who are smaller in number, have
to human rights violations and to the effects of
a non-dominant position, and have common
conflict. It is important for peacekeepers to be
ethnic, religious, or linguistic characteristics
alerted to them and their needs. Some of these
different from the rest of the population.
groups are:
They are entitled to all human rights without
• Women: Women and girls are especially discrimination, and they are entitled to enjoy their
affected by conflict. Their gender and their distinctive culture, profess their religion, and use
position in society, even prior to the conflict, their language. Conflicts in the modern era are
make them particularly vulnerable to violence often rooted in ethnic or religious tensions.

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• Refugees: Refugees are protected under the United Nations – and the Troop Contributing
international law and have the right to seek and Countries in particular.
enjoy asylum from prosecution. A refugee is
defined as a person:

Who, owing to well-founded fear of being

persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership of a particular social group or political
opinion, is outside the country of his nationality
and is unable or unwilling to avail himself of the
protection of that country; or

Who, not having a nationality and being outside the

country of his former habitual residence, is unable
or unwilling to return to it.
• Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): These are
people who have fled their homes or places of
residence suddenly or unexpectedly as a result
of armed conflict, internal strife, systematic A Danish United Nations military observer constructs shelves for the Juba
violations of human rights, or natural or man- Orphanage in Juba, Sudan. Children who will live at the orphanage watch
made disasters but have not crossed an and help. (UN Photo #116896 by Arpan Munier, 19 November 2005)

internationally-recognized border. Large-scale

internal displacement is typical of many conflicts.
IDPs are entitled to enjoy human rights without 11.4 Applying Human Rights in a
discrimination. Peacekeeping Environment:
The Role of an UNMO
11.3 Demographic Study, Social
Customs, and Etiquette In a peacekeeping operation, military, police, and
civilian personnel from many different countries find
In Multidimensional PKO and UN Military Observer themselves working together to fulfil the mission’s
Missions, the UNMO’s ability and understanding of mandate. They have different cultural, legal, and
interaction with other mission components, parties national backgrounds. Human rights standards –
to the conflict, rebel forces, local authorities, local developed as they were in the context of the United
populace and other categories (i.e. media) is vital Nations and with their universal character – provide
to the outcome of his/her duties. In order to achieve a common standard of achievement and conduct
a multicultural understanding of all the different for all people serving in a peace operation.
actors you will meet and interact with, training and
exercises prior to deployment are required. Peacekeeping must be conducted with respect to
the principles, norms, and spirit of the international
Demographic studies of nation(s) and its/their human rights conventions and other instruments
population should be carried out before deploying relevant to the conduct of military, police, and
to a Peacekeeping Operation. Such a study civilian personnel. It may be useful to refer again to
should be conducted together with studies of local the Code of Conduct for peacekeepers.
social customs and etiquette that you will face
in the Mission area. UNMOs will frequently face Both UN personnel and the host government must
other people and organizations while performing respect human rights principles and norms. As
their duties, and lack of understanding of the mentioned previously, the United Nations is bound
Host Nation(s), their population and other actors by its Charter to promote universal respect for
could be fatal to their security, the execution of and observance of human rights for all without
the Mandate as well as trust and confidence of discrimination. When serving in a peace operation,

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 all UN personnel are equally bound to promote, organizations to strengthen their capacity to
protect, and respect human rights. report, analyse, and develop programmes for the
advancement of human rights; and
• Dealing with problems related to specific groups,
such as women, IDPs, and children.

UNMOs and peacekeepers can also play an

important human rights role. They are usually
much more numerous in a mission area than
human rights workers. For example, Sierra Leone
in 2005, there were 23 human rights officers,
250 UNMOs, and 17,500 military personnel.
UNMOs and peacekeepers are also deployed more
extensively over the territory, and they are in close
contact with military and other armed forces in the
host country. UN Police also have a crucial role in
protecting human rights, through their monitoring,
assistance, or law enforcement functions. It is
important for UNMOs and peacekeepers to be
Ahmed Himmiche (centre left), the head of the UN Military Observers aware of the work of human rights components,
(UNMO) group dispatched to Syria, and his team speak with members of as well as how they can assist the human rights
the opposition in El Karak. Pursuant to an authorization by the Security
components.
Council, a team of unarmed observers was deployed to Syria on 16 April,
tasked with reporting on the cessation of violence between Government
and opposition forces. (UN Photo #511993 by Neeraj Singh, 26 April 2012) Human Rights Roles for UNMOs and
Peacekeepers
Who Works on Human Rights in a Peace
UNMOs and military peacekeepers can contribute
Operation?
in several ways to fulfilling the human rights
mandate of the mission.
Multi-dimensional peace operations almost always
include human rights as part of their mandate and • They have the advantage of being much more
structure. Since human rights violations are at the numerous than other components and of having
origin of many modern conflicts, addressing human a wide operational presence. Therefore, they
rights issues is essential to finding solutions. are in a position to observe and monitor the
Therefore, they are also essential to the success of actions of the armed forces but also the civilian
peace operations. Most current peace operations population.
include a human rights unit or component.
• They can gather important information about the
Human rights components have the lead role
human rights situation and monitor violations
in implementing the human rights mandate of a
or risks of violations. They must report this
mission. Their work may include:
information to other components of the mission
• Monitoring and investigating human rights so that an appropriate analysis may be made
violations; and necessary action taken.
• Reporting on human rights violations; • Their physical presence can act as an important
deterrent of human rights violations.
• Assisting the host government in developing
laws complying with international human rights • Large numbers and means for mobilization give
norms, creating institutions able to protect and an additional advantage for the peacekeepers
promote human rights, as well as train military, in dealing with situations of abuse. Any action
police, and other government officials; should be taken in consultation with the human
rights component.
• Working with local non-governmental

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• Through their conduct, they can provide to the
local armed forces a positive example of law-
abiding military, respectful of the human rights of
the population they are to protect.
• By taking action for or contributing to the
protection of human rights and the prevention
of violations, as well as through their proper
conduct, UNMOs and peacekeepers will
contribute to maintaining the credibility of
the peace operation in the eyes of the host
population and of the international community.
Reports of violations of human rights by
peacekeepers have seriously undermined the
credibility of the UN.

If Human Rights Violations are Observed

Zambian peacekeepers from the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS)
walk in front of an armoured patrol in the volatile region of Abyei,
If human rights violations are observed by an central Sudan. UNMOs and peacekeeper patrols have been steadily
UNMO or peacekeeper, they should: expanding their reach throughout the Abyei area in a concerted drive to
increase patrol and observation activities. (UN Photo #474318 by Stuart
• At the very least, take note of the facts and Price, 30 May 2011)
prepare a report based on the procedures in
place within the mission; • Checkpoint duties: Checkpoints are often set
up to prevent the entry of hostile elements
• If the situation and mandate allow, decide and to enforce restrictions on the infiltration of
appropriate intervention with the relevant explosives, arms, and ammunitions. However,
authorities to stop the abuse. It is important they may impinge on the fundamental right to
to coordinate action with the human rights the freedom of movement. It is important that the
component of the mission. Human rights work personnel manning the checkpoint maintain a
is very complex, and the utmost care must be thoroughly professional behaviour to ensure that
taken to avoid that ill-devised interventions harm, the general public feels comfortable and does
rather than help, victims of violations; not develop hostility towards the peacekeepers.
• Promptly report the information within the military • Searches: While undertaking searches of
structure and to the human rights component; vehicles or individuals, military personnel
and must ensure that the search is conducted
• Continue to follow the situation, such as through professionally, without harassment or in a way
repeat patrolling and observation. that is unduly intrusive or affects the dignity
of the person being searched. Respect for
The exercise at the end of this lesson illustrates an local culture and traditions are essential in this
example of the importance for military personnel to situation.
be alert to possible human rights violations and to • Patrolling: Patrolling may be a very useful tool
transmit information to human rights workers. to show the peacekeepers’ presence and deter
human rights violations. Military patrolling
Common Tasks Performed by the Military must be alert and interactive with the local
Which May Affect Human Rights population, which can be a tremendous source
of information in peacekeeping missions.
In the performance of their regular peacekeeping
tasks, UNMOs and peacekeepers must pay • Crowd control: In situations of crowd control,
particular attention not to negatively affect the peacekeepers’ behaviour must be strictly guided
rights of the host country population. by international standards guaranteeing the

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 rights to assembly, expression, security of the using force, peacekeepers must exercise restraint
person and life, and those regulating the use of and minimize damage and injury to persons and
force by law enforcement officials. property. Immediate medical assistance must be
provided to any injured person.

Firearms

Firearms involve a very high level of force.

Therefore, the rules regulating their use are
even stricter. The use of firearms is only allowed
in extreme circumstances, when less extreme
measures are insufficient and all other means have
failed. In addition, their use is only intended for
self-defence or defence of other persons against
an imminent threat of death or serious injury.

The intentional lethal use of force and firearms

shall be permitted only when it is strictly
unavoidable in order to protect human life. Under
normal circumstances, UNMOs are unarmed.
Military peacekeepers and UN Police, however,
Ahmed Himmiche (centre), head of the UN Military Observers (UNMO)
dispatched to Syria, is approached by citizens of Homs as he and his team
may be armed.
patrol the city. (UN Photo #511094 by Neeraj Singh, 21 April 2012)
The duty of UNMOs and peacekeepers is to be
visibly present on the ground with the attitude
Use of Force and determination to deter potential human rights
violations.
The use of force by peacekeepers is a very
important subject. It is relevant to both military
and civilian police personnel of peace operations.
The use of force may impinge on fundamental
rights, including the rights to life and security and
the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman, or
degrading treatment or punishment.

International human rights standards regulate in

detail the use of force and firearms. Peacekeepers
must strictly adhere to these rules when they are
in situations in which they might use force, such as
arrests or crowd control.

The principles of proportionality and necessity

are paramount in regulating the use of force.
Non-violent means must always be attempted as
the first option to deal with the situation at hand.
Force can only be used when strictly necessary,
as well as in a way that is proportional to the
objectives pursued and the threat faced. As a
rule, the minimum level of force required under
the circumstances should be applied. When

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 EXERCISE ON THE USE OF FORCE AND FIREARMS

(From: United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Training materials on Human
Rights for Military Peacekeepers) This exercise aims at facilitating the application of some of the human
rights principles and norms taught through the module to a hypothetical peace operation scenario. It focuses
on the use of force and firearms by peacekeepers in a situation in which they deal with local civilians.

Scenario

(1) A man, long unemployed and desperate for money, has broken into a UN storehouse and stolen
a portable computer and a radio set. The stolen articles in one hand, and a large knife in the other,
he runs from the compound as the alarm sounds, and he threatens several bystanders who attempt
to block his escape. Breaking through the crowd, he spots two peacekeepers approaching in
response to the alarm. He turns and runs to an open field, dropping the knife as he clutches the
loot in flight. Aware that the computer contains sensitive security files, one of the peacekeepers
draws his weapon and shoots the thief in the back, killing him instantly. As rumours of the incident
circulate, an angry crowd begins to gather at the UN compound.

(2) Some 200 people start protesting angrily against the UN in front of the compound. The crowd is
made up of men, women, and children. Some 15 armed peacekeepers stand in formation, with their
backs to the high fence surrounding the compound, facing the protesters.

(3) A muscular young male protester picks up a bottle and throws it at the peacekeepers. Three of
the peacekeepers break from formation and chase the protester, catching him against the fence.
The protester resists arrest, throwing punches and kicks. Responding with blows from their rifle
butts, the peacekeepers knock the man to the ground and handcuff him. The protester, face down
and handcuffed on the pavement, squirms about, refusing to hold still. The peacekeepers respond
by continuing to kick, punch, and hit him with the butts of their rifles. They deliver some 20 blows
to the man’s head and body, continuing in rage even after he lies motionless on the ground. The
commander of the unit then orders them to carry the man into a UN vehicle. They do so, leaving him
in the parked and locked car, and then return to formation.

(4) By this point, the crowd, having witnessed the incident, has turned violent. Heavy reinforcements
arrive and completely surround the protesters. Rocks and bottles begin to fly toward the
peacekeepers, who stand with their guns aimed at the protesters. Some of the protesters fall to
the ground, clutching children and friends and screaming in a general panic. Others rush forward
toward the peacekeepers. As the violence increases, the peacekeepers open fire, with several
protesters falling as they are hit with rounds of live ammunition.

Exercise continued on next page.

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Questions

1. Referring to the international standards on the use of force and firearms, determine what went
wrong with regard to:

A. The use of firearms on the thief in the first paragraph;

B. The deployment, formation, and equipment of the original 15 peacekeepers in the second
paragraph;

C. The use of force on the male protester in the third paragraph;

D. The deployment and formation of the reinforcements in the fourth paragraph.

2. What should be done in the immediate post-incident period to see that all involved persons
are granted fair redress for any violations of their rights; to ensure that long-term damage to the
mission is minimized; to improve procedures for enhanced security and respect for human rights;
and to restore the confidence of the local community?

Guidance for Review of Answers

Question 1:

A. The use of force by the peacekeepers was not necessary; the peacekeepers failed to apply non-violent
means before resorting to the use of force and firearms; the force applied by the peacekeepers was not
proportional to the seriousness of the threat; the peacekeepers failed to exercise restraint in the use of force
and to minimize injury; the use of firearms was not justified, as the thief posed no imminent threat to the life
of the peacekeepers or other persons; no warning was given by the peacekeepers before firearms were
used.

B. The 15 peacekeepers were equipped and positioned so as to increase, rather than reduce, the risk
of escalation of violence and resort to force.

Their deployment, with their back to the fence, provided no possibility of escape or protection for
the peacekeepers, and it was provocative for the crowd. Their equipment was inadequate to allow for
differentiated means in the application of force, as well as proportionality to the threat.

International standards call for a graduated response, which takes appropriate training and equipment.
Deployment behind the fence, for example, would have resulted in increased security for the peacekeepers,
and thus a lesser risk of having to resort to force to deal with the situation in the scenario.

Other required course of action by the peacekeepers included calling for intervention by the local
authorities, which remain responsible for the maintenance of law and order (except in the less frequent
case of UN missions with executive authority). This should be done in close coordination with UN Police.
In general, this would be the preferred course of action, as military peacekeepers are less likely to be both
equipped and trained to deal with situations such as that described in the scenario.

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 C. The use of force was disproportionate to the threat represented by the protester. Once the man
was handcuffed, the use of further force was unnecessary and unlawful, as it did not respond to the need
to achieve a legitimate law enforcement purpose. In addition, the injured prisoner should have been given
medical assistance, not abandoned in the vehicle.

From a practical perspective, one can question the judgment of chasing the man in the first place,
considering that his action did not represent a significant threat to the safety of the peacekeepers. The
considerations made under (b) on the need to adopt tactics to diffuse, rather than escalate, violence, apply
here as well.

D. The deployment of the soldiers did not allow the crowd to move or disperse. Violent confrontation
became inevitable. The deployment and formation of the peacekeepers resulted in provocation to the crowd
and escalation of violence. The use of force by the peacekeepers, including the use of firearms with live
ammunitions, was not proportional.

Question 2:

The following actions would be appropriate:

• Preparation of a report of the incident;

• Investigation of the incident, by independent authorities if appropriate;

• Peacekeepers suspected of violations of national or international law brought to justice and,

if necessary, repatriated first;

• Local community and victims informed of proceedings;

• Restitution made to victims, if appropriate;

• Insistence that local offenders be brought to justice;

• Usage of incident to sit down with local officials and community leaders to discuss how to encourage
better relations; and

• Review of internal procedures to ensure better handling of similar situations.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

An international treaty that is legally binding on C. Are only allowed in times of public emergency;
all Member States and contains important D. Are never allowed, regardless of the
provisions on human rights is: circumstance.
A. The UN Charter;
B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights; 6. International Humanitarian Law includes:
C. The International Covenant on Civil and A. Standards for the protection of victims of
Political Rights; conflict and non-combatants;
D. The International Covenant on Economic, B. The Geneva Conventions of 1949;
Social, and Cultural Rights.
C. The Hague Law;
D. All of the above.
2. The state hosting a peace operation is bound
to protect and promote basic human rights
based on: 7. Does International Humanitarian Law allow
for derogations?
A. Local statutes;
A. Yes, without any restrictions;
B. State ordinances;
B. Yes, but only immediately following a conflict;
C. International law;
C. No, except during times of war;
D. Its own discretion.
D. No, with no exceptions.

3. Examples of human rights include all of the

following EXCEPT: 8. If human rights violations are observed by
an UNMO or peacekeeper, they should NOT:
A. Right to adequate housing;
A. Take note of the facts and prepare a report
B. Right to privacy;
based on established procedures;
C. Right to education;
B. Ignore following up the situation through repeat
D. Right to torture prisoners in times of war. patrolling and observation;
C. Promptly report the information within the
4. Who determines when and how rights can be military structure and to the human rights
limited? component;
A. The individual police force; D. Coordinate action with the human rights
B. The individual military; component of the mission.
C. The individual public official;
D. Limitations must be written in the laws of a 9. The use of firearms is:
country and not determined by any individual. A. Permitted under extreme circumstances;
B. Permitted when all other means have failed;
5. Derogations of some human rights: C. Intended for the self-defence or defence of
A. Are allowed at any time when deemed other persons;
necessary; D. All of the above.
B. Are allowed for only brief periods of time;

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10. Non-violent means must:
A. Be the first option to deal with the situation at
hand;
B. Be attempted after the use of force has been
attempted to deal with the situation at hand;
C. Be attempted as a last resort;
D. Never be attempted.

ANSWER KEY
1A, 2C, 3D, 4D, 5C, 6D, 7D, 8B, 9D, 10A

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LESSON 12
UNMO DUTIES PART 2 –
OPERATIONS
 LESSON
12

12.1 Operational Orders, Plans,

and Concepts
12.2 Standard Operating LESSON OBJECTIVES
Procedures (SOP):
Impartiality and
Transparency of Operating Lesson 12 is the first of three lessons introducing specific UNMO duties
Procedures and operations and the role of UNMOs at the practical, tactical level.
UNMOs normally operate by conducting their duties at the tactical level.
12.3 Command and Control However, UNMOs may also be deployed to operational UN Headquarters
Structure (C2 Structure) (HQ) in a UN area of operation as UN Experts on Mission (UNMEM).
12.4 How to Plan, Conduct, and In some ongoing UN Missions and UN-led operations, UNMOs may be
deployed directly to Mission HQ and serve there throughout their tour with
Debrief Operations and Tasks
UN. Such a tour is normally one year.
12.5 Reports and Reporting
Mechanism as an UNMO UNMOs are normally deployed to their tactical level sites or units after
induction training in the operational UN theatre. An alternative is to be
12.6 Observation Post (OP) Duties
deployed for six months in the field, and then six months in a UN HQ at
and Techniques the tactical or operational level. The aim of this lesson is to introduce the
12.7 Patrol Duties students to UNMO operations, concepts, and principles in order to enable
them to perform their duties more effectively. After completing this lesson,
12.8 Inspection and Search the student should be able to:
Procedures
• Explain and understand the demands and requirements of UNMO
12.9 Investigation and operations and performance;
Verifications
• Explain and understand the different UNMO techniques and tactics;
12.10 Reinforcement and
• Explain and understand the interaction with other UN entities;
Extraction
• Explain and understand the interaction with non-UN entities; and
12.11 Cooperation and
Coordination with IOs/NGOs/ • Explain what UNMOs can do/not do with regard to humanitarian
GOs, Other Agencies, and assistance.
Local Authorities
12.12 Do’s and Don’ts of Military
Support to Humanitarian
Assistance
Introduction performance and understanding of the role as an
UNMO.
There is an obvious link between conflicts and the
needs to engage the United Nations with different Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) and
capabilities according to the situation on the Fragmental Orders (FRAGO) or “Day-to-Day
ground, in the field. Where violations occur, conflict Orders” will normally regulate the daily routines and
is more likely to arise. As recent history shows, tasks of an UNMO or UNMO team.
post-Cold War conflicts have often been rooted
in gross violations of human rights. Therefore,
addressing human rights problems is an essential
aspect of finding solutions to conflicts.

When a conflict is ongoing or ended, UN military

capacities ensure that parties comply with different
agreed-upon military arrangements, such as
ceasefires or armistice agreements, withdrawal
of forces, preservation of demilitarized zones or
neutral buffer zones, and on international human
rights and norms.

UN Peacekeeping Missions may also include

human rights aspects in their mandate.
Increasingly, peace settlements incorporate Lieutenant General Maqsood Ahmed, UN Military Adviser for
explicit obligations for the concerned nation or Peacekeeping Operations, and Brigadier General Frédéric Hingray, Force
nations to comply with international human rights Chief of Staff for the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), jointly visited a
norms. Thus, in order for peacekeepers to be able
military base of the African-led International Support Mission in that
to perform their tasks effectively, it is important country (MISCA), located in Kaga Bandora, 330km north of the capital
to have a general awareness of human rights Bangui. (UN Photo #593773 by Catianne Tijerina, 06 July 2014)
concepts, as well as an understanding of their
relevance to the mission in which they operate.
Orders
It is the duty of UNMOs and peacekeepers to be
visibly present on the ground with the attitude not An operation order is a directive issued by a
only to execute military tasks and objectives, but commander to subordinate commanders for the
also with a determination to deter potential human purpose of effecting the coordinated execution
rights violations. of an operation. Also called OPORD (Operation
Order). Normally an OPORD will be produced as a
12.1 Operational Orders, Plans, and so-called “five-paragraph” field order in accordance
Concepts with a set of formatted points and annexes.

Orders, Plans, and Concepts give the foundation A fragmentary order is an abbreviated form of an
for planning and conduct of all types of military operation order (verbal, written, or digital) usually
operations. UNMOs should have the ability to issued on a day-to-day basis that eliminates the
adapt their national training and experiences to UN need for restating information contained in a basic
planning and execution of operations. operation order. It may be issued in sections. It
is issued after an operation order to change or
As an UNMO, in addition to the UN Security modify that order or to execute a branch or sequel
Council Mandate(s) for your UN Mission or to that order. It is also called a FRAGO (Fragmental
Operation, studies of the Orders, Plans, and Order).
Concepts are of vital importance for your

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Plans

An operation plan is any plan for the conduct

of military operations. Plans are prepared by
Commanders and their staff in response to
requirements established by the higher command
(e.g. UN HQ, New York) and by commanders
of subordinate commands in response to
requirements tasked by the establishing unified
commander (e.g. Force Commander). Operation
plans are prepared in either a complete format
(OPLAN) or as a concept plan (CONPLAN).
Two peacekeepers of the UN Military Observer Group
• OPLAN: An operation plan for the conduct of India - Pakistan (UNMOGIP) review their plans for the
operations (joint operations) that can be used day at Bhimbar UN Field Station, Pakistan. (UN Photo
#99350 by Evan Schneider, 20 October 2005)
as a basis for development of an operation
order (OPORD). An OPLAN also identifies the
simultaneously or in succession. The concept
forces and supplies required to execute the
is designed to give an overall picture of the
Commander’s strategic concept and a movement
operation. It is included primarily for additional
schedule of these resources to a theatre
clarity of purpose. Such an overview is also called
of operations. The forces and supplies are
commander’s concept or CONOPS (Concept of
identified in a Memorandum of Understanding
Operations).
(MOU) and/or in a Technical Agreement (TA).
OPLANs will include all phases of the tasked
As an UNMO, this could be an outline on
operation. The plan is prepared with the
how to conduct operations as a combination
appropriate annexes and appendixes, and may
of observation, patrolling, liaison, inspection,
also include manuals, procedures, and formats.
negotiation, monitoring and supervision of
agreements. It should be a clear and short
An OPLAN becomes an operation order (OPORD)
formulation on the intention on how the UN Force
when the commander sets an execution time. If
Commander (FC) or the UN Chief Military Observer
time permits, preparation for possible operations
(CMO) assumes the mission is to be executed.
may begin by issuing an OPLAN.
• CONPLAN: An OPLAN in an abbreviated 12.2 Standard Operating Procedures
format that would require considerable (SOP): Impartiality and Transparency
expansion or alteration to convert it into an of Operating Procedures
OPLAN or OPORD. A CONPLAN contains
the Commander’s strategic concept and those In order to ensure a common way of dealing with
annexes and appendixes deemed necessary by different situations, issues and operations, a set of
the Commander to complete planning. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) are issued.
These procedures should be updated as required,
Concepts and be a living document for all UN Military Staff,
Units, and UNMOs. By introducing common SOPs,
Concept of operations could be a verbal, written, UN ensure impartiality and transparency across
and/or graphic statement, in broad outline, of a the spectre of all entities engaged in UN integrated
commander’s assumptions or intent in regard missions and operations. SOPs are a vital tool for
to an operation or series of operations. The UNMOs planning and conducting operations and
concept of operations frequently is embodied in for daily routines.
campaign plans and operation plans. The latter
case is particularly true when the plans cover a Standard operating procedures are a set of
series of connected operations to be carried out instructions covering those features of operations

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which lend themselves to a definite or standardiZed 12.4 How to Plan, Conduct, and
procedure without loss of effectiveness. The Debrief Operations and Tasks
procedure is applicable unless otherwise ordered.
“A good plan executed today is better than a
Sometimes the term “Standing” replaces perfect plan executed at some indefinite point in
“Standard” in use because a military SOP refers the future.” –General George S. Patton
to a unit’s unique procedures, which are not
necessarily standard to another unit. “Standard”
could imply that there is one unique procedure to
be used across all units.

12.3 Command and Control Structure

(C2 Structure)
Command and Control (also called C2) is
the exercise of authority and direction by a
properly designated Commander over assigned
and attached forces (e.g. UNMOs) in the
accomplishment of the Mission. Command
and Control functions are performed through
an arrangement of personnel, equipment,
communications, facilities, and procedures
employed by a commander in planning, directing,
coordinating, and controlling forces and operations
in the accomplishment of the mission. Ahmed Himmiche (right), the head of the UN Military Observers (UNMO)
group dispatched to Syria, briefs his team on the day’s plan in Damascus.
(UN Photo #511992 by Neeraj Singh, 23 April 2012)
In the performance of their regular peacekeeping
tasks, UNMOs and peacekeepers must pay
particular attention to the Command and
Planning and Execution of Operations and
Control structures (C2). In order to avoid critical
Tasks
misunderstandings and actions, Orders, Plans
and Reports must follow the C2 structure. UNMOs
Most UNMOs are not likely to be engaged in
should not seek or receive orders or instructions
advanced operations planning at operational and
concerning the conduct of their operations outside
tactical UN HQ level. UNMOs should, however,
the UN C2 structure – not even from their own
have some knowledge and competence regarding
national authorities. UNMOs are assigned under
planning of operations. Both the United Nations,
the operational command (OPCOM) of a Force
NATO, and other regional organizations and
Commander/Head of Military Component or the
nations have established guidelines operational
Chief Military Observer (CMO).
planning and planning procedures. These
guidelines must be adopted to the different levels
OPCOM does not automatically include the
(strategic, operational, tactical) at which they are
responsibility for administration. However, any
used. As an UNMO at a UN operational or tactical
disciplinary actions against UNMOs are following
HQ level, you will find established procedures and
national lines through a Senior National Military
guidelines in place (e.g. SOP). However, exercise
Observer (SNMO).
and training of planning is required.

The main UNMO engagement is preparation

and planning of day-to-day tasks and routines,
such as patrolling, inspection, investigation, and

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liaison. Observation and monitoring from static Backbrief and Debriefing
UN Observation Posts (OP) are conducted in
accordance with specific orders established for The Backbrief (Briefback) and Debrief convey
each OP. Such orders may also be included in information about the impending mission and the
the SOP. In addition to orders and tasks, UNMOs completed mission, respectively. The Backbrief
will have a fixed plan (schedule) for daily routines. is a formal or an informal presentation normally
UNMOs will often operate from a Teamsite (e.g. given to the commander and any guests who may
OP), Teambase (HQ) – or a base collocated with be invited. The amount of information presented is
other UN Military Forces/HQs and/or UN Police, usually established by SOP.
and other UN Organizations.
The Debrief draws information from the team,
Example of Daily Routine and Tasks for an and it is usually conducted immediately following
UNMO on a Patrol the mission. The debriefing is conducted by the
Commander or his representative. For a UNMO
06.00hr – 06.45 Physical Training (PT)
Team it is the Team-leader who conducts the
06.45hr – 07.30 Breakfast
debriefing. The Debriefing should be conducted
07.30hr Joining the other UNMOs for and presented in accordance with the SOP. A part
Briefing of Debriefing is also Lessons Learned (LL) in order
07.45hr – 08.00 Operational Briefing: Latest to improve procedures, techniques and tactics.
incidents and the situation in
Area of Operation (AoR) Debriefing is also a vital tool if UNMOs are involved
08.00hr – 08.30 Briefing (tasking) and in critical incidents or situations. Such a Debriefing
preparation for today’s patrol could be conducted within the Team, and or
08.30hr – 12.00 Mobile patrol (2x Teams in 2x with the Commander and subject specialists like
Vehicles) Chaplain, Physician or others present.
12.00hr – 13.00 Debriefing and Report writing
13.00hr – 15.00 Lunch and rest 12.5 Reports and Reporting
15.00hr – 15.30 Briefing and preparation for Mechanisms as an UNMO
today’s second patrol
15.30hr – 18.00 Mobile patrol Information about military activities/incidents within
UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) is passed up
18.00hr – 19.00 Debriefing and Report writing
two chains; UNMOs and the UN Military Force.
15.30hr – 19.00 Alternatively; work at the The two chains join at the Joint Operations Centre
base (e.g. maintenance of (JOC) where a UNPKO Military Situation Report
vehicles, preparation of maps, (SITREP) is produced. This SITREP represents the
preparation of briefings) military input to the daily UNPKO SITREP to the
19.00hr – 20.00 Dinner UN HQ in New York. The UN Military Observers
20.00hr Relaxation, TV, movies, PT, will normally find the report formats, and reporting
socialization, Skype with procedures and mechanisms outlined as part
family of the SOP. Some incidents require immediate
Night duties OP duties are normally a 24/7 reporting and action by their nature, while others
duty; while night patrolling is may be summed up daily or as otherwise directed
pending the security situation (required).
and might be restricted to the
daylight period.

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The main duties of a United Nations Military
Observer are to:
• Observe and monitor;
• Verify;
• Report.

Contents of Reports (typical significant incidents):

• Movements;
• Shooting, hostile acts, or threats;
• Any improvement of defence positions;
• Overflight of ceasefire lines or lines of the Area
of Operation, or No-fly zones;
• Violations of armistice or ceasefire agreements;
Military personnel of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force
• Needs for Humanitarian Assistance; and (UNDOF) on security detail of the observation post. (UN Photo #184769 by
Gernot Maier, 30 January 2006)
• Violations of International Humanitarian Law and
Rights. key factor. UN OPs are also a key factor in showing
the UN Flag and presence to the local population
Further details concerning reports and reporting and parties.
are to be found at Appendix C.
An OP will be equipped with different tools for day
and night time observations, such as binoculars
12.6 Observation Post (OP) Duties
or night vision goggles, as well as means for
and Techniques communication, such as radios, telephones, and
computers.
An Observation Post is a position from which
military observations are made. OPs are
In more complex operations however, observation
traditionally a key part of an UNMO concept of
and monitoring may just be one element of the UN
operation. OPs are normally established at key
military component’s tasks and activities.
terrain features in order to monitor and report. OPs
are equipped with communications capabilities and
The Purpose of an UN OP:
fire can also be directed and adjusted from such
a post. An OP may even be airborne or seaborne. • Increase the security to UN operations and
Under certain circumstances – and when personnel by showing UN presence to the local
capacities are available – OPs may be airborne to population and parties in the area;
give the best surveillance of the situation on the
• Survey all activity in a specific sector/area;
ground. As a supplement to static OPs, Temporary
OPs (OPT) may also be established. • Monitor airspace, costal areas, airfields,
ceasefire lines and boundaries, buffer zones;
Observation, monitoring and reporting may be
• Count and report special traffic; e.g. military
the primary task in a UN Peacekeeping Operation
heavy vehicles, tanks, armoured personnel
in order to monitor and supervise military
carriers (APC) and artillery; and
arrangements and agreements between Parties in
a conflict – or a former conflict. As a supplement • Monitor activities of parties involved in the
to OPs and OPTs in execution of the mission, the conflict and all other unknown and abnormal
use of mobile means (e.g. patrols, inspections and activities.
investigation of suspected violations, liaison) is a

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 Techniques for observation should be taught 12.7 Patrol Duties
as a part of the pre-mission training or during
a UN Military Observer Course. However, the Patrolling may be a very useful tool to show the
procedures and instructions at the OPs should Peacekeepers’ presence and deter human rights
be systematically organized and recorded in the violations. Military patrolling must be alert and
SOP. According to the OP Instructions, the UNMO interactive with the local population, which can be a
must thoroughly scan his/her ordered area of tremendous source of information in peacekeeping
observation/point of observation. Binoculars and missions.
night vision devices should be used as often as
possible. The area of observation may be divided Recall the main duties of a United Nations Military
into a number of segments that are scanned Observer, which are:
continuously using different approaches; at the
same time possible sensors should be monitored. • Observe and monitor;
A part of the observation scheme is to walk outside • Verify;
the enclosed OP platform in order to listen to
unusual sounds. • Report.

Principles for Observation and Reporting: In order to comply with the main UNMO duties,
patrolling is vital. By conducting UNMO patrols in
• Search and observe; order to execute a specific task, UN is also visible
• Listen and hear; among the local population and parties in the Area
of Operation (AoR). They are also able to observe
• Understand what is observed/heard; and and monitor in general terms. UNMO patrols
• Report what/where/when/how/who. could be conducted by the following means – or a
combination there of:
• Vehicles;
• By foot;
• By boat; and
• By air (helicopters and fixed wing).

How patrols are to be conducted are normally

outlined in the SOP, while the aim and objectives
for each Patrol may be regulated by FRAGOs or
“special” Patrol orders on a day-to-day basis. The
following are some examples of Patrol tasks:
• Monitor and investigate movements of Parties in
restricted areas; other movements of Parties;

Members of an observation mission of the of the UN Organization • Investigation of shooting, hostile acts, or threats;
Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Investigation of violations of armistice or
(MONUSCO), including Force Commander Lieutenant General Carlos
Alberto Dos Santos Cruz and a team of Military Observers, seen on Munigi ceasefire agreements;
Hill, as the DR Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) conduct an attack on M23
• Violations of International Humanitarian Law and
rebel positions in Kanyaruchinya, near Goma.(UN Photo #556889 by
Sylvain Liechti, 15 July 2013)
Rights;
• Social Patrolling/Show the UN-flag/Contact with
All activities and observations are to be logged and local population and authorities;
reported to next higher UN Headquarters/UN Base
following the C2 structure. Reporting procedures • Liaison with other UN entities/IOs/NGOs/IOs;
should be found in the SOP. • Liaison with local Authorities and Parties;

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 Patrol Reporting: The SOP will define the format for
a patrol report.

12.8 Inspection and Search

Procedures
A Checkpoint (CP) is a permanent or temporary
established position manned by UN Military Armed
Forces in order to check, inspect (search), and
control the movement of vehicles and personnel
within, into, or out from a certain area, object,
or event. UNMOs will not be directly engaged in
this type of operation, but should be familiar with
the purpose of CPs and procedures for passing.
It should not be excluded that UNMOs may be
Ahmed Himmiche (right), head of the group of unarmed engaged in liaison or mediation at a CP when a
UN Military Observers (UNMO) recently dispatched to
situation is not able to be ceased (de-escalated).
Syria, speaks with children on the streets of Homs as
he and his team patrol the city. (UN Photo #511093 by • Checkpoint duties: Checkpoints are often set
Neeraj Singh, 21 April 2012)
up to prevent the entry of hostile elements
and to enforce restrictions on the infiltration of
• Liaison with other military units/HQs; e.g. NATO explosives, arms, and ammunitions. CPs is also
Forces; and a way of showing the local population and all
• Establishment of OPTs. Parties a permanent UN presence. However,
they may impinge on the fundamental right to the
Patrol Debriefing: Upon returning to the UN Base freedom of movement of the local population.
(position), the UNMO Patrol (Team) will immediately It is important that the personnel manning the
complete a collective debriefing and reporting. checkpoint maintain a thoroughly professional
There should be no delay to allow for meals, rest, behaviour to ensure that the general public
sleep or other personnel administration. feels comfortable and does not develop hostility
towards the peacekeepers.
The SOP will define the format for patrol debriefing • Searches: While undertaking searches of
and could include the following points: vehicles or individuals, UN Military Personnel
• Prepare a detailed written report with sketches, must ensure that the search is conducted
photographs and/or diagrams as necessary; professionally, without harassment or in a way
that is unduly intrusive or affects the dignity
• Inspect the vehicles and equipment used of the person being searched. Respect for
on patrol, and report any damage and/or local culture and traditions are essential in this
deficiencies; situation.
• Report any patrol member requiring medical • Weapon and Troop Inspections: In some UN
attention; Missions/Operations, key elements of the
• Review the individual performance of UN Mandate may be to inspect the number of troops,
Team Members to correct weaknesses and weapons, and heavy ammunition within agreed
acknowledge exemplary performance; and sectors; such as the case in UNDOF, Golan
Heights. In other places, it may be a key task to
• Review procedures and operational “Lessons inspect and report the status for parties weapons
Learned” (LL) in order to improve procedures, storage sites.
techniques, and tactics.

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Procedures for Inspections and Reports should be In extreme situations, the supporting UN Force may
found in the SOP. use force in accordance with the authorized ROE.
Unarmed UNMOs will under no circumstances be
authorized to carry and use firearms.
12.9 Investigation and Verifications
UNMOs are also frequently engaged in receiving
a number of unofficial and official complaints
from the local population and the parties in the
conflict. Such reports and complaints could be
ranging from serious violations of the armistice
agreement or other agreements, to the alleged
damage of personal property by UN peacekeepers.
When such complaints are received, it is of great
importance that the UN take proper immediate
action by conducting inspections and investigations
in order to verify what has taken place or not.
UNMOs may be tasked to lead investigations, and
should keep in mind that the investigations must
take place in a formal way.

Other subject matter experts on mission should be Lieutenant General Carlos Alberto Dos Santos Cruz (right),
engaged – if needed; e.g. UN Police, UN Military Force Commander of the UN Organization Stabilization
Police, Artillery Officers, Medical Officers, and Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
representatives for Humanitarian Organizations. (MONUSCO), at a military observation post on Munigi Hill,
as the DR Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) conduct an attack
Liaison and communication with local leaders,
on M23 rebel positions in Kanyaruchinya, near Goma. (UN
local authorities and parties should be a part of the Photo #556887 by Sylvain Liechti, 15 July 2013)
procedures. Check the SOP for further details.

The UNMO writing the report(s) must be able to

In addition to OPLANs and OPSORDERs for
formulate exact facts about what has taken place
Reinforcement, Extraction, and Use of Force in
and the result/conclusion, and to propose to his
support of UNMOs/UNMO positions and sites,
superiors if possible action should taken.
procedures should be found in the SOP.

Procedures for Investigations and Verifications

should be found in the SOP. 12.11 Cooperation and Coordination
with IOs/NGOs/GOs, Other
Agencies, and Local Authorities
12.10 Reinforcement, Extraction, and
Use of Force If there is not established cooperation and contact
with IOs/NGOs/GOs and other Agencies and Local
In a UN peacekeeping operation, there will be
Authorities, such a contact network need to be
dedicated units/reserves that will reinforce distant
established and maintained by the UNMOs.
UN positions and/or UN positions under direct
threats. If the situation turn out to be very critical
UNMOs needs to understand the liaison and
at a specific position or orders are given; the
cooperation mechanisms that are a part of UN
position might be abandoned and the UNMOs
Integrated Missions, or other UNPKO. This
extracted to a pre-planned location. UN positions
includes some basic skills about the different
will have necessary shelters for the UNMOs, and
actors and their overall aim, and their operational
firing positions for reinforcement units. Plans for
concept. As military, you are used to direct and
readiness, alerts and reinforcements should be
order troops and subordinates. If you try to do
exercised frequently.
that with most of the non-military entities, you

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will face serious challenges in cooperation with
those organizations. Some organizations will nor
cooperate or coordinate anything with the Military
Forces, their ideology is to be totally independent.
Both the different organizations and agencies as
well as the locals authorities expect to be treated
with respect and dignity. This require the needed
cultural awareness by the UNMOs.

A good interaction with the non-military actors

is a pre-requisite for success of the UNPKO/UN
Observer Mission. Contact with Local Authorities
is a normal task when UNMOs are patrolling, and
may also provide useful information about the
local area, Parties and population. UNMOs may
also take part in organized meetings with IOs/
NGOs/GOs and others. Cooperation and Meetings The UN Military Observers (UNMO) recently deployed to Syria, including
are also a part conveying information about the the head of the observer group, Ahmed Himmiche (centre), meet with
UNPKO objectives. Details should be found in the local government officials in the city of Homs. (UN Photo #511096 by
Neeraj Singh, 21 April 2012)
SOP.

12.12 Do’s and Don’ts of Military

Support to Humanitarian Assistance
Dedicated UN Humanitarian Organizations and
Agencies and other International Organizations
will plan, coordinate and provide Humanitarian
Assistance in a UN PK Area of Operation. The UN
Military Forces and UN Military Observers should
not be directly engaged in such operations. UN
Military Forces will however be engaged in the
escort and security of vehicles, storage sites, and
distribution sites. UN Military Forces and UNMOs
might be engaged in small quick impact projects,
which do not interfere with humanitarian assistance
or blurring the lines between such operations
and military operations. The aim of quick impact
projects – “winning hearts and minds” – should
always be performed in the context of force
protection.

However, UNMOs may be facilitators by identifying

needs for humanitarian assistance and bringing the
needs to the attention and execution of one of the
aid organizations.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. What is the difference between an OPLAN 13. The use of firearms for UNMOs is:
and an OPORD? A. Permitted under extreme circumstances;
B. Permitted when all other means have failed;
2. What is the purpose of a CONPLAN? C. Intended for the self-defence or defence of
other persons;
3. What is the purpose of a SOP? D. Not permitted under any circumstances.

4. What is the meaning of C2?

5. What is the main purpose of Debriefing?

6. What is the purpose of an UN Observation

Post?

7. What are the principles for Observation and

Reporting?

8. By which means could an UNMO Patrol be

conducted?

9. What is the purpose of a Checkpoint?

10. What is the difference between investigation

and verification?

11. Why could extraction from an UN position

be needed?

12. Why do UNMOs need to understand the

Liaison and Cooperation mechanisms in a
UN Peacekeeping Operation?

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
ANSWER KEY 8. UNMO patrols could be conducted by the
following means (or a combination of): vehicles,
1. An OPLAN becomes an operation order boat, air (helicopters and fixed wing), or on foot.
(OPORD) when the commander sets an execution
time. 9. A Checkpoint is a permanent or temporary
established position manned by UN Military Armed
2. An Operation Plan in an abbreviated format that Forces in order to check, inspect (search), and
would require considerable expansion or alteration to control the movement of vehicles and personnel
convert it into an OPLAN or OPORD. A CONPLAN within, into, or out from a certain area, object or
contains the Commander’s strategic concept and event.
those annexes and appendixes deemed necessary
by the Commander to complete planning. 10. An investigation may be launched in order to
make verifications that something really took place
3. In order to ensure a common way of dealing with (what/where/when/how/who).
different situations, issues, and operations, a set of
Standard Operating Procedures are issued. 11. If UN personnel and/or UN positions are under
direct threats, an extraction may be necessary.
4. Command and Control is the exercise of
authority and direction by a properly designated 12. A good interaction with the non-military actors
Commander over assigned and attached forces (e.g. is a prerequisite for success of the UNPKO/UN
UNMOs) in the accomplishment of the Mission. Observer Mission. If UNMOs do not have the
needed knowledge and cultural awareness of how to
5. Debriefs convey information about a completed cooperate and liaise with these actors, they will fail
mission/task. and not be able to conduct their duties in a proper
way.
6. The Purpose of a UN OP:
13D.
• Increase the security to UN operations and
personnel by showing UN presence to the local
population and Parties in the area;
• Survey all activity in a specific sector/area;
• Monitor airspace, costal areas, airfields, ceasefire
lines and boundaries, buffer zones;
• Count and report special traffic; e.g. military heavy
vehicles, tanks, armoured personnel carriers
(APC) and artillery; and
• Monitor activities of parties involved in the conflict
and all other unknown and abnormal activities.

7. Principles for Observation and Reporting:

• Search and observe;
• Listen and hear;
• Understand what is observed/heard; and
• Report what/where/when/how/who.

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LESSON 13
UNMO DUTIES PART 3 –
SAFETY, SECURITY, AND FORCE
PROTECTION
 LESSON
13

13.1 Local Threats: Traffic, LESSON OBJECTIVES

Demonstrations and
Riots, Fires, and This lesson is the second of three lessons giving introduction to specific
Insecure Environmental UNMO duties and operations, and the role of UNMOs at the practical,
tactical level. The aim of this lesson is to introduce the students to UNMO
Conditions Safety, Security, and Force Protection (FP) awareness and action in order
13.2 Landmines and Explosive to perform their duties more effectively. After completing this lesson, the
student should be able to:
Hazards
• Explain and understand the demands and requirements of UNMO
13.3 Types of Mines, ERW, Security Performance and Force Protection;
and IEDs and Methods of • Explain and understand UNMO awareness, techniques, and tactics;
Activation • Explain and understand the interaction with other UN- and non-UN
entities with regard to Safety, Security, and Force Protection; and
13.4 Local Threats of
Explosive Hazards • Explain and understand what UNMOs can do/not do with regard
to operational engagement concerning Safety, Security, and Force
13.5 If Caught or Injured in a Protection.
Minefield
13.6 Tips and Considerations
Introduction

13.7 Abduction, Detention, In a post-conflict situation, there will always be a great number of Safety,
Security, and Force Protection issues to be aware of. There are also
Hijacking, and Hostage requirements concerning training, procedures, planning, and conduct of
Awareness operations and duties in such a volatile environment. Over the last years,
the threats against the UN and their personnel in peacekeeping operations
13.8 Communication have become more hostile in a more volatile environment.
Security: Use
of Operational
Communication Means
and Telephones/Cellular
Phones/Internet
 13.1 Local Threats: Traffic,
“Your training, preparation, Demonstrations and Riots, Fires, and
awareness, assessment of situations, Insecure Environmental Conditions
and proper action will save the lives
of other UN- and non-UN personnel in Introduction
critical situations related to safety and
security.” There will always be many local safety and security
threats to be aware of and procedures (SOPs) in
–Egil Nordli / LtColonel (Rtd) / Norwegian place to support reacting to them. However, nothing
Army can replace an UNMO’s professional and sound
judgement when situations occur.

You may find a number of definitions for Safety, As an UNMO, it is vital to be familiar with different
Security, and Force Protection based on whether local threats as well as mission-wide threats in the
it is in a civilian or military context. For the United UN Area of Operation. Threats may be different
Nations, safety and security are the responsibility from one UN Operation or mission to another, while
of the Department of Safety and Security (DSS). others situations may be recurring, such as dealing
In a military-led operation, Force Protection with landmines, unexploded ordnance, and traffic.
(FP) consists of all measures to minimize the However, security and force protection (FP) of
vulnerability of personnel and other entities such as personnel should always be the first priority.
documents, communications, equipment, vehicles,
sites and headquarters, procedures, plans and Traffic
operations. Force Protection seeks to minimize
any threat in all situations in order to also preserve Traffic environments are very different when
freedom of action, operational effectiveness, and observed from a global perspective. Many factors
the security of the force and its personnel. impact the traffic picture and situation; quality of
drivers and vehicles, road and weather conditions,
Today, the topics of safety and security overlap number of vehicles, and different national traffic
very much and the distinction is hardly perceived in laws and regulations. In a peace operation
daily usage. However from a military point of view, environment, added factors such as minefields and
there should be a clear and distinct understanding explosive remnants of war, improvised explosive
of which is which – and how to deal with the devices (IEDs), and other attacks from people
different issues. In a UN peacekeeping operation, with hostile intent, absence of law and order
this would normally be visualized through induction on the road, unauthorized drivers and vehicles,
training and tests and in plans and SOPs. and extremely bad road conditions – including
non-existent roads – make driving especially
Dangerous chemical, biological, radiological, and dangerous.
nuclear (CBRN) threats will not be covered in
this lesson or in any other lessons of this course. Considering the described environment and
However, know that the primary responsibility for the fact that in 2012, road traffic accidents were
the security and handling of a CBRN threat rests the leading cause of death and injury among
with the Host Nation government.

Security for united nationS

PeacekeePerS Want to learn more about security and threat assessment?

Register for the POTI course, Security for United Nations Peacekeepers.

COURSE AUTHOR

Marshall Wm. Conley, Ph.D.

Enrol here: <www.peaceopstraining.org/courses/security-for-united-nations-
S E R I E S E D I TO R

peacekeepers/>
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

®

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 UN personnel of all categories in safety-related In a post-conflict scenario, local rule of law
incidents, being a skilled driver as an UNMO is a and law enforcement capabilities may be very
requirement and a critical safety factor. TCCs are weak, unstable, under reform, restructuring, or
responsible for the provision of UNMOs with the training, and may lack a professional attitude or
required driving skills and national driving licences. understanding of human rights.
A UN driving and theoretical test is mandatory.
UNMOs that do not pass the test will be repatriated Challenges with state-building and good
at the TCC’s expense. governance, democratic procedures and
institutions, gender perspectives, security
sector reforms, and human rights can lead
to demonstrations and riots among the local
population. Sometimes frustration and anger may
be directly aimed towards the United Nations and
their local personnel. UNMOs are no exception to
this; they may even be more exposed operating in
small teams and from small UN sites and positions.

As a rule, local law enforcement and police

agencies should respond and engage in such
situations. UNMOs should report demonstrations
or riots and ask for local police support, rather than
engage. UN peacekeeping operation mandates
will specifically authorize law enforcement
responsibilities if there are any.

The United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT) Portuguese The key functions of the UN Police and UN Formed
Formed Police Unit leads the Public Order Battalion of the Polícia Police Units (FPU) will be to support reform,
Nacional de Timor-Leste (PNTL) in a final anti-riot training exercise. (UN
restructuring, and training of the local police.
Photo #429053 by Martine Perret, 18 December 2009)
However; the UN may be mandated to carry out
law enforcement, as is the case in Liberia (UNMIL)
Together with English language skills, driving skills and Haiti (MINUSTAH). UN Military Units will act
are an absolute UN requirement. After passing in accordance with Rules of Engagement (ROE),
the UN driving test, an UNMO will be issued a which are normally to defend and protect – not
UN Driving Permit. Anyone without a permit is not intervene in civil conflicts. However; when UNMOs
authorized to drive any UN Vehicles. are under threat, they will be supported and/or
extracted by UN troops in the area. If no UN troops
The control of movement and road traffic by can provide support, it becomes the responsibility
UNMOs in the Mission Area is also a very of the Host Nation and their security forces or
important safety measure. Certain control points police forces.
along the used routes require UNMOs to report to
base as regulated by the SOPs. With their local contacts and knowledge, UNMOs
may also play a crucial role as facilitators between
Demonstrations and Riots demonstrators, local authorities, the UN, and other
groups of interest. However; UNMOs should always
UNMOs are often operating and living apart from keep in mind that security and Force Protection
other UN troops and organizations in distant for themselves is always the first priority – and
positions or sites. This may leave them exposed no unnecessary risks should be taken. The local
to threats in another way and make it necessary UNMO SOPs will provide further guidelines.
to react according to their own assessment and
procedures (SOPs).

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Fires

When a fire breaks out, it can spread quickly,

especially among living containers such as
prefabricated houses mainly consisting of highly
flammable materials such as plastic and wood.

An organization and means for firefighting in a UN

peacekeeping operation is normally constructed to
suit its own requirements. Other support may be
requested from the Host Nation in accordance with
their capabilities and in accordance with the Status
of Forces Agreement (SOFA).

All UN installations and vehicles should have basic

firefighting equipment and all UN personnel should
be trained in firefighting plans, drills, and the use of Soldiers and civilian police of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in
basic firefighting equipment. Larger UN installations Cyprus (UNFICYP) join the local municipal workers to remove garbage
and camps could even have a fire brigade with and other debris from illegal dumping site in a buffer zone, as part of
the activities marking the 2007 World Environment Day in Peristerona,
professional firefighters. However, every UN HQ
Cyprus. (UN Photo #147286, 05 June 2007)
and installation or position should appoint local Fire
Marshals that are responsible for firefighting issues.
Environmental Issues

Contingency Plans and Procedures as well

The issue of environmental challenges and
as SOPs for firefighting should be established
environmental protection has become a more
including the handling of dangerous goods,
and more important factor when planning and
especially inflammable and toxic materials. As a
conduction UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO).
preventive means of firefighting, you may find:
It will impact the daily operations of the UNMOs.
• Plans with evacuation routes and assembly Toxic waste may be defined as “waste material
areas; that can cause death, injury, or birth defects to
living creatures. It spreads quite easily and can
• Signs for emergency routes; contaminate lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere. The
• Alerts or alarm systems, such as electrical alarm term is often used interchangeably with hazardous
buttons, sirens, bells, triangles, loud speakers, or waste, or discarded material that can pose a
vehicle horns; long-term risk to health or environment.”1

• Water buckets; Hazardous wastes are poisonous by-products

• Drums with water placed close to vital objects; of manufacturing, farming, city septic systems,
construction, automotive garages, laboratories,
• Water reservoirs (e.g. pools, tanks); hospitals, and other industries. The waste may
• Hoses for firefighting; be liquid, solid, or sludge and contain chemicals,
heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens,
• Large boxes or reservoirs of sand with spades; or other toxins. Even households generate
• Fire pokers; hazardous waste from items such as batteries,
used computer equipment, and leftover paints or
• Fire extinguishers; and
1 David Briggs, et al. “Health Impact Assessment
• Fire vehicles. Of Waste Management Facilities In Three
European Countries.” Environmental Health: A
Always train, prepare, and act in accordance with Global Access Science Source 10. Suppl 1 (2011):
local UN Contingency Plans and SOPs. 53-65.

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 pesticides. Hazardous waste may cause negative 13.2 Landmines and Explosive
health effects and will require special handling and Hazards
disposal.
In areas of conflict, it is important to be
In a post-war conflict area, there may be additional knowledgable about the safety and security
hazardous waste, such as those deriving from regulations in place to mitigate the risks of
different types of ammunition, explosives, mines, explosive threats or other hazards that may be
and bombs. Over the last years, depleted uranium present. These threats include the presence of
has been one of the biggest concerns. Special landmines, explosive remnants of war (ERW), and
expert teams and special protection, both individual improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
and collective, may be required already from the
initial planning for UN-led PKO. There will a number Landmines
of international and Host Nation rules, regulations,
and standards to meet and obey. Landmines are a combination of explosives and
other material, normally encased and hidden,
It will be the responsibility of the UN Force designed to detonate on contact or remotely.
Commander (FC)/Head of Military Component They can destroy or damage vehicles, boats, or
(HoMC) to establish procedures and environmental aircrafts, and wound, kill, or otherwise incapacitate
protection means and measures in order to meet personnel. Mines are used to cause casualties to
required standards and regulations. If there are the enemy, to hinder movement, and to provide
weak HN regulations and standards, it will however protection to important positions. They are also
be the responsibility of the FC/HoMC to introduce used in civil conflicts to disrupt infrastructures
needed measures within the UNPKO. by denying the civilian population access to
agricultural land, water, roads, schools, healthcare
facilities, and other socioeconomic targets.

There are two major types of mines: anti-personnel

mines and anti-vehicle mines. Anti-personnel
mines usually consist of an explosive charge
around 35 grams that can be set off with as little
as 2 kilograms of pressure. An anti-tank mine
can contain 5 to 10 kilograms of explosives and
may need 80 to 150 kilograms of pressure to be
detonated.

Mines are also grouped according to the manner

in which they inflict injury: blast effect mines and
fragmentation mines.

Blast effect mines are often very cheap and

Cases filled with small arms ammunitions in the unexploded ordnance
(UXO) scrap pit at the Malian Army Camp in Timbuktu. The UN Mine designed to be triggered by the pressure caused
Action Service (UNMAS) is working with The Development Initiative (TDI) by direct contact with the mine. They inflict injury
to assess explosive threats at the camp. (UN Photo #574103 by Marco through an explosive blast. Most of these types of
Dormino, 10 December 2013) landmines have a relatively small explosive charge,
often containing less than 100 grams of explosive.

Fragmentation AP mines are designed to cause

death or severe injury from fragments propelled
by the mine’s explosive charge. Most of these
mines have metal casings designed to shatter into

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
fragments upon the detonation of the mine, or they Abandoned explosive ordnance (AXO) is explosive
are armed with ball bearings or metal fragments material that also include grenades, rockets,
that are turned into lethal projectiles by the mortars, artillery shells, bombs, cluster munitions,
detonation of the mine. The most commonly found and fuses, which has been left behind or not stored
standard fragmentation AP mines are stake mines, properly. They are often remnants of a conflict
which are designed to fit on wooden or metal that have been forgotten, lost, stolen, or hidden
stakes hammered into the ground until the mine is for future use. Its inappropriate exposure to the
resting about 21 cm above the surface. elements and unaccounted state make it vulnerable
to both instability and improper handling, or even
Directional (or “Claymore” type) fragmentation AP the possibility of falling into the wrong hands.
mines are designed to project a dense pattern Like UXO, they are likely unsecured and stored
of fragments within a specified arc. Bounding in unstable conditions, making them extremely
fragmentation AP mines are generally triggered by hazardous to whomever may accidentally
pressure on tripwires and/or direct pressure. An encounter them.
initial charge lifts the mine up to waist height before
the main charge detonates. Upon detonation, If UXO or AXO are discovered in or near the area
the explosion shoots out metal fragments in a of operations, their location must be recorded
360-degree horizontal arc. and reported as soon as possible to the proper
authorities and hazardous materials specialist
Anti-tank (AT) landmines are mines that are teams or explosive ordnance removal teams. Notify
designed to disable or destroy vehicles, including others to stay away from the materials until they are
tanks. Because they need much greater power to removed and the area is secure.
achieve their objective, AT mines are much larger
than AP mines and have a far heavier explosive Marking and Recording
charge.
Landmines are a big threat to the recovery and
Explosive Remnants of War rebuilding of nations and areas after conflicts.
Unidentified mined areas or unmonitored explosive
The two most common categories of Explosive hazards will continue to pose a threat to civilian
Remnants of War (ERW) include unexploded safety and local development even after conflict
ordnance (UXO) and abandoned explosive
ordnance (AXO). In areas of conflict both present
and past, the risk of ERW remains an important risk
Want to learn more about landmines, explosive
factor. Both present an equally dangerous hazard
hazards, ERW, IEDs, and UN Mine Action?
to personnel and local civilians.
Register for the POTI course,
Unexploded ordnance (UXO) are explosive Mine Action And explosive HAzArd
MAnAgeMent: HuMAnitAriAn iMpAct,
tecHnicAl Aspects, And globAl initiAtives Mine Action and Explosive
munitions including grenades, rockets, mortars,
Hazard Management:
artillery shells, bombs, cluster munitions, and
Humanitarian Impact,
fuses that have not yet been set off. UXO may
Technical Aspects, and Global
already have been fired, dropped, or launched, but
Initiatives.
failed to detonate as intended. Though it may not
have exploded as designed, this does not mean
The course was developed with
C O U R S E AU T H O R S

The United Nations Mine Action Service

The Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining

that UXO is safe or stable in any way. They can S E R I E S E D I TO R

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

the UN Mine Action Service to

function almost exactly as landmines, exploding
specifically address these topics.
Peace Operations Training Institute
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when stepped on, moved, or touched. Some UXO

also contain motion-sensitive fusing or magnetic
Enrol here: <www.peaceopstraining.org/courses/
sensors; others may have a timed self-destruct
mine-action-and-explosive-hazard-management/>
feature. Because UXO are very unstable and can
be detonated easily, they are very dangerous.

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 Be aware of indications of the presence of
landmines or ERW, such as damaged vehicles,
dead animals, uncultivated fields, damaged
vegetation, areas avoided by local population,
destroyed military equipment, abandoned military
facilities, and metal parts above the ground.

Improvised Explosive Devices

In today’s scenarios in UN peacekeeping

operations and other multinational military
operations, threats do not only come from
traditional weapons, tactics, landmines, and
As part of its commemoration for the International Day for Mine ERW. With the rise of asymmetric warfare, there
Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action, the UN Mine Action Service has also been a significant increase in threats
(UNMAS) and the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission from IED, such as Vehicle-Borne IEDs (VBIED)
in Mali (MINUSMA) staged a demining demonstration in Kambila, 20 and Body-Borne IED (BBIED)s. These are also
km southeast of the capital city, Bamako. (UN Photo #584987 by Marco
sometimes referred to as suicide bombers.
Dormino, 04 April 2014)

has ended. All identified mines and ERW must be Suicide bombing is often linked to guerrillas and
recorded and properly cordoned. Such areas also other irregular fighting forces or factions. Many
need to be continuously monitored. of the irregular forces may have extremist views
with supposed religious beliefs that martyrdom will
The United Nations are normally engaged in reward them in their “next life”.
large-scale demining operations and campaigns,
as well as operating UN Mine Action Centres. It is IEDs are informal explosive weapons created
the United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) from materials and chemicals that are often
that is the focal point for the coordination of the commonly available – but are hazardous, lethal,
UN efforts in order to eliminate landmines and and destructive. IEDs exist in many variations
explosive remnants of war and to mitigate their and the imagination is the only limitation. They
impact on people’s lives. Other NGOs and civil may incorporate military stores, but are normally
society organizations also engage in the process. devised from non-military components. These
devices are very lethal, and cause great damages
Just as landmines often hamper daily activities to personnel, material and infrastructure.
in local communities, they can also impact an
UNMO’s routine patrolling and operations. It is The ability to deploy these weapons disguised
of great importance that UNMOs have correct with everyday objects in everyday settings makes
and updated information, including accurate the threat even more intimidating. IEDs are being
and updated maps and routes to drive. If new used more and more in asymmetric warfare, both
mines, minefields, ERW, or IEDs are discovered, passive (i.e. abandoned vehicle) and active (i.e.
immediate action is required to block off an area ambush).
and request assistance.

“Landmines are cheap to buy and profitable to sell. They are easy to use and hard to detect and
they kill, maim, and terrorize indiscriminately. They remain vigilant long after the guns fall silent.
The social and economic costs are enormous. Mines destroy livelihoods and deny access to land,
water sources, schools, and pathways. They cripple recovery in countries emerging from conflict.”

–United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs Study Report; “The Development of Indigenous Mine
Action Capacities”, New York, 1997.

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
The Threat of Vehicle-Borne IED (VBIED) and 13.4 Local Threats of Explosive
Body-Borne IED (BBIED) Hazards
By carrying explosives on their person, using a
vehicle, or a combination thereof, a guerrilla group Just as the threats from landmines, ERW, and IEDs
or faction can smuggle deadly force into densely will vary from one UNPKO to another, UNMOs will
populated areas or close to key targets. The encounter different information and procedures
precision of this delivery method surpasses even about local explosive hazards, in the forms of
the most sophisticated missile guidance systems, safety pamphlets and handbooks, special mine-
allowing the will of a single individual to rival the maps, driving routes, and SOPs. The local mine
technological sophistication of great armies and and ERW-threat should always be part of induction
international organizations. training to a UN Mission. On a day-to-day basis,
the UN will issue local status about different threats
or changes to certain threat levels. Preparing for
13.3 Types of Mines, ERW, and IEDs UNMO patrols and other UNMO duties should
and Methods of Activation always include an update on the different threats
and their level in order to act accordingly and to
Mines can be activated by direct pressure, but ensure that required protection measures are in
many are additionally rigged with tripwires, tilt place.
rods, command detonation, time delay, disturbance
methods, and even other features such as Military Experts on Mission (MEOM) will often
light-activated. operate in mine and UXO affected areas. Wherever
possible, prevent and avoid exposure to mine
IEDs can also be detonated in a variety of ways affected areas. By applying basic safety principles,
that can mainly be classified into three categories. they can reduce the risk of accidents involving
The switch, which triggers the detonation, can mines and UXO.
be time-operated, command-operated, or victim
operated. “Mine clearance or demining entities in existence,
either UN, local military, non-governmental
Time-operated switches include, but are not limited organizations, or commercial companies should
to, time-mechanical, such as the use of a windup always be sought for professional assistance in
clock, time-chemical, such as the use of a time case of mine accidents or when MEOM realize they
fuse, and time-electronic, such as a digital watch. have entered a mine field.”2

Command-operated switches include, but are not Indication of the Presence of Improvised
limited to, a command-wire with a simple push Explosive Devices
button, a command-pull utilizing a clothespin (such
as with a hand grenade), or a radio control using a Indications of IEDs are the presence of abnormal
cell phone or handheld radio. activities and the absence of normal activities. IEDs
are usually camouflaged on persons, in vehicles, or
Victim-operated switches include, but are not as daily and ordinary items, which may look like:
limited to, pressure or pressure plates, pressure
release, as in the use of mousetraps, and tension
• Garbage bags and cardboard boxes on the road
shoulders;
and tension release with the use of slack or taut trip
wires, respectively. • Standing, broken; or abandoned vehicles;

Additional procedures regarding mines, UXO,

• Soft packs and cases;
and IEDs, regarding demining, demolition, and • In dead animals;
transportation are stated in local UN regulations
and SOPs.
2 UN Peacekeeping PDT Standards, Specialized
Training Material for Military Experts on Mission 1st
Edition 2010.

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 13.5 If Caught or Injured in a
Minefield
If caught in a minefield or if your vehicle has hit
a landmine or is stuck in a very suspicious area,
follow this procedure:

STOP – MINED!

M – Movement stops immediately. Do not even try

MONUSCO has been backing the Forces Armées de la République to reverse out of the area. Be calm – stay in vehicle
Démocratique du Congo (FARDC) in military operations. FARDC soldiers if possible.
next to a booby trap set by the rebels. (UN Photo #586209 by Clara
Padovan, 17 April 2014)
I – Inform and warn people around you. Contact
base for help and assistance.
• Holes in the road; and
• Glass fibre models of natural objects as e.g. N – Note the area. What else can be observed?
rocks;
E – Evaluate the situation. Be prepared to take
Preventive actions: control.
• Avoid routine behaviour;
D – Do not move from current position. Wait for
• If possible, vary routes and timings; qualified help and support.
• Calculate and plan according to threat
When possible, stay in the area until support
assessments, e.g. hotspot areas, entities, earlier
arrives and point out the place where the mine or
incidents, possible targets;
UXO was found. If you have to leave, try to mark
• Train procedures for action during discovery or the area so you prevent others from entering the
attack with IEDs; dangerous area, and as soon as possibly report the
danger to superiors and other units according to
• Act vigilant and be aware of out of the ordinary
SOP.
behaviour and IED-linked indicators;
• Assume that all attacks with IEDs are followed Observe the following actions while on foot:
up with ambushes or further IEDs;
• If you realize you have entered a mined area,
• Keep a safe distance between vehicles in behave according to the STOP - MINED!
convoys; procedure described above.
• Adjust the speed of the vehicles according to the • If a detonation occurs, continue to follow the
situation and threat assessment; and procedure mentioned above. Wait for the combat
engineers, professional de-miners or medical
• Be aware of canalizing terrain.
personnel. Do not risk further injuries.
When stopping your vehicle, define the area and
Observe while in a vehicle:
begin the search of the area in a five meters visual
radius before you stop. Begin with the ground and • Behave according to the STOP - MINED!
continue with higher levels. Continue to search a procedure described above;
radius of 20 meters, first from distance and then
• Put on all protective gear if you are not wearing it
when halting. Be aware of other threats, such as
already;
mines.
• If there is a roadside bomb or explosive, be
careful about using the radio and mobile phones,
since their signals might set off the device;

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• Do not move the steering wheel;
• Only leave the vehicle in extreme situations by
the rear door following the tracks made by the
vehicle, or prod a way out;
• If there are passengers, they should move one
by one with 30 meters apart. The passengers
must put on all their protective gear before
leaving the vehicle.
• If you have to move the vehicle, reverse the car
carefully following its tracks. However, keep in
mind that this can be dangerous in a minefield
and it is recommended to move individuals
to safety fist. Abandoned vehicles can be
recovered later when it is safe;
• If moving the vehicle, only the driver stays in the
vehicle. In some situations, it might be advisable UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) vehicle, tasked with verifying and
clearing priority routes in Unity State, as designated by UNMISS (United
to have a spotter at the rear of the vehicle; and
Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan). (UN Photo #621396 by JC
• During darkness, stay in the vehicle until McIlwaine, 22 January 2015)
daylight. Avoid maneuvering vehicles in the
dark and schedule your routes appropriately to Confirm
prevent night-driving. • What is the threat? Is it a threat? Only approach
objects if it’s absolutely necessary. Report the
13.6 Tips and Considerations threat.

• If you find or notice one mine, expect that there Clear

are more mines in the area;
• Leave the object quickly. Don’t forget to warn
• Never touch or attempt to move a mine or ERW; locals if possible.
• Do not touch any suspicious object; and
Cordon
• Remember that any mine or ERW may be
booby-trapped. Do not throw things at suspicious UNMOs can initiate a cordon if UN Troops are
objects. available. The size depends on the situation,
resources, and threat assessment. In general:
Actions During Attack or Finds
• 100 meters for a bag;
During an attack, immediate action should be • 200 meters for a normal sized vehicle; and
to fight back according to ROE. If the threat is
discovered in advance, leave the risk area as soon • 400 meters for a truck.
as possible and report to HQ or Base.
UNMOs should be prepared to receive and update
The 4Cs procedure is a concept that both UN UN reinforcing troops and EOD teams.
Military Commanders and UNMOs should be
familiar with and execute according to the situation. Control

Try to keep visual contact of the object until troops

and/or EOD arrives. Observe activities in the

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 vicinity. Be prepared for imminent attacks. Keep and distinguishes it from the deprivation of
aware of the 5 Ws: someone’s liberty as an administrative or judicial
measure.
• What is it?
• Where is it? Although the prohibition of hostage-taking is
specified in the Fourth Geneva Convention and is
• When was it?
typically associated with the holding of civilians as
• Why do you think it is an UXO/IED/VBIED/ hostages, there is no indication that the offence is
BBIED? limited to taking civilians hostage. Common Article
3 of the Geneva Conventions, the Statute of the
• Were there any witnesses, anything seen or
International Criminal Court and the International
heard? EOD teams will require speaking to them.
Convention against the Taking of Hostages do
not limit the offence to the taking of civilians, but
apply it to the taking of any person. Indeed, in the
Elements of Crimes for the International Criminal
Court, the definition applies to the taking of any
person protected by the Geneva Conventions.

Throughout the history of the United Nations, a

number of incidents have shown that UNMOs and
other UN Personnel are a potential Hostage target
group. If a Hijacking is taking place, it requires
immediate action by the UN and also the TCCs
engaged. An act of Hostage taking is an offence
of great concern of the International Community.
There are a number of experts/expert groups
View of a marked mine field during verification of clearance of route that may be engaged in order to release the UN
leading into Rubkona airstrip extension near Bentiu, by United Nations
Hostages by negotiations – and/or in the worst
Mine Action Service (UNMAS) and contractor TDI. The extension came
as an UNMISS directive (UN Photo #621088 by JC McIlwaine, 22 January
case by enforcement operations by specially
2015) trained Police or Military Forces.

Normally an abduction/detention of UN Personnel

13.7 Abduction, Detention, Hijacking, is more a local act of immediate action by Factions/
and Hostage Awareness Parties without any goals and aims, and no real
threat to; e.g. UNMOs. Such an act towards
Definition of Hostage-taking the UN may be triggered by local disputes, and
misbehaviour with the Local Authorities and/or the
The International Convention against the Taking UN at large. Through conversations/negotiations
of Hostages defines the offence as the seizure or it is solved within limited time, and without any
detention of a person (the hostage), combined with physical implications to the UN Personnel.
threatening to kill, to injure, or to continue to detain
the hostage, in order to compel a third party to do When a hijacking situation is taking place, all
or to abstain from doing any act as an explicit or communications means will be restricted to
implicit condition for the release of the hostage. minimum use – and priority in support of the
The Elements of Crimes for the International anti-hijacking operation.
Criminal Court uses the same definition but adds
that the required behaviour of the third party First-hand information about who is hijacked, their
could be a condition not only for the release of the position, and time would be of great value. But
hostage but also for the safety of the hostage. It is such information may not be available. In that case,
the specific intent that characterizes hostage-taking indications of direction linked to a UN Position,

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village, road-junction or similar reference must be
used. If possible, all details about the kidnappers
are of vital interest, such as how many, physical
descriptions, details about vehicles, armed or not,
languages spoken – all details.

If you as an UNMO are kidnapped or taken

hostage:
• Observe and report, if possible;
• Keep microphone out observation of the
hijackers;
• Do not try to escape;
• Cooperate with your kidnappers;
Two police officers from the hybrid UN/African Union peacekeeping
• Tell them you are unarmed;
mission in Darfur (UNAMID), Hasan Al-Mazawdeh and Qasim Al-Sarhan,
• Tell them that you are an UN Military Observer in were abducted on 20 August, 2012 in the town of Kabkabiya, 140
the duty of peace; kilometers west of El Fasher. They were freed on 2 January, 2013.
UNAMID’s Officer in Charge, Mohamed Yonis (centre), waits with the
• Do not provoke your kidnappers. Instead, try to freed hostages before boarding a plane at the El Fasher airport. (UN
find out their motives. Do they want any ransom? Photo #539643 by Rania Abdulrahman, 2 January 2013)

• Be aware that they normally will be very good at 13.8 Communication Security: Use
knowing personal information – or getting hold of
of Operational Communication Means
such information;
and Telephones/Cellular Phones/
• Try to be in very good physical shape; Internet
• Make your own daily routines;
All UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) have the
• Trust that the United Nations and your country required authorization (Article III of the UN Charter)
would do their outmost in order to get you to build, install, and operate radio transmitters,
released; radio receivers, and satellite systems in order to
communicate within the UN Mission Area and to
• If you are told to leave your vehicle by the
exchange data-communications with the UN Global
kidnappers; try to bring your personal belongings
Telecommunications system. Normally this will be
and vital UN materials with you; and
part of the SOFA or SOMA with the Host Nation(s).
• If you are two vehicles, and one is hijacked, The UN telecommunication systems should be
the second one should observe and report at run according to international regulations and
safe distance. The second vehicle would report provision and coordination of frequencies should
important information to the HQ, which would be arranged with the Host Nation(s).
try to contact the kidnapper’s organization in
order to get the people in the hijacked vehicle Within the area of the UNPKO, the UN will have
released. the unlimited right to run and establish required
communications; e.g. VHF- and HF-radios (satellite,
mobile, and hand-held radios), telephones,
telegraphy, telefax, internet and other external and
internal systems as required.

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 Different Levels of Communications with the UN Peacekeeping Troops in the Area of
Operation (AOR).
The Communication and Information Systems (CIS)
may be considered at three levels in UNPKOs: Communication Security
• Strategic level: The UN HQs in New York;
Most of the communications equipment that UNMOs
• Operational level: UN Military HQs in the Mission are operating are NOT secure means. All procedures
Area; and should be carefully exercised and followed.
Communications are mission-specific, and details
• Tactical level: Div HQs/Bde HQs, Bn HQs and
should always be found in the SOP. Be aware that
Positions, UNMO HQs/Bases and OPs and
everything you say and write may be monitored and
Patrols.
potentially used against you, your family, your nation,
your teammates, and the United Nations. This should
As an UNMO you will be provided the needed
especially be observed when operating outside
communication means. UNMOs must also be
positions and bases. In today’s scenarios, one must
trained to operate common static and mobile
also be aware that any comments and behaviour
communications (HQs, Bases, OPs, Vehicles).
during discussions and negotiations with parties to
the conflict or other factions may be monitored and
broadcasted on the Internet, even through hidden
cameras and other sophisticated equipment.

Communication Information Systems as used for

Force Protection

CIS must also be seen as an effective method of

increasing the security of all members of a UN
Mission. All static UN positions must be able to
report not only about tactical developments, but also
about incidents and dangerous situations concerning
the UN personnel.

Members of the Pakistani-led Quick Reaction Force (QRF) at the United Normally, all UN Military Observer Missions will
Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) conduct rapid reaction exercise. (UN have a reporting system for controlling movement of
Photo #541480 by Staton Winter, 25 January 2013)
UNMOs and vehicles. The procedures will always be
mission-specific as described in the SOP.
Normally a UNMO Team/Team Site will have the
As a rule, no vehicle should be allowed to drive in the
following means available:
AOR without means of communications (e.g. radio,
• Hand-held radios (one per UNMO); mobile telephone). If the situation in the area permits
and the readiness level allows, convoys of three
• Computers;
or more vehicles may have fewer radios or mobile
• Data links; telephones than number of vehicles.
• Satellite phones;
Any vehicle moving outside the area of its own unit
• VHF-radio; must report to the unit in the area they are moving
into. A number of reporting positions or reporting
• HF-radio; and
lines should be established in order to report all
• GPS (Global Positioning System). movements of UNMOs and others. An alternative
is to report their location, for example, every 20
Note that the different UNMO communication means minutes.
are not automatically interoperable or compatible

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. What is the definition of toxic waste?

2. What does the abbreviation CBRN stand

for?

3. Force Protection consists of different

measures in order to minimize the
vulnerability of; e.g. personnel, items,
equipment, plans, orders, and operations –
but why?

4. What should always be the first priority

concerning Security and Force Protection?

5. What would be the consequences of failing

the English and/or the driving test during
the Induction Training in the UN Mission
Area?

6. List the two major types of landmines.

7. List as many possible indications of mines/

UXOs as possible.

8. What is the definition of a hostage taking

(kidnapping)?

9. List the different levels of communications.

10. List the communication means that an

UNMO normally will be operating in the
AOR.

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ANSWER KEY
1. Toxic waste is waste material that can cause death, injury or birth defects to living creatures. It
spreads quite easily and can contaminate lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere. The term is often used
interchangeably with “hazardous waste”, or discarded material that can pose a long-term risk to health or
environment.

2. Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN).

3. Force protection is critical in order to preserve freedom of action and the operational effectiveness and
security of the force and its personnel.

4. Security and Force Protection of personnel.

5. You, as an UNMO, will be repatriated to your home country at your country’s expense.
6. The two major types of landmines are anti-personnel and anti-tank (vehicle) mines.
7. There are a number of indications of mines/UXOs like; damaged vehicles, dead animals, not cultivated
fields, damaged vegetation, areas avoided by local population, destroyed military equipment, military
installations/compounds and metal parts above the ground.

8. “The International Convention against the taking of hostages defines the offence as the seizure or
detention of a person (the hostage), combined with threatening to kill, to injure, or to continue to detain
the hostage, in order to compel a third party to do or to abstain from doing any act as an explicit or implicit
condition for the release of the hostage”.

9. Strategic – Operational – Tactical.

10. UNMO communications equipment:

• Hand-held radios (one per UNMO)
• Telephones (landlines)
• Computers
• Data links
• Satellite phone
• VHF-radio
• HF-radio
• GPS (Global Positioning System).

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LESSON 14
UNMO DUTIES PART 4 –
FIELD SKILLS
 LESSON
14

LESSON OBJECTIVES
14.1 Use of Radio and
Other Means of This lesson is the final lesson giving introduction to specific UNMO duties
Communications and operations, and the role of UNMOs at the practical, tactical level.
UNMOs will normally operate at the tactical level conducting their duties.
14.2 Map Reading and However, UNMOs may also be deployed to operational UN Headquarters
Navigation (HQ) in an UN Area of Operation as UN Experts on Mission. In some of
the ongoing UN Missions/UN led operations, UNMOs may be deployed
14.3 Techniques for directly to the Mission HQ and serve there throughout their tour with the
Driving Off-Road UN. Such a tour is normally one year.

14.4 Observation and UNMOs are normally deployed to their tactical level sites/units after
Driving – Use of Night induction training in the operational UN Theatre. An alternative is to be
Vision Devices (NVD) deployed for six months in the field, and then six months in a UN HQ at
the tactical or operational level. The aim of this lesson is to introduce the
14.5 Basic Life Support, students to use of communications, navigation, driving and basic first
First Aid, and Self-Aid aid and hygiene in order to enable them to perform their duties more
effectively. After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
14.6 Basic Hygiene
• Explain and understand the demands and requirements of using
different means of communication;
• Explain and understand the demands and requirements of map-reading
and navigation by compass and GPS;
• Explain and understand the requirements for driving different vehicles,
as well as driving techniques, recovery, and driving or navigation during
bad weather/night time conditions; and
• Explain and understand the requirements for first aid and personal
hygiene.
Introduction
You will find a great number of tactics and
techniques concerning UN Military Peace
Operations as well as other types of Military
Peace Support Operations (PSO). Preparations for
UNMOs should be concentrated and aimed against
the actual employment as UN Military Observer. It
is a UN Troop Contributing Country’s responsibility
to train and prepare UNMOs according to UN
requirements and standards.

You will also find information regarding training and

standards on this UN website: <http://peacekeepin-
gresourcehub.unlb.org>.

Specialized, mandatory UN Expert on Mission/UN A French Battalion field-communications operator calling in landing
Military Observer training courses will take place at coordinates to a United Nations helicopter pilot. (UN Photo #122032 by
John Isaac, 01 September 1992)
UN recognized training centres prior to deployment.
In addition, there will be other requirements to be
trained and confirmed by the TCCs; e.g. driving, UN Military personnel at the UN Military Force unit
basic first-aid, English language skills and Military level will normally operate radio communications
Training and Competence. in their mother tongue within their network, using
national voice procedures. As a minimum, UNMOs
should be familiar with:
14.1 Use of Radio and Other Means of
• SOP;
Communications
• Equipment;
Introduction
• UN call sign system;
As an UNMO, you will be provided the needed • Net orders; and
communication means (reference Lesson 13.7).
• Basic UN communications (VHF and HF
You need to be trained and familiar with the
Radios, Satellite telephones, Hand-held Radios,
different static and mobile communications in
Computers).
your specific mission area. However, there are a
number of basic principles to follow while operating • A Global Positioning System (GPS) is also
communications; especially voice procedures and regarded as a communication mean or
use of the International Phonetic Alphabet (see communication system. For further information
Appendix C). and use, see Section 14.2.

One of the most needed and vital SOPs should However, you must be prepared to communicate in
be the SOP for communications. In critical or the required mission language – English – and you
life-saving situations, as an UNMO, you would be must also know:
given priority using radio communications. If you
• The International Phonetic Alphabet;
don’t speak loud and clear, and are not familiar with
the common procedures and operating radios, the • Basic radio communication procedures;
consequences might be very serious in a negative
• The use of procedural words, such as “wait
way.
out, read back – I read back, correction, speak
slower”, etc.; and
Preparation before deployment regarding radio
communications skills is vital for any UNMO. • Plain procedure, such as “long message, roger

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 so far – roger send over”, etc. 14.2 Map Reading and Navigation
Preparing the Radio Set for Operation
Introduction
• Make sure that there is a sufficient power source,
and ensure that there is a correct connection to Map reading in combination with the use of
the radio set. compass and/or a Global Positioning System
• Check the antenna and all cable assemblies, (GPS) is essential for conducting the job as
ensuring tight and correct connection to the set. UNMO. An UN Military Observer must be
good at observation and plotting incidents and
• Connect the audio accessories and check proper observations to a map either from an static
operation of function switches. Observation Post (OP), Temporary OP (OPT),
during an special Investigation, while Patrolling,
General Instructions for Transmitting route reconnaissance or other tasks. However;
• Decide what you are going to say, making availability of a GPS or not – it is the basic
certain that it will be clear and brief. principles and training of Map Reading and using
a Compass which is of outmost importance for
• Make sure no one else is speaking on the net an UNMO. A GPS is an electronically operated
when you start. instrument, and may be out of order. You may have
• Remember to divide your message into sensible a GPS/Compass in your smart mobile phone, but
phrases, make pauses, and maintain a rhythm to that is not a reliable back-up. The only back-up for
your speech. the GPS is Map and Compass.

• Normally the receiver of your message has to Map and Compass

write down your message; do not speak too fast.
• Avoid excessive calling and unofficial You will find a great number of different maps for
transmissions. different purposes; e.g. road maps, tourist maps,
school maps, orienteering maps and topographic
• Use standard pronunciation. military maps – and all with different scales and
• Use your normal voice – do not shout. contour intervals and legends. Naval positions are
normally referenced in Longitude and Latitude,
• Keep a distance of about 3-5 centimeters while land positions are given in accordance with
between the microphone and your lips. a special Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)
• Shield the microphone from background noises. and/or a commercial Grid Reference System.

If you are not issued a UN Communication Folder To navigate using a compass requires that the
and/or a special Communication Pamphlet for UNMO is familiar with the functions of a compass.
your UN Mission, ensure that you make copies As a minimum you should be able to orient the map
of the most important part of your SOP for in a North-South position by using the magnetic
Communications. Such a Check-list/Procedures needle in a parallel position to the North-South
should be a part of your daily, personal equipment lines on the Map, and the RED TOP of the
that you bring with you however duties; e.g. Magnetic Needle pointing to the top of the Map
Patrolling or OP. (reading text and figures in a normal way – not
up-side down). Additionally you must be able to
orient the map by observing the terrain and terrain
features.

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Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and
Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)

Military topographic maps are normally produced in

scale 1:50 000 (1cm = 500m) with contour intervals
of 20 meters. You will find this information printed
on the map together with a legend and reference
to which system it is a part of, and which sheet it
is. The generic map on this page is an example of
a military map with a UTM system. Today, many
maps are produced with a blend of UTM/MGRS
coordinate formats. This particular map has grid
lines spaced every kilometer. The vertical grid lines
determine the east-west position and the horizontal
grid lines determine north-south position.

Peacekeepers with the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara

(MINURSO) consult a map as they drive through vast desert areas in
Smara, Western Sahara. (UN Photo #440161 by Martine Perret, 20 June
2010)

1 x 1 km square in 10 x 10 meter squares, you are

able to do that. To find the accuracy in meters you
need an advanced liner or a GPS.

The figures below give the Zone and accuracy in

meters:

10 S 0559741 - 4282182
• 10 S is the Zone;
• 05 gives the 100 x 100 km square;
• 59 gives the 1 x 1 km square;
• 7 gives nearest 100 meters;
• 4 gives the nearest 10 meters; and
• 1 is the nearest 1 meter. All together, these
The red star on this map can be used to practice figures represent a measurement of East-West
the principles for finding or reporting that position. position, within the zone, in meters – and it is
Having a GPS – the position might be stored as called an Easting.
a position of interest and/or as a waypoint along
a route. For information; this map is in 10 S Zone The other set of numbers, 4282182, represent a
which represents the zone you are in. The zone measurement of North-South position, within the
is unique over the entire globe. Using the UTM zone, in meters – and is called a Northing.
coordinates you will be able to report your location.
You always start in the south-western corner of Global Positioning System (GPS)
the square in which the location is situated – or an
incident take place. As a minimum you should be A GPS is a more and more frequent tool
able to provide accuracy down to 10-meters without for navigation and map reading based on
any technical support – or a GPS. By dividing the cross-bearing signals from a network of satellites

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(“in the line of sight”). Originally it was a closed 14.3 Techniques for Driving Off-Road
military system for the US Armed Forces. However,
over the last years, more and more satellites have Introduction
been released for international and commercial
use, and the accuracy can be within one meter Driving in a conflict area or post-conflict area is
or less. There are no limitations during darkness not similar to be driving under normal peacetime
or bad weather conditions. Massive objects like conditions. Normally, the driving skills required
huge houses and mountains may limit signals. If would be much higher than driving under normal
so, find an alternative position. The GPS will tell conditions and circumstances.
you if there are limited signals. If you are in the
“line-of-sight” and have at least three satellites It is a TCC’s responsibility to train and prepare the
in the “line-of-sight”, your position will be very driving skills of UNMOs, and to approve national
accurate. military certificates or authorization. This could
also include driving four-wheel drive or armoured
There are a great variety of GPS available, which vehicles. However, even with national training
range from simple to very sophisticated versions, and authorization, you must pass an in-mission
complete with maps and compass embedded. mandatory driving test (theoretical and practical).
These versions are also very useful while driving Once you have passed the test, you will be issued
and navigating from a vehicle. UNMOs may a special UN Driving License for the type of vehicle
be provided a GPS. The UN may use different which you will be driving as an UNMO. You are only
versions compared to those you have trained with. allowed to drive the type of UN vehicle that you are
At international UNMEM/UNMO courses, you will authorized for.
also have lectures concerning operating GPS.
The practical test would be aimed at your driving
However, before operating a GPS in a UN skills, such as:
Peacekeeping Operation, you need to train and be
familiar with it. Use the manual together with the • Start-up the engine;
GPS and/or take part in organized training. • Use of the gearbox; manual vs. automatic;

In order to operate a GPS, at a minimum one • Use of four-wheel drive (4WD) and two-wheel
should be able to learn: drive (2WD) vs. low and high gear (“reduction
gear”);
• Tab functions and touch screen functions;
• Use of lights;
• Display and Menu;
• Driving in general;
• Satellites Functionality, Visibility, and System
Limitations; • Driving under special conditions; e.g. in the city,
off-road;
• “Normal” user malfunctions;
• Backing; and
• “Move to” functions;
• Parking (limited space – between other vehicles).
• Maps and compass;
• Find and create positions as UTM/MGRS Driving Techniques and Use of Manual Gearbox
references – or in latitude/longitude; vs Automatic Gearbox

• Create waypoints, create a route, navigate along In some countries, if you have learned driving with
a given route; and an automatic gearbox, you will not be allowed to
• Solve practical challenges. drive a vehicle with manual transmission without
passing a test in a manual vehicle. If you have
passed the driving test in a vehicle with a manual
gearbox, you will already be allowed to drive an
automatic as well.

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In some parts of the world, automatic gearbox is system has to be used in 2WD mode on pavement,
more popular than manual; e.g. USA vs Europe. cement, asphalt, or other hard, sticky surfaces.
This may be linked to a smooth drive over long They are designed to be engaged only in specific
stretches of road. Automatic gearboxes are situations when you need extra traction and
becoming more and more popular, as there damage can occur if driven on hard surfaces.
are a growing number of automated manual Some system allows the driver to manual shift
transmissions features such as button-operated from 2WD to 4WD Hi without stopping first under
gear changes. a certain speed limit, while others require full stop
before shifting. This system is a frequent system
Manual gearboxes are exactly what the name used by UN world-wide. The system gives UNMOs
suggests. They require the driver to manually the full spectre of driving capacity. UNMO driving
change gears as the vehicle slows down or speeds training should be concentrated by using vehicles
up by using the clutch pedal. Low gears are also for with this system.
going up-hill or down-hill (climbs and slows down).
A manual transmission will allow more powerful A full-time 4WD is a four-wheel drive system
vehicles to be controlled easier and can be easier that can be operated at all times on all surfaces.
to control in poor weather conditions. Full-time 4WD systems usually have the option of
part-time operation, so you can shift to 2WD while
Automatic gearboxes will change the gear of the on cement, asphalt, or pavement. Full-time 4WD
vehicle without any driver input. It decides which systems do not always have the Hi and Lo speed
gear to move into based on the speed of the ranges.
vehicle, and the transmission is automatic without
use of any clutch. It allows you to cruise easily, Automatic four-wheel drive (A4WD) is a system that
and you could argue that an automatic gearbox automatically turns on 4WD when it needs it. This
allows more time to concentrate on the road ahead is achieved with monitors that sense different wheel
instead of fiddling with gear shifts and could be less speeds then engage 4WD.
stressful. An automatic gearbox will make stop and
start city driving easier. Recovery

While driving, UNMOs should be familiar with If your vehicle has an engine/technical breakdown,
conquering different road conditions like muddy, UNMOs are not supposed to fix it. Call for UN
sandy, slippery, snowy, icy, wet, and rocky. assistance from your base or other UN positions/
That includes four-wheeling, up- and down-hill units. If you engage other UN vehicles in towing,
manoeuvring techniques, and shifting gears in you must ensure that you both are familiar with
order to maintain control and movement on any towing. Towing should be in extreme situations;
surface. e.g. you and your UNMO team are far away from
base and your security is at stake. Modern UN
A four-wheel drive vehicle, or “four-by-four” (4WD) vehicles are sophisticated and technically built; that
means that there are four wheels and that all four is why your UNMO vehicle should be repaired by
are driven by contact between the engine and authorized UN mechanics or by authorized civilian
all four wheels. A four-by-two wheel drive (2WD) contracted companies/personnel.
means that there are four wheels but only two are
driven by the engine. The driven wheels could However, recovery is not only about technical
either be back or front. support; there may also be situations where you
are stuck off-road. As a principle, you should never
A part-time 4WD system can operate on demand drive off-road with less than two vehicles, in order
to power all four wheels by synchronizing the front to offer support to each other if one breaks down
and rear axles together via a shift lever. Part-time or needs recovery. Some vehicles may have a
4WD usually includes two speed ranges; Hi and winch (a mechanical device that is used to pull a
Lo (High and Low “reduction gear”). A part-time cord or chain) that can make recovery easier by

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 using another UN vehicle or any terrain features radios to your UNMO teammate and focus on the
(e.g. trees, stones) as an anchor. Additionally, there road.
may be special jacks, snow-chains, “sand-lathers”,
driving mats and other equipment available. Use of
this type of equipment requires specialized training
14.4 Observation and Driving – Use of
under supervision for the UNMOs to be familiar Night Vision Devices (NVD)
with using it. Never start any kind of recovery if
there are signs of being caught in a minefield and/ A night vision device (NVD) is an optical instrument
or in an area with Unexploded Ordnance (UXO). that allows images to be produced in levels of
Act in accordance to your SOP: call for support. light approaching total darkness. They are most
often used by the military and law enforcement
agencies, but are available to civilian users. The
term usually refers to a complete unit, including
an image intensifier tube, a protective and
generally water-resistant housing, and some type
of mounting system. Many NVDs also include
sacrificial lenses to protect the optic lens, infrared
(IR) illuminators, and telescopic lenses.

Night vision devices were first used in World War

II, and came into wide use during the Vietnam War.
The technology has evolved greatly since their
introduction, leading to several “generations” of
night vision equipment with performance increasing
and price decreasing. Another term is “night optical
device” or “NOD”.
View through a night vision scope during an African Union Mission in
Somalia (AMISOM) operation in the Madina district of Mogadishu to weed For military purposes you will find these main
out members of extremist group Al-Shabaab. Many of the area’s young categories of Night Vision Devices:
men were temporarily detained by the Somali Police Foce and screened
to determine whether they had any links to the group. (UN Photo • Monoculars;
#551775 by Tobin Jones, 25 May 2013)
• Binoculars;
Darkness and Bad Weather Conditions • Tactical (personal) Goggles; and

In some UN Missions or peacekeeping operations, • Driving Goggles.

there are restrictions on movement during darkness
or dark hours. This is a part of Force Protection/ Observation and Driving
Security and the SOP will give details about
how waivers could be authorized under certain As an UNMO, you could be engaged using Night
conditions. Due to operational situations and risks, Vision Binoculars for observation purposes while
the UN Force Command/HQs could at any time Patrolling/Temporary Observation Posts (OPTs) or
impose restrictions on movement 24/7. UNMOS at static OPs. When you are driving in darkness,
should normally operate visibly by waving UN your UN vehicle should however be lighted-up –
flags and symbols. The same situation concerns and not driving without head-lights and the UN
UN vehicles, which should be visible when driving flag illuminated. It is a number of different types
in darkness by using head-lights and illuminating of NVDs available, and that require local training
the UN flag. During bad weather conditions, the for UNMOs in the Mission area. NVDs should be
requirements are the same, however, the UNMO regarded as a supplement to normal observation
driver should pay extra special attention. Leave all binoculars – not a replacement.
other observation, map-reading, use of GPS, and

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14.5 Basic Life Support, First Aid,
and Self-Aid
UN Military Observers (UNMOs) are assigned to
duties in different parts of the world. Consequently,
the local medical threats and the way that basic life
support is provided will have great variations and
consequences.

It is essential that UNMOs and other

peacekeepers, both uniformed and civilian, be
prepared to provide basic life support to other
peacekeepers or any casualty in cases where
they may be the first responders. Incidents could
happen in places where there is no immediate
medical support available. You and your UNMO
teammate may be the only ones at hand – or the
The United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) military
only ones expected to take immediate action on observers’ winter survival exercise in the Caucasus mountains. (UN Photo
the spot at the incident site. Statistics also indicate #49200 by Justyna Melnikiewicz, 01 March 2004)
that the first two hours are critical for survival and
recovery. From a medical point of view, the first
important issue is that each and every UNMO and
hour is the most critical one in order to save lives
other UN Peacekeepers will deploy to the field
and is called “the golden hour”. It is in this moment
prepared to provide first aid or basic life support
that a few simple actions taken decisively by the
anytime, anywhere. Basic life support should be
first responders may decide the fate of the injured
fast and decisive. However, speed must never
persons.
take preference over care, knowledge, or security.
Please note that the techniques and principles
The intention of this paragraph is to present a basic
discussed in this lesson DO NOT replace the
understanding of the vital functions of the human
hands-on training or field experience to be a
body. This knowledge should furthermore be used
qualified first-responder.
in applying effective, basic life support measures
as first responders in accidents and/or as a result
Evaluate the security situation before you approach
of hostile action/incidents.
the patient. You must always regard your own
personal safety and security. You are of no help to
Further information and training should be given
a patient if you behave in a way that may potentially
during the UN Induction Training in the Mission
injure you as well. You must also evaluate whether
Area, and to be found in the SOP. UNMOs should
the patient’s security situation (fire, chemicals,
be prepared to pass a medical first-aid test
mines, or under attack/bombardment) should take
before finally being deployed to a base, team-site
preference over treatment.
or position. If you are not able to provide basic
life-saving aid to injured personnel, you may
Basic Principles of Emergency Reponse
be repatriated to your home country. In some
UN Missions, you will also be issued a first-aid • Assess and think. Remember security;
pamphlet or pocket medical card to be used as a
• Take the lead. You are the leader on the spot;
check-list in case of an injury or emergency.
• Secure the spot. Give necessary orders and
Standards coordinate with others. Determine if it possible to
move the patient to a more secure location;
All UNMOs should be trained according to their
• Give first-aid to yourself, your teammates, or
own national requirements and standards. The
others;

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 • Report. Communicate with the command • Exposure: Examine the entire body of patient
network to ask for medical support and casualty from head to toe. Keep patient warm, and watch
evacuation (CASEVAC); and for changes; and
• Continue. Keep-up the work at the spot until all • Additionally, be aware of bleeding or blood loss
are safe or evacuated. and signs of head injury. Protect the spinal cord
by avoiding movement of the neck and spine.
Immobilize fractures and suspected fractures.

Mechanism of Injury

Always try to understand the mechanism of injury

before you begin first aid.
• Spinal Injury – As a practical precaution, always
treat a patient as if he/she has a spinal injury that
may get worse until you feel reasonably sure that
this is not the case; and
• Head Injury – While preparing for applying first
aid, try to get an impression of the mental status
of the patient.

Bangladeshi Police Officer brings three injured persons to the Emergency After assessing the ABCDEs, consider these
First Aid Unit of the United Nations Organization Mission in the reponses:
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), after a rescue operation
in Kinshasa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). (UN Photo
• If there is no spontaneous respiration, prepare for
#407770 by Martine Perret, 22 March 2007) mouth-to-mouth respiration. Consult your mission
or national training center for hands-on training
in this method. Not all people are experienced in
Initial Injury Assessment and First Aid (ABCDE)
this, but, a good try is never wrong and may save
a life; and
Use the acronym ABCDE to help you remember
the critical signs of trauma to a casualty and to • If there is no pump action from the heart to create
help assess the severity or urgency of their needed circulation, start cardiac compressions. Consult
medical attention: your mission or national training center for hands-
on training in this method. Not all people are
• Airways: Are their airways open and functional?
experienced in this either, but a good try is never
There should be an exchange of air (inhale and
wrong and may save a life.
exhale). Do they have normal or accelerated
breath? Secure open airways;
If and when the patient has spontaneous respiration
• Bleeding: Apply pressure at points of major and circulation, continue to the following:
bleeding. A clean bandage is better than a dirty
• Report your findings and treatment in a short,
bandage; a dirty bandage is better than no
exact message to medical personnel to facilitate
bandage;
the correct priority being given for casualty
• Circulation: Is there pumping action from the evacuation (CASEVAC);
heart? Are there signs of loss of circulation (cold
• Apply pressure and bandages on minor bleeding;
limbs, discoloration, numbness)? Check for
adequate circulation, and position of the patient • Immobilize fractures; and
to facilitate optimal circulation;
• Evacuate. With due concern for the injuries,
• Disability: Observe the grade of consciousness the patient should be evacuated to a medical
for any changes; facility according to the priority given by medical
personnel.

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The Importance of Oxygen breathe (expand and deflate the chest), oxygen-
rich air does not reach the blood cells passing
All cells need oxygen to maintain normal function. through the lung tissue;
With insufficient oxygen supply, cells become
• If the patient is breathing, maintain open airways.
dysfunctional; without oxygen, cells die. Brain
Position the patient to facilitate the airways
cells die if they are without oxygen for three to five
to remain open and restrict the possibility of
minutes; muscle and skin cells can repair after
blocking through vomit or foreign bodies;
over an hour, but they may have lost some of their
function. Basic life support is aimed at maintaining • If the patient is not breathing, the pressure in
the circulation of oxygen in the body to facilitate the chest of a patient who is not breathing is
optimal function and prevent cell death. the same as the pressure in the air surrounding
the patient. You can get oxygen-rich air into
Oxygen for the cells is absorbed in the lungs the lungs of the patient by blowing air into them
when we breathe. When you inhale, the protein (creating a higher pressure). The elasticity of the
haemoglobin in the blood cells passing through the chest wall of the patient creates higher pressure
lung tissue absorbs oxygen from the air. When the in the chest by making the chest cavity smaller
heart contracts regularly, it creates pressure so that and oxygen-poor air flows out.
the blood cells can be circulated in the body to give
oxygen to all cells. Bleeding and Circulation
• Check for bleeding. A cut, a burst, or a wound
The basis for life is that oxygen reaches the lungs
creates a point of low resistance, and blood
in order to be absorbed by the blood cells passing
flows from the higher pressure of the circulation
through the lung tissue. For this to happen, there
to the lower pressure of areas not contained in
are three important considerations, all relating to
the circulatory system;
the basic facts above:
• If the patient is not visibly bleeding, remember
• There must be free passage between the outside
that a patient may bleed significantly without
air and the lungs;
blood being seen;
• The chest must expand (inhalation) for the area
• If the patient is visibly bleeding, bleeding is a flow
inside to get bigger and the pressure lower for
of liquid caused by differences in pressure. You
oxygen-rich air to flow from the outside to the
can counter the pressure from the circulation by
lungs and turn oxygen-poor blood cells into
applying pressure to the bleeding area. Treat by
oxygen-rich cells; and
applying sufficient pressure for the bleeding to
• The chest must deflate (exhalation) for the area stop. Pressure is more efficient if you apply it to
inside to get smaller and the pressure higher so the whole area around the bleeding. Be careful
that oxygen-poor air will flow from the lungs to when applying pressure to the neck so you do
the outside. not impair breathing;
• Check circulation. For blood cells to reach the
The first commandment of first aid is open airways.
lung tissue and get oxygen from oxygen-rich air,
• Empty the mouth from liquids and all things and for the oxygen-rich blood cells to reach the
that are not normal parts of the anatomy. This body cells, there must be a functional circulation.
includes: water (drowning), vomit, dentures, and For functional circulation, you need sufficient
food. Emptying the mouth may be unpleasant, circulating volume (blood) and an active pump
but it is necessary; (the heart);
• Tilt the head carefully backwards to make the • If there is adequate circulation, support the
airways more like a straight tube from the mouth circulation through positioning the patient by
to the neck. Lift the jaw upwards to ensure that lying them down. This decreases the resistance
the tongue does not close the tube; by gravity against pumping blood to the head
and facilitates circulation;
• Next, check for breathing. If the patient does not

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• If there is inadequate circulation, or a weak or no compressed, twisted, or “broken.”
peripheral pulse, support as above;
• Avoiding further damage to the spinal cord: If you
• Also, raise the legs. Gravity lets blood flow from suspect or find it difficult to exclude spinal injury,
the mass of muscle and skin in the legs, which the patient should be treated as if he/she has an
can maintain function longer without oxygen, injury that may get worse if not handled carefully.
to the important and vulnerable organs more
• Moving a patient that may have spinal injury:
centrally-located in the body; and
Try to keep the spinal column straight in all
• If there is no circulation or no central pulse, apply dimensions when moving the patient. Preferably,
cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to produce use a vacuum mattress or a backboard when
pumping action. moving the patient. If that is not available, roll
the patient carefully onto a stretcher. Maintain a
The Next Step slight pull on the head to keep the neck straight
when moving the patient, and apply a stiff neck
• After having checked and maintained the
collar.
basic functions of ABCDE (Airways, Breathing,
Circulation, Disability, and Exposure), you may • Testing spinal function: Ask the patient to
start considering the most important factors for carefully move his/her hands and feet, and ask
the present and future function of the body. if the patient feels gentle touch of the skin on
the hands and feet. Remember that function
Mental Status does not exclude injury that may get worse if the
patient is not properly handled.
• If the patient is awake: The patient probably does
not have major trauma to the head. Offer the
Fractures in Arms and Legs
patient a partnership in support of him;
• If they are confused or semi-conscious: The The history of the trauma may suggest the
patient may have a head injury or be affected possibility of a fracture. The extremity may show
by reduced circulation, and therefore is a higher an angle that is not on the other extremity, or
priority patient. Observe closely and support the there may be a swelling or bleeding to the skin,
patient; or suggesting that something has happened on the
inside. If the patient shows any sign of fractures,
• If they are unconscious or comatose: The
the extremity should be kept immobile with a splint.
patient probably has a head injury and is a high
The splint should include the nearest joint on both
priority patient. Observe closely and start ABC if
sides of the fracture. When in doubt, immobilize the
required.
possible fracture.
Motor Status
14.6 Basic Hygiene
It is vital that motor status is observed, and all
precaution is taken to avoid spinal injury. Most of the diseases that affect humans may
be avoided with a few simple steps. Until a few
• Injury to the spinal cord: The ability to move
decades ago, most military casualties in all
arms and legs, and feel heat, cold, vibration, and
conflicts were the result of the sum of harsh
pain in the arms and legs, depends on contact
conditions in the field, plus bad hygiene. Even
between the brain and the periphery through the
today, grave diseases may occur just due to
spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut, all areas of
unhygienic conditions. This is increased by the
the body supported by areas below the cut will
fact that most peacekeeping missions are in areas
no longer move or sense.
where there is very little infrastructure and where
• Protection of the spinal cord: The spinal cord climates conspire against hygiene. It is the duty of
is protected by the spinal column and may every UNMO and peacekeeper to care about his/
suffer injury if the spinal column is stretched, her personal hygiene and the hygiene of the living

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quarters and work areas in to prevent and avoid • Be prudent in the use of alcohol and refrain from
disease in the mission. using recreational drugs; and
• Abstain from unprotected sex to avoid sexually
Personal Hygiene
transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS.
Personal hygiene describes how you can influence
Food and Drink
the effect that physical factors in the environment
(outside your own body) can have on your health • When there are food and drink concerns, always
and physical well-being. Personal hygiene is your remember: peel it, boil it, cook it, or forget it.
own contribution to preventing disease, as well as Also, always know what you eat and drink;
your contribution to preventing disease that may
• Drink water only if bottled or from containers
affect others.
marked as drinking water. If no such water is
available, boil water for at least ten minutes or
Important Points for Maintaining Your
use water purification tablets, allowing enough
Individual Hygiene
time for the tablets to work;
• When washing, use clean water to avoid
• Never keep opened bottles of drink for more than
infecting any breaks in your skin;
six hours;
• Eat healthy and varied food, and exercise
• Meat must be cooked or fried through (sorry, no
regularly to maintain strength, stamina, and the
medium or rare);
normal “balance” of your body;
• Eggs must be fully coagulated before eating;
• Keep your hair short and wash it regularly;
• Precautions should also be taken in the mess
• Wash your skin daily with soap and water;
area;
• Protect yourself against insects and animals that
• Store only chocolate, candies, dry food, soft
may spread disease;
drinks, or tinned food outside the unit storage
• Cover and use repellent against mosquitoes after area;
sunset;
• If you store food, keep it in tightly closed
• Avoid touching birds’ nests and animal containers;
droppings;
• Eat only food produced in controlled and
• Inspect yourself for bite marks. Keep bite marks approved facilities;
clean and covered;
• Never store food that has been heated, and
• Brush your teeth regularly to avoid oral never eat reheated food; and
infections;
• To keep the number of rodents down, only eat at
• Clean your hands before eating, after toilet use, designated eating areas.
etc.;
Keep Personal Spaces Clean
• Wash your feet regularly. Inspect them for sores,
skin breaks, or signs of infection, and keep them • Use insect nets to cover doors and windows at
without socks and shoes for some time every all times;
day;
• Keep all surfaces (tables, floors, walls, and
• Air and dry boots regularly to avoid that they ceilings) clean by regularly washing them;
become breeding grounds for bacteria;
• Avoid food on and around beds so as not to
• Change underwear and socks regularly and attract rodents;
wash properly;
• In malaria areas, always cover your bed with a
• If possible, iron all clothes regularly to kill bugs, mosquito net;
insects, and bacteria;

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• Ventilate your quarters every day; • Respect the health of others, and do your best to
protect it;
• Regularly ventilate bedding in direct sunlight, as
this kills bugs and bacteria; and • Treat the environment with respect;
• Change and wash your bedding regularly. • Follow rules and given requirements;
• Be aware of hazards and other threats in your
Maintain Hygiene in Ablution Facilities
environment; and
• Use only designated ablution facilities for
• Attempt to recognize health and safety threats in
urination and defecation;
the area of operations.
• Keep ablutions clean and neat;
• Flush and clean the toilet bowl after use;
• Do not wash or dry clothes in facilities meant for
personal hygiene;
• Do not leave soap unless in special containers.
Old soap may become breeding grounds for
bacteria; and
• Wash, wash, and wash again.

Maintain the Mess and Communal Areas

• Keep all rooms clean, ventilated, and protected
against rodents and insects;
• Keep facilities and communal areas clean and
tidy at all times;
• Ensure proper disposal of leftover food;
• Keep eating utensils clean by washing them in
detergent and hot water after use.

Do Not Attract Animals and Insects that May

Spread Disease
• Keep the environment in and around your base
tidy (ensure waste control);
• Do not create breeding areas for disease-
carrying rodents or insects. Avoid creating pools
of stagnant water and drain puddles after rain;
• Ensure proper disposal of liquid and solid waste;
and
• Do not litter.

Conclusion

Above all, remember the following important points:

• Protect your health, and treat your body with
respect;

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End-of-Lesson Quiz

1. What are the minimum requirements

concerning Communications you should be
familiar with?

2. What is the normal scale of a Military Map,

and what is the contour intervals?

3. How do you orient a map in a North-South

direction?

4. Explain how you can make an UTM grid

reference down to an accuracy of 10 meters
without any technical support.

5. How many satellites needs to be “in the line

of sight” of your GPS in order to give you an
exact position?

6. What are the mandatory requirements

before you can drive an UN-vehicle?

7. Describe what you mean with a “Part-Time

4WD” system.

8. What are the requirements when you are

driving a UN Vehicle during darkness?

9. Explain what you mean with “a Night Vision

Device”?

10. Name the basis principles for First Aid.

11. Why is the United Nations concerned about

hygiene?

12. Mention at least five points that are

important concerning the hygiene in your
“Personal Space/Bunk Area”?

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ANSWER KEY mode on pavement, cement, asphalt or other hard,
sticky surfaces. They are designed to be engaged
1. As a minimum, UNMOs should be familiar with: only in specific situations when you need extra
traction and damage can occur if driven on hard
• SOP; surfaces. Some system allows the driver to manual
• Equipment; shift from 2WD to 4WD Hi without stopping first
under a certain speed limit, while others require
• UN call sign system; full stop before shifting. This system is a frequent
• Net orders; and system used by UN world-wide.

• Basic UN communications (VHF and HF 8. UNMOS should normally operate visible by

Radios, Satellite telephones, Hand-held Radios, waving UN flags and symbols. The same is the
Computers). situation concerning UN-vehicles which should
be visible when driving in darkness by using
2. In order to orient the map in a North-South head-lights and illumination of the UN-flag.
position, you should move the magnetic needle
in the Compass in a parallel position to the 9. A Night Vision Device (NVD) is an optical
North-South lines on the Map, and the RED TOP instrument that allows images to be produced
of the Magnetic Needle pointing to the top of the in levels of light approaching total darkness.
Map (reading text and figures in a normal way – They are most often used by the military and law
not up-side down). enforcement agencies, but are available to civilian
users.
3. Military topographic maps are normally
produced in scale 1:50 000 (1cm = 500mtrs) with 10. Initial Assessment – Start First Aid (ABCDE):
contour intervals of 20 meters.
• Airways: Are their airways open and functional?
4. By dividing the 1 x 1 km square in 10 x 10 There should be an exchange of air (inhale and
meter squares, you are able to do that. exhale). Do they have normal or accelerated
breath? Secure open airways;
5. Minimum 3 satellites. • Bleeding: Apply pressure at points of major
bleeding. A clean bandage is better than a dirty
6. You must pass an in-mission mandatory bandage; a dirty bandage is better than no
driving test (theoretical and practical). Once the bandage;
test is passed, you will be issued a special UN
Driving License for the type of vehicle which you • Circulation: Is there pumping action from the
will be driving as an UNMO. You are only allowed heart? Are there signs of loss of circulation (cold
to drive the type of UN vehicle that you are limbs, discoloration, numbness)? Check for
authorized for! adequate circulation, and position of the patient
to facilitate optimal circulation;
7. A Part-Time 4WD system can operate • Disability: Observe the grade of consciousness
on demand powers on all four wheels by for any changes;
synchronizing front and rear axles together via a
shift lever. Part-Time 4WD usually includes two Exposure: Examine the entire body of patient from
speed ranges; Hi and Lo (High and Low “reduction head to toe. Keep patient warm, and watch for
gear”). A Part-Time system has to be used in 2WD changes.

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11. UNMOS should normally operate visible
by waving UN flags and symbols. The same
is the situation concerning UN-vehicles which
should be visible when driving in darkness by
lighting-up the UN-flag.

12. Keep Personal Spaces Clean

• Use insect nets to cover doors and
windows at all times;
• Keep all surfaces (tables, floors, walls, and
ceilings) clean by regularly washing them;
• Avoid food on and around beds so as not to
attract rodents;
• In malaria areas, always cover your bed
with a mosquito net;
• Ventilate your quarters every day;
• Regularly ventilate bedding in direct
sunlight, as this kills bugs and bacteria; and
• Change and wash your bedding regularly.

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Appendix A: Sources and Additional References

United Nations References

• The United Nations (UN) Charter; 26 June 1945 with later amendments
• UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and Department of Field Support (DFS):
• Peacekeeping Operations – Principles and Guidelines (“Capstone Doctrine”); January 2008

UN DPKO/DFS:
• UN Military Experts on Mission (UNMEM) – Manual for Selection, Deployment, Rotation, Extension,
Transfer and Repatriation of UNMEM in UN Peacekeeping Operations (UN PKOs) ; 23 April 2012 – review
date December 2012
• UN Peacekeeping PDT Standards, Specialized Training Material for Staff Officers; 1st edition 2011
• UN Peacekeeping PDT Standards, Specialized Training Material for Military Experts on Mission; 1st
edition 2010
• Guidelines – Roles and Training Standards for UN Military Experts on Missions; 01 March 2009 – review
date 01 March 2011
• Directive for the Head of the Military Component in a Peacekeeping Operation; 27 June 2008
• Policy Directive – Joint Operations Centres and Joint Mission Analysis Centres; 01 July 2006 – review
date 01 June 2008
• Policy on Authority, Command and Control in UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO); 15 February 2008
• Policy Directive on JOCs and JMACs; 1 July 2006
• Handbook on UN Multidimensional Peacekeeping Operations; December 2003
• UN Military Observers Handbook; 19 October 2003
• UN/CARE Landmine and UXO Safety Handbook; 2000

UN Security Council Resolutions (UNSCRs):

• UNSCR 1325 on Women and Peace and Security (Gender); 31 October 2000
• UNSCR 1379 (2001), UNSCR 1314 (2000) and UNSCR 1261 (1999) on Child Protection in Armed Conflict

UN – Internet:
• www.un.org/en/
• www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
• www.unddr.org
• www.unmultimedia.org/
• www.peacekeepingresourcehub.unlb.org/
• www.un-documents.net
• www.unhcr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf

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Non-UN References

Peace Support Training Centre of Canada:

• Peace Support Operations (PSO) Field Book – Version 8; 2008

Nordic Coordinated Arrangement for Military Peace Support:

• PSO Tactical Manual – Volume I and II; 2007

Norwegian Armed Forces Medical Services:

• Pamphlet – Basic First Aid; 2004 with up-dates

Norwegian Defence International Centre (NODEFIC):

• Handbook for Norwegian UN Military Observers; 2003

Lt. Colonel Egil Nordli (NOR Army):

• Personal documents and notes; 2002-2012

Internet:
• www.princeton.edu
• www.maptools.com

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Appendix B: Acronyms

AC Area Coordinator

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

AP Anti Personnel (Mines)

BBIED Body Born Improvised Explosive Device

CA Civil Affairs

CMS Chief Mission Support

CIMIC Civil-Military Coordination

CIS Critical Incident Stress

CISS Chief of Integrated Support Services

CMO Chief Military Observer

CMOC Civil-Military Operations Centre

COE Contingent-Owned Equipment

CRC Convention on the Rights of Children

CSO Chief Security Officer

CTO Compensatory Time Off

DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration

DMS Director Mission Support

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council

EOD Explosive Ordnance Devices

FC Force Commander

FPU Formed Police Unit(s)

GA General Assembly

GPS Global Positioning System

HC Humanitarian Coordinator

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HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HOM Head of Mission

HOMC Head of Military Component

ICC International Criminal Court

ICJ International Court of Justice

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

IDP Internally Displaced Persons

IED Improvised Explosive Device

IHL International Humanitarian Law

IRC International Red Cross

ITS Integrated Training Service

JLOC Joint Logistics Operations Centre

JMAC Joint Mission Analysis Centre

JOC Joint Operations Centre

LOAC Law of Armed Conflict

MAC Mine Action Centre

MEDEVAC Medical Evacuation

MONUC United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MPIO Military Public Information Officer

MSA Meal and Subsistence Allowance

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NVD Night Vision Device

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

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PIO Public Information Office(r)

PKF Peacekeeping Forces

PKO Peacekeeping Operation

PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

PX Post Exchange

QIP Quick Impact Project

ROE Rules of Engagement

SC Security Council

SMT Senior Management Team

SOFA Status of Forces Agreement

SOMA Status of Mission Agreement

SOP Standard Operating Procedures

SRSG Special Representative to the Secretary-General

STI Sexually Transmitted Infections

TCC Troop-Contributing Country

TOD Tour of Duty

UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children

UNCT United Nations Country Team

UNDOF UN Disengagement Observers Force

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNDPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations

UNEF I UN Emergency Force I

UNEF II UN Emergency Force II

UNGASS United Nations General Assembly Special Session

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UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNHOC United Nations Humanitarian Operations Centre

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon

UNLB United Nations Logistics Base

UNMAS United Nations Mine Action Service

UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea

UNMEM United Nations Military Expert(s) on Mission

UNMO United Nations Military Observer(s)

UNMOGIP UN Military Observers Group in India and Pakistan

UNOGIL UN Observation Group in Lebanon

UNPOL UN Police

UNPKO United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

UNSAS United Nations Standby Arrangement System

UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution

UNSF UN Security Force in New Guinea

UNSECOORD United Nations Security Coordinator

UNSMIS UN Supervision Mission in Syria

UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor

UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organization

UXO Unexploded Ordnance

VBIED Vehicle Born Improvised Explosive Device

WHO World Health Organization

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Appendix C: International Phonetic Alphabet and Digits

Introduction

Recalling Lesson 14; preparations before deployment regarding radio communications skills is a vital aspect
for any UN Military Observers. In the UN Mission Area, as a minimum, you should be familiar with:
• Equipment;
• UN call sign system;
• Net orders; and
• Basic UN communications.

However, you will be required to communicate in English as the common language for UNMOs, and you
must also know:
• The International Phonetic Alphabet;
• Basic radio communication procedures;
• The use of procedural words, such as “wait out, read back – I read back, correction, speak slower”, etc.,
and;
• Plain procedures, such as “long message, roger so far – roger send over”, etc.

Phonetics and Numbers

The following International Phonetic Alphabet shall be used:

A ALFA K KILO U UNIFORM

B BRAVO L LIMA V VICTOR

C CHARLIE M MIKE W WHISKEY

D DELTA N NOVEMBER X XRAY

E ECHO O OSCAR Y YANKEE

F FOXTROT P PAPA Z ZULU

G GOLF Q QUEBEC

H HOTEL R ROMEO

I INDIA S SIERRA

J JULIET T TANGO

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In general, numbers are transmitted digit by digit, except that multiples of hundreds and thousands are
spoken as shown in the examples below.

0 ZERO

1 WUN

2 TOO

3 THU-RRE

4 FO-WER

5 FI-YIV

6 SIX

7 SEVEN

8 ATE

9 NINER

Examples:

12 TWELVE

500 FI-YIV HUNDRED

44 FO-WER FO-WER

7000 SEVEN THOUSAND

90 NINER ZERO

16000 WUN SIX THOUSAND

136 WUN THUH-REE SIX

1478 WUN FO-WER SEVEN ATE

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Appendix D: Procedure Words (PROWORDS)

The following list contains the most common prowords (except precedence prowords) to be used in radio
communication and their meanings:

PROWORD Meaning

ACKNOWLEDGE! Confirm that you have received my message and will comply
(WILCO).
AFFIRMATIVE Yes/Correct

NEGATIVE No/Incorrect

ALL AFTER….. Everything that you (I) transmitted after...(Keyword)

ALL BEFORE….. Everything that you (I) transmitted before...(Keyword)

CORRECT (THAT IS CORRECT) What you have transmitted is correct, you are correct

CORRECTION An error has been made in this transmission. It will continue with the
last word (group) correctly transmitted.
An error has been made in this transmission. The correct version
is... That which follows is a corrected version in answer to your
request for verification.
WRONG Your last transmission was incorrect. The correct version is...

DISREGARD THIS This transmission is an error. Disregard it (This proword shall not
TRANSMISSION – OUT be used to cancel any message that has been already completely
transmitted and for which receipt or acknowledgement has been
received).

DO NOT ANSWER – OUT Station(s) called are not to answer this call, acknowledge this
message, or otherwise to transmit in connection with this
transmission.
SILENCE-SILENCE-SILENCE Cease all transmissions on this net immediately. Silence will be
maintained until lifted.
SILENCE LIFTED Silence is lifted. The net is free for traffic.

END OF MESSAGE – OVER This concludes the message just transmitted (and the message
(OUT) instructions pertaining to a formal message).
END OF TEXT The textual part of a formal message ends. Stand by for the
message instructions immediately following.
FETCH (Title/name) I wish to speak on the radio to that person.

(Title/name) SPEAKING Requested person is now using the radio.

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PROWORD Meaning

ROGER I have received your message, understand it, and will comply (to be
used only by the addressee). ROGER and WILCO are never used
together.
ROGER SO FAR? Have you received this part of my message satisfactorily?

WILCO I have received your last transmission satisfactorily (will comply).

UNKNOWN STATION The identity of the station calling or with whom I am attempting to
establish communication is unknown.
VERIFY Verify entire message (or portion indicated) with the originator and
send correct version. To be used only at discretion of or by the
addressee to which the questioned message was directed.
WAIT – OUT I must pause for a few seconds.

VERIFY – WAIT (WAIT – WAIT) I am in contact with the station you are calling. I can act as a relay
station.
WAIT-WAIT I must pause longer than some seconds and will call again when
ready.
WORD AFTER... The word of the message to which I have referenced is that which
follows...
WORD BEFORE... The word of the message to which I have referenced is that which
proceeds...
WORDS TWICE Communication is difficult. Transmit each phrase (group) twice. This
proword can be used as an order, request, or as information.

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U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
Report of Reception

The following phrases are to be used when initiating and answering queries concerning signal
strength and readability.
• RADIO CHECK – What is my signal strength and readability, how do you read me?
• YOU ARE – Your signal strength and readability is as (I READ YOU) follows. . .

Reports of Signal Strength

• LOUD – Your signal is strong.
• GOOD – Your signal is good.
• WEAK – I can hear you only with difficulty.
• VERY WEAK – I can hear you only with great difficulty.
• NOTHING HEARD – I cannot hear you at all.

Reports of Signal Readability

• CLEAR – Excellent quality.
• READABLE – Good quality. No difficulties in reading you.
• DISTORTED – I have troubles in reading you.
• WITH – I have troubles in reading you due to. . .
• INTERFERENCE – Interference.
• NOT READABLE – I can hear that you transmit but I cannot read you at all.

Examples:
• 52 THIS IS 11 – RADIO CHECK – OVER
• THIS IS 52 – YOU ARE LOUG AND CLEAR – OVER
• THIS IS 11 – YOU ARE LOUG AND CLEAR AS WELL – OUT.

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 Appendix A-E and Back Matter / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers
Appendix E: Reports
APPENDIX C: REPORTS

Principles of Reports:

• Only accurate and checked statements of facts should be reported;

• Unclear observations should be cross-checked;
• Make sure the contents are clear and concise, avoiding ambiguity; and
• Include a count (such as of planes, vehicles, and the number of people).

Types of Reports: The types of reports vary; however, they will be based on Mission
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs):

• Activity forecasts, vehicle movement;

• Warning reports;
• Situation reports (SITREP) on:
- Ground incursion;
- Shooting;
- Firing close to Observation Post (OP);
- Position report; and
- Air activity report.

Requests and Reports

Types of Requests:

• MEDEVAC/CASEVAC requests; and

• Supply requests.

Contents of Reports; at a minimum, all reports should include:

• What report was sent, name, and logging report:

Date Time Type Number

• Originator and relation of report:

Name of Observation Post, Position, Reference/Previous Reports

Command Post/HQ, Patrol

• Time of incident (when):

Beginning End Progress

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Appendix A-E and Back Matter / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

• Identification and description of incident (who and what):

Originator of Incident Numbers Objects

• Location and action (where was what observed):

Grid/Map Reference Observation of Incident

• Action taken by United Nations:

Investigation Reinforcement Information to Others

• Additional information consisting of anything that might be helpful for

further assessments.

OPERATIONAL REPORTS

All Peacekeeping missions are required to provide UN Headquarters with Daily

Situation Reports (SITREP). SITREPs are not intended to replace the normal, detailed
communications between the Missions and Headquarters on specific matters. The
daily SITREP should cover the period from midnight to midnight local-time.

Before you start working, refer to the Mission Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).

HIGHLIGHTS
The Highlights cover the major events or trends of the reporting period. This
should include any new political, military, or humanitarian developments and any major
casualties, plus any significant developments that could impact the safety and security of
UN personnel. Further details would be provided in topic paragraphs (below).

Note: The HIGHLIGHT paragraph is not the same as the GENERAL SITUATION.

POLITICAL

o Any governmental or political events directly affecting the UN Mission or the

Mission’s Mandate. Meetings: In-country, international. Proposed, actual,
dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.

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 Elections: Proposed, actual, dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.

 Negotiations: Proposed, actual, dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.

 Internal political parties: Formation, alliances, change of leadership, change of

direction. Setting up of councils, local government. Any political decisions which
affects the Mission.

MILITARY

o Any military events of significance during the reporting period: Cease-fire

agreements, military action (both by UN and Factional Forces), aid to the
civil powers, use of new weapons, escalation of violence, changes in
operating procedures, new alliances.

 UN Forces: Significant troop movements. Formation of new sector or regional

commands and units. Changes to mission deployment or withdrawal of national
contingents. Relocation of national contingents.

 Factional Forces: Significant troop movement or redeployment. New

commanders. Changes to weapons or formations.

 Military assessments.

RESTRICTION ON UN MOVEMENT / UN FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT (FOM)

 Status of routes – which routes are open or closed. Blocking, either

natural or man-made roadblocks, and who is responsible for the block.

HUMANITARIAN

 Significant developments. Problems encountered in provision and

support of aid distribution: road, rail, air, sea.

 Refugees: Numbers, locations, movement, housing, feeding, or health

problems.

 Infrastructure: Hospitals, roads, power and water supplies, schools. UN

aid in providing or repairing infrastructure.

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Appendix A-E and Back Matter / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

CIVILIAN AFFAIRS

 Important developments affecting electoral activity, UN Police operations,

mine-clearing, or UN agencies in areas of responsibility (could include
NGOs if applicable), where they impact on mission activities, if not covered
elsewhere. Coverage of other organisations’ activities, when applicable, to
enhance the ability of managers at headquarters to liaise at this level on
behalf of the mission concerned (not to include wider governmental or
political activities which will go into the political section of the report).

SECURITY AND SAFETY OF PERSONNEL

 Any information noted or activity observed that affects, or could affect, the
safety of UN personnel. Targeting or threats against UN personnel,
kidnapping, extortion, murder.

CASUALTIES

 Death and injuries. Separate military, civilian police, and civilian, and
classify as to whether it was from hostile action, accident, natural causes,
i.e., heart attack, etc.

LOGISTICS

 Major logistic activities or problems affecting operations: equipment,

accommodation, transport (both strategic and tactical), food, power, fuel,
money.

COMMENTS

Comments by the person in charge (Special Representative to the Secretary-

General, Force Commander, Military Observers, or Sector Commander).

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Appendix A-E / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

Appendix F: Report Writing Style Guide

APPENDIX D: REPORT WRITING STYLE GUIDE

This guide is intended to aid Staff Officers and Duty Officers in the writing and
editing of reports .

Reference: UN Editorial Manual (www.dd.dgacm.org/editorialmanual) and UN

Correspondence Manual (http://archive.unu.edu/hq/library/resource/UN-
correspondence-manual.pdf). The Oxford English Dictionary.

Abbreviations

Unusual abbreviations or acronyms should be spelled out fully the first time that
they are used in a document.

Use USA, not US, as an adjective describing the United States. This is because reports
are sometimes telexed in uppercase and the noun “us” can be confused with the
adjective “US” in uppercase.

Abbreviations for reports should be in uppercase, i.e., NOTICAS, SITREP, SINCREP.

Should you come across any abbreviations which are unknown, check back with the
originator and follow the rule mentioned above when you report.

Capitalisation

Capitalisation of words in English is never easy. Proper names are almost

always capitalised, along with titles when they are attached to names. Example:
President C……

The titles of organisations are also capitalised. Example: ….the Royal Cambodian
Armed Forces.

But a generic description of something is rarely capitalised. Example: The presidents

of the parties will meet tomorrow.

Note that when a title is used to signify a specific individual, it should be capitalised.
Example: President J…is visiting the UN. The President will speak on 22 March.

Government is almost always capitalised, even when used generally.

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Appendix A-E / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

Dates

Dates should follow the format: Day, Month, Year. Example: 28 February 2014.

To avoid confusion, do not use “today” or “yesterday,” use dates instead. All dates
should be written in full, i.e., 02 November.

When in doubt, begin the report statement with the date of the event. Example: On
13 December…..

One need not insert the year unless the event is related to other years. Example:
All Norwegian soldiers will depart by 31 March 2014.

Format

Reports may carry a header and footer with a UN Security Classification.

Maps or diagrams used to illustrate a particular point are to be included in the report, if
technical means for the layout and the communication of the report are available.

When writing the reports, take care to leave the correct spaces after punctuation marks
to make the document easier to read: After a full stop (.) or colon (:) leave two spaces.
After a comma (,) or semi colon (;) leave one space.

Grammar

Two equal phrases in one sentence require a semi colon (;). Example: They fired;
we fired back. The three-word rule: Any prepositional phrase at the beginning of a
sentence with three or more words in it, i.e., “In the winter” must have a comma after it.

Adverbs, such as “reportedly” or “recently,” should come close to the verb to which they
relate. They should rarely begin a sentence.

“Media” is a plural noun and is, therefore, followed by the plural form of a verb when it
is used as a subject. Example: The media report that…..

When describing armed forces, avoid using just the title of the forces or unit. Write: “The
NPFL attacked a village” or “NPFL forces attacked a village.”

Media

Media reports should be accredited at the end of the sentence or paragraph with
the source in parentheses, i.e., (AFP), (BBC) or (REUTER), etc.

When using media reports, always indicated the source, i.e., “The media report that…”
If it is not clear how reliable the media report may be, use phrases such as “UNITAR-
controlled media courses claim that….”

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Appendix A-E / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

Names and Places

Always use the person’s title or Mr. or Ms. Example: Mr. Cle…., Secretary-
General ….. etc.

As a general rule, the United Nations says “the Government of Canada.”

(Note t h e capitalisation.) This avoids confusion since there can be many governments
at various levels in a country. If you are in doubt whether a particular government
is recognised by the United Nations, check the list of “Permanent Mission to the United
Nations.” Only recognised governments can have representatives or observers at the
UN.

If a place or region is not internationally recognised, put the name in quotation marks
when describing it. Example: “ABKHAZIA” or the “ABKHAZIAN defence minister.”

All place names should be typed in capital letters, i.e., UTZLA, ADWA, etc.

When a geographical expression is part of a name, it should be capitalised.

Examples: Sector East, State of California, New York City.

When referring to a place name that is not on the map, indicate its distance and
direction from a marked place name.

Numbers

The numbers from one to ten are usually spelled out in full, i.e., seven. Those
above ten are usually expressed as figures, i.e., 42. But there are exceptions, i.e.,
“between seven and eleven,” or “the 4th Brigade,” or “07 November.”

Avoid having a number which is expressed as a figure as the first word in a sentence.
Example: Eight soldiers were observed.

Sequencing

If incidents are referred to by date, ensure that they are put down in the correct
sequence, i.e., “On 21 December, a meeting took place between…..On 23 December,
three vehicles….”

Spelling

Be aware that the UN uses International English (British spelling as described

in the Concise Oxford Dictionary).

Common spelling problems:

• The words “cease-fire” and “machine-gun” are always hyphenated when used as a
noun.
• “Middle East” is not hyphenated.
• The expression “small arms” is always plural and consists of two words.
• The word “logistics” as a noun is always plural.
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Appendix A-E / POTI UN Military Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

• The word “battalion” has two “t’s” and one “l” in English.
• “It’s” is an abbreviation in English for “it is.” The possessive “its” has no
apostrophe.
• Secretary-General is always hyphenated and written in full.

Style

Refer to the UN Correspondence Manual and the UN Editorial Manual when in

doubt as to matters of style, abbreviation or format.

OTHER REPORTS

The number of different reports the operational UNMOs need to be familiar with
depends to a great extent on the mandate of the mission and the situation on the
ground.

The formats needed are in the computers of the mission. But when UNMOs are
working in areas where electricity is not always 100% available, some handwritten
documents may also be needed.

The below-mentioned examples should not be considered a comprehensive selection of

report forms. You may also find minor deviations in the content of the reports
depending on the mission in question. Therefore, review the Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPs) for the actual mission before you start reporting.

Warning Report (WARNREP)

The purpose of a Warning Report is to warn other UN units, patrols, and

Observation Posts (OP) to give them time to take appropriate action. It is used when a
serious or potentially serious violation of a cease-fire agreement is occurring, is about
to occur, or has occurred. A Warning Report should be followed up as soon as
possible by the appropriate operational report.

Although there is no formal format for a Warning Report, the following information on the
incident/activity should be included:
• To (call sign)
• From (call sign)
• WHEN it started (time group) if known
• WHAT is happening
• WHERE it takes place
• WHO are involved (if they cannot be identified, state: unidentified)
• WHAT ACTION is being taken by the reporting individual
• [The appropriate incident/activity] report to follow in ….minutes.

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Situation Report (SITREP) / Special Incident Report (SINCREP)

The purpose of a SITREP/SINCREP is to report any incident/activity which could

lead to a breach of a cease-fire agreement or any other incident/activity which is not
covered by any other report.
Aircraft Activity Report (AIRREP)

The purpose of the AIRREP is to report the flying and/or the attack by one or
several aircraft. A WARNREP has to be sent first to ensure that everyone’s attention is
drawn to the sky.

Shooting Report (SHOOTREP)

The purpose of a SHOOTREP is to report any firing of weapons which could be

considered a violation of a cease-fire agreement, or to report on warring factions’
activities.

All such firing, with any type of ammunition (including flares, illumination and smoke) that
is seen and heard, heard only, or if the origin of the fire and the impact area of the
direction to the impact area could be determined, should be reported.

NOTE: The basis for a SHOOTREP is that at least two of the following facts are
known: Origin, Direction, or Impact Area. Do not give any damage assessment of the
impact area.

Firing Close to OP Report (FIREREP)

The purpose of a Firing Close to Observation Post (OP) Report is to report all
firing of weapons or detonation of any device which:

Passes within 10 metres of UN personnel, vehicles, or equipment; Impacts within a UN

compound; Causes casualties to UN personnel; Causes damage within a UN compound;
or Otherwise endangers the safety of UN personnel.

A Warning Report should be sent first. The report has the same format at the
SHOOTREP and the same information, but the following should also be included:
• Use map references at the closest point at which the round passed UN personnel;
• State the point of the OP/Compound at which the rounds/fragments impacted;
• Description of the action taken by the OP/Position/Patrol, such as Investigation,
Ready Reaction Group requested, Liaison Officer informed, Medical Section
informed (CASEVAC); and
• Any information of casualties including damage caused which may be helpful
in the evaluation of the report.

DO NOT SHOW ANY WRITTEN OPERATIONAL REPORT TO NON-UN

PERSONNEL,
M E T H O D S AAND
N D TMAKE
E C H NSURE
I Q U E YOUR
S F O R OPERATIONAL
S E R V I N G O N REPORT
A P E A C HAS
E K E EAP“LIMITED
ING MISSION AS A
U N M I L I
DISTRIBUTION”T A R Y O B S E R V E R
Appendix G:UN Military
Appendix A-E / POTI Personnel Issues
Expert on Mission Course – UN Military Observers

APPENDIX E: PERSONNEL ISSUES

Peacekeepers and UNMOs are individuals. The mandate unites them in their
purpose and mission. Each UNMO and peacekeeper is subject to certain
regulations that come with being a member of a United Nations peacekeeping
operation. It is important that each individual clearly knows what the organisation
expects from him/her, as well as what he/she may expect from the UN regarding
personnel issues and policies. This appendix aims to prepare the peacekeeper to
understand and abide by the United Nations regulations regarding personnel issues
and policies.

UN Stand-By Arrangement System (UNSAS)

In 1993, the UN Secretary-General established the United Nations Stand-By

Forces Planning Team. This group developed the UN Stand-By Arrangement System
(UNSAS). The system was devised to increase the speed at which the United Nations
could react to immediate crises and to better run on-going peacekeeping operations.
UNSAS is used to maintain a database of personnel, equipment, and resources,
which countries maintain at home for possible deployment as a whole or in parts
anywhere in the world. After asking each Member State to list resources that could be
provided in the initial stages of a peacekeeping operation, the information are entered
into a database system.

There are four Levels of Commitment by Member States to UNSAS:

• Provision of a list of capabilities describing what kind of resources may be

made available. This includes what kind of capabilities (tasks that can be
performed), number of personnel, response time, and restrictions, if any.

• Provision of more detailed information on contributions by completing Planning

Data Sheet(s). The Planning Data Sheet is a detailed list describing the
contribution, including a list of major equipment, the level of self-
sufficiency, transportation data, the organisation of the units, and data on
individuals. Provision of the Planning Data Sheet is a key level in the
Secretariat's ability to plan.

• A general Memorandum of Understanding on Stand-By Arrangements with the

United Nations. An MOU specifies resources provided, response times, and
conditions for employment. Also attached to the MOUs are technical data or
requirements regarding contributions. MOUs are the formal documents agreed
by the United Nations.

• A specific MOU that contains agreement on contingent-owned equipment. This

will not change significantly when the contribution is called out. This level
can only be completed after detailed negotiations with the Member State.

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Possible Roles

 To provide a UN presence in the crisis area immediately after the Security

Council has decided it should be involved.

 T
o prevent violence from escalating.

 To assist, monitor, and otherwise facilitate a cease-fire.

 To provide the emergency framework for UN efforts to resolve the conflict

and commence negotiations.

 To secure a base, communications, and airfield for a subsequent UN force.

 To provide safe areas for persons and groups whose lives are threatened by
the conflict. To secure humanitarian relief operations.

 To assess the situation and provide first-hand information for the Security
Council so that an informed decision can be made on the utility and
feasibility of further UN involvement.

Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: UN Experts on Mission/UN Military

Observers

Nationality. The United Nations Military Observer must be a citizen of the Member State
he/she is representing.

Professional Status. The United Nations Military Observer must be a serving

member of the Member State’s defence forces. This excludes retired
military/defence officers. A military officer nominated as a United Nations Military
Observer should be currently working on a full- time military duty with a minimum of five
years of regular military service as an officer.

Rank. Should be in the rank of Captain and/or Major. However, depending upon the
nature of the task, at times, senior officers such as Lieutenant Colonels and Colonels
may also be assigned as United Nations Military Observers. The Chief Military
Observer is generally a Brigadier or Major General. If an officer arrives in the mission
area with a higher rank than requested, or is promoted during his tour of duty, the United
Nations will not be obliged to take the higher rank into consideration in determining the
officer's assignments.

Age. Member States must not deploy United Nations Military Observers who are less
than 25 years of age. As a rule, a United Nations Military Observer should not be
over 55 years old. The Department of Peacekeeping Operations, if necessitated by
special requirements of the mission, will indicate any change to the above-mentioned
restrictions.

Mental and Physical Health. Should be in excellent physical condition and must
meet the established United Nations medical criteria outlined in the Medical Support
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Manual for United Nations Field Operations. They may have to live and work in
conditions of hardship and physical danger.

Professional Competencies and Experience. The desired professional

competencies and expertise of United Nations Military Observers are mentioned in
mission-specific guidelines or in the request initiated by United Nations Headquarters.
However, the officers must have essential competencies and expertise, which will
enhance their performance on the ground and reduce the requirement of additional
training in the mission area.

The Integrated Training Service (TES) of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations

has issued separate training guidelines for United Nations Military Observers. Some
necessary professional competencies that considered essential for United Nations
Military Observers are mentioned below:
• Previous field/troop unit experience in his/her national armed forces;
• Knowledge of infantry organisations (force structure, equipment, and
capabilities) and operations at company and battalion level;
• Experience or training in light and medium weapons, support equipment, and
common weapon, vehicle, aircraft, helicopter, and ship identification;
• Proficiency in map reading, land navigation (both ground and vehicle), and use
of global positioning systems;
• Use of tactical and basic commercial communications equipment and approved
UN radio procedure;
• Knowledge of basic skills in dismount and vehicle patrolling;
• Knowledge of basic negotiation, mediation and conflict resolution skills, and
basic interviewing techniques;
• Knowledge of basic first aid and stress management techniques;
• Ability to speak, read, and write the working language of the specific United
Nations Peacekeeping Operation and other languages, if specifically described.
Officers are required to write or type their own reports and to communicate on
voice radio sets; and
• Being experienced vehicle drivers, capable of supervising the daily maintenance
of light military vehicles and trained in employing self-recovery techniques. United
Nations Military Observers should have at least two years of recent experience
in driving and be in possession of a national, military, or international driving
license. Many of the duties will involve driving four-wheel drive vehicles over
rough terrain.

Additional Qualifications. The following qualifications are desirable: combat-

experience or combat troop-training experience, in order to properly evaluate or analyse
situations that may confront United Nations Military Observers in the cause of carrying
out their duties and staff training or staff experience; and troop-experience,
operations, map reading, operation of materiel, communications, patrolling,
negotiation, first aid, stress management, language, and driving.

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Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: UN Police

Nationality. Citizen of the country he/she represents.

Professional Status. The UN Police officer must be a serving member of his/her

national police. In special cases, authorised by the General Assembly, retired
members may participate as UN Police in UNPKOs.

Personal Qualities. The observer must realise that he will be performing his
duties in an environment foreign to that of his home nation, usually
encumbered by difficult living conditions, in high stress situations, and often in a
language that is not necessarily his mother tongue. As representatives of the UN and
his home country, the individual nominated as an observer must be carefully selected to
ensure that he is capable of performing the tasks required of him, and that his actions
and overall presentation will reflect favourably upon the UN and his home nation.
Accordingly, the policemen selected must be physically fit, of sound mental character,
mature in attitude and outlook, and possess the appropriate career qualifications for the
mission.

Physical Fitness. Observers must operate at peak efficiency for prolonged periods;
accordingly, policemen selected for observer duties are to be in as good health and
physical condition as possible. The UN Police observer's duties will often be to patrol
on foot, or by four-wheel drive vehicle, sometimes for several days, during which time
he will be dependent upon the local infrastructure for support (food, accommodation,
medical services, etc.). Therefore, he must be able to cope with the numerous physical
demands this type of life-style imposes. It is imperative that that the policeman selected:
• Is in excellent health and physical condition;
• Has a high level of physical endurance and stamina; and
• Does not suffer from any allergies or other medical conditions which may be
difficult to treat in areas with limited medical facilities.

Mental Fitness. Mental fitness is equally as important as physical fitness. The

policeman selected to be an observer must possess a strong character, be of a well-
balanced personality, and be of good mental health. He must be free of neurotic or
other psychological problems, and it is imperative that he is able to operate in conditions
of extreme stress and physical danger.

In many circumstances his actions and words will mean the difference between success
and failure. Thus, he must be scrupulously honest, loyal, brave, and professional. The
effective observer will display the following personality traits:
• Good judgment, supported by a common-sense approach to problem-solving;
• Possess an objective attitude, displaying tact and impartiality;
• Possess a polite demeanour, combined with a firm but flexible and honest
approach;
• Demonstrate considerable self-discipline and patience;
• Posses a friendly, open approach to other nationalities, and have a ready sense of
humour;

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• Possess an ability to influence others, engendered in imaginativeness and

persuasiveness; and
• Demonstrate credibility in leadership.

Maturity. The individual selected for observer duty should be well-trained and
experienced, and accordingly, be of the highest professional calibre. He would
preferably be of the equivalent rank to a Captain or Major and would satisfy the following
selection criteria:
• Be representative of his national background; Be competent in the mission
language (usually English, although French and Spanish are common);
• Be comfortable in operational and social environments both of the contributing
countries' policeman and the parties in conflict;
• Have the appropriate operational skills necessary to perform the duties
of the appointment for which he is selected;
• Have the mental capability to enable him to understand the organisation and
functional arrangements of the parties in conflict; and
• Be capable of conducting analytical investigations into alleged incidents,
and of compiling and submitting factual and impartial recommendations.

Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: Military Contingents

National military contingents are selected by their national authorities to deliver

the capabilities required by the UN. Any number of capabilities, and so units, could
be required, including most often infantry, engineers, aviation, logistic and medical units.

The agreed troop figure will be set out in the Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) between the Troop-Contributing Country (TCC) and the UN. This MOU will
also set out the agreed equipment arrangements – whether it is national or UN-provided
equipment – and the logistic sustainment arrangements (for fuel, rations, etc).

Although members of national contingents are not subject to the same initial
selection scrutiny as are UNMOs and UNPOL, they are subject to the same Code of
Conduct requiring exemplary behaviour throughout their tours.

Conditions of Service

Tour of Duty (TOD). Military Observers in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

have a TOD of one year or up to the end of the mission's mandate, whichever is earlier.
Repatriation on completion of this tour of duty will be at the United Nations’ expense.
Any rotation undertaken during an authorised 12-month mandate period will be at the
contributing country's expense. However, assignments may be extended, subject to the
recommendation by the Head of Mission and the approval of the Secretary-General
and the governments concerned. Any exception to this rule will be mentioned in the
United Nations request to the Member States. The same basic concepts are applied for
the UN Police; the extension may be granted by the UN Police Commissioner. The
Military Units normally rotate every six months. Some specialists remain in the mission
for up to one year. For military units, the rotation policy is a national responsibility
coordinated with the UN.
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Leave and Compensatory Time Off (CTO). In addition to the normal 2.5 days that each
member of the United Nations is granted, compensatory time off is granted to United
Nations Military Observers and UNPOL to provide them with the opportunities for rest
after a particularly demanding period of continuous service. Compensatory time off
shall be authorised by the Force Commander or the Chief Military Observer and is
subject to operational requirements and exigencies of the service. Compensatory time
off would normally apply only in those missions and those locations and functions in
which a continuous and active duty for UNMOs and UN Police is an essential
requirement, i.e., in isolated locations, patrol duties, observation posts, law
enforcement etc., which do not allow for a regular workweek with scheduled days off. It
is granted on a pro-rata basis: for every five days of continuous duty/service, one
compensatory time-off day is earned. For periods of less than five days, compensatory
time off is earned in fractions (x 0.2), which can be accumulated to make a whole day.
A maximum of 56 compensatory time-off days may be granted in a one-year period,
and no more than 12 compensatory time-off days may be taken at any one time.
Compensatory time off can only be granted and taken when the exigencies of the
service so permit.

Jurisdiction

The matter of jurisdiction is provided for in the UN Charter and the Status of
Forces Agreement - SOFA (Chapter VI, - Para. 24, 27, and 40-50). In addition to the
above provisions, jurisdiction of UN personnel in the mission areas will be decided by
the HOM in liaison with, if necessary, the local authorities in the host country. For acts
of misconduct that are considered to be outside official UN duties, the respective nation
of the military person will apply the host country’s civil jurisdiction process only for the
purpose of investigation and implementation of appropriate judicial action back in the
home country. Criminal or serious misconduct cases, however, will be dealt with by the
host country’s judicial system as appropriate and co- coordinated with the respective
nation on the matter of repatriation and eventual conclusion of the matter.

Procedures. For the disciplinary action taken to be fair, all activities including reporting,
investigation, and disciplinary action must be expeditious, just, and consistent in its
application, regardless of rank or nationality. It is also implicit in the SOFA that all
disciplinary action deemed serious enough to warrant repatriation is to be undertaken by
the Member State. In order to retain its own impartiality and credibility, UN
Headquarters retains the right to know the results of such action (i.e., punishment
awarded or how the case was concluded by the Member State).

Pre-induction Briefings. Upon assignment to a mission area and prior to deployment to

a duty location, all uniformed peacekeepers will receive a briefing. It will include, as a
minimum, notification of the types of misconduct prohibited; an outline of the
investigation process; and a warning of the liability for repatriation should the mission’s
investigation, endorsed by DPKO, so decide. Particular attention is made to all
personnel to be aware of any local sensitivities, such as local religious laws and
customs, and the United Nations standards of conduct, which may differ from those
allowed in the host nation and which should not be compromised.

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Immediate Follow-up to a Disciplinary Incident. Once the Force Commander or Chief

Military Observer becomes aware of an allegation of serious misconduct, he/she will
immediately suspend the person or persons involved from his/their daily duties until an
initial informal investigation can be completed. This initial investigation is to be carried
out expeditiously by the Military or UN Police in the mission area in conjunction with the
individual’s National Contingent Commander as stipulated in the SOPs.

Repatriation

The SRSG must initiate the authorisation upon the request of the Force
Commander or UN Police Commissioner. The repatriation must be approved by DPKO.

Early Repatriation. If a Military Observer is repatriated for either failure to meet the
necessary requirements or for disciplinary reasons, all costs associated with his travel
home and arrival of his replacement to complete the tour of duty will be at the expense
of the Military Observer’s government.

Compassionate Repatriation. When a Military Observer has compassionate reasons

to return home either temporarily or permanently, the United Nations will pay for the
travel. However, it will be the responsibility of the Military Observer's government to pay
for his replacement's return/arrival to the mission area. The only exception is when the
replacement of a Military Observer will complete the repatriated Military Observer's time
of duty and serve a full year of service of his own. In this case, the United Nations will
cover the replacement Observer's travel costs.

Medical Repatriation. When a Military Observer is repatriated for medical reasons, the
United Nations will cover all travel costs, both for him/her and his/her replacement.
Before a decision is made, the United Nations Medical Service will determine
whether the condition was pre-existing.

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Appendix H: List Of UN Peacekeeping Operations

List of UN Peacekeeping Operations

DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic
MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala
MINURCA United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad
MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara*
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central
African Republic*
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali*
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti*
MIPONUH United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti
MONUA United Nations Observer Mission in Angola
MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo*
ONUB United Nations Operation in Burundi
ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo
ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America

*Ongoing operations as of August 2014.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
 List of UN Peacekeeping Operations
DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic
MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala
MINURCA United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad
MINURSO United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara*
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African
Republic*
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali*
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti*
MIPONUH United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti
MONUA United Nations Observer Mission in Angola
MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo*
ONUB United Nations Operation in Burundi
ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo
ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America
ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique
ONUSAL United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador
UNAMIC United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia
UNAMID African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur*
UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNAMSIL United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNASOG United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group
UNAVEM I United Nations Angola Verification Mission I
UNAVEM II United Nations Angola Verification Mission II
UNAVEM III United Nations Angola Verification Mission III
UNPSG UN Civilian Police Support Group
UNCRO United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia
UNDOF United Nations Disengagement Observer Force*
UNEF I First United Nations Emergency Force
UNEF II Second United Nations Emergency Force
UNFICYP United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus*
UNGOMAP United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan
UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon*

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UNIIMOG United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group
UNIKOM United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission
UNIPOM United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission
UNISFA United Nations Organization Interim Security Force for Abyei*
UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
UNMIH United Nations Mission in Haiti
UNMIK United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo*
UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia*
UNMIS United Nations Mission in the Sudan
UNMISET United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor
UNMISS United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan*
UNMIT United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste
UNMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan*
UNMOP United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka
UNMOT United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan
UNOCI United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire*
UNOGIL United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon
UNOMIG United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia
UNOMIL United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia
UNOMSIL United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone
UNOMUR United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda
UNOSOM I United Nations Operation in Somalia I
UNOSOM II United Nations Operation in Somalia II
UNPREDEP United Nations Preventive Deployment Force
UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force
UNSF United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea
UNSMIH United Nations Support Mission in Haiti
UNSMIL United Nations Support Mission in Libya*
UNSMIS United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria
UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNTAES United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and
Western Sirmium
UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
UNTAG United Nations Transition Assistance Group
UNTMIH United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti
UNTSO United Nations Truce Supervision Organization*
UNYOM United Nations Yemen Observation Mission

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
About the Author

LTC (Rtd) Egil Nordli, Norway

Lieutenant Colonel (Rtd) Egil Nordli joined the Norwegian Army Officers Candidate School in 1972.
For many years he worked as an Infantry Jaeger/Long Range patrolling officer and as an officer in His
Majesty the King’s Guard. During his career, he has progressed through various operational command
and staff appointments at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels. He graduated from the Army
Military Academy in 1982, and the Norwegian Defence Command and Staff College/General Staff in
1997. He also holds an university degree. By retirement, he held the appointment as Chief Instructor/
Combined Joint Operations/CIMIC at the Norwegian University College/Norwegian Defence Command
and Staff College – an appointment he held twice during the period 2002-2011. During these periods, LTC
Nordli was the Norwegian Armed Forces subject matter expert being responsible for the introduction and
development of CIMIC (Civil-Military Cooperation & Coordination in the Armed Forces. This engagement
also brought him to operations in Iraq and Afghanistan during the period 2002-2004, where he was
responsible and in command of different CIMIC functions and a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT).

Being an Army officer, LTC Egil Nordli has been serving in a number of positions and units ranging from
the Brigade North in Northern Norway to His Majesty the King’s Guard in Oslo, as well as G-3/Chief
Operations at the Jaeger Corps/Akershus Regiment in Southeast Norway. Among other national postings,
he has been staff officer at the HQ Defence Command, Joint Operational Headquarters/NATO HQ North
in Stavanger as well as the Norwegian Defence Forces International Centre (NODEFIC). LTC Nordli also
worked some years within the framework of operational security.

By retirement, LTC Nordli was regarded as one of the most experienced Norwegian officers from
Multinational Operations with a great number of different abroad deployments over the last 25 years.
His employments has been under the auspices of/and or led by UN, NATO, or coalitions. During the
period 2002-04, he was the Commanding Officer of the Norwegian Army High Readiness Forces/
CIMIC Battalion; from 2005-08, he was Chief of the Nordic Military Planning- and Coordination Element
in Stockholm, Sweden. LTC Nordli was a Section Chief/Chief Instructor at the Swedish Armed Forces
International Centre 1998-2000, and Commanding Officer of the BALTBAT Training Team in the Baltic
States 1995-96.

Among other of his international engagements, you will find: UNIFIL in Lebanon (S3), UNIKOM (DCO/
S3) in Iraq-Kuwait, UNPROFOR in the Former Yugoslavia (S3), SFOR in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Chief Bde
Staff Training), KFOR in Kosovo as CJ3/Deputy Chief Current Plans Section, Operation Iraqi Freedom/
Stabilization Forces in Iraq as Multinational Division CS/Chief CIMIC Liaison Branch in 2003-2004,
and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and International Stabilization Forces in Afghanistan (ISAF)
as Deputy CO PRT (partly as Commander) in 2004. Last but not the least, he served as the Military
Assistant to the Head of Mission in the United Nations Supervision Truce Organization (UNTSO) in the
Middle-East (Israel-Lebanon-Syria-Jordan-Egypt) during the period September 2009 to mid February
2011.

Today LTC Egil Nordli is running his own business and company, Peacekeeping.no.

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End-of-Course Exam Instructions

General Information
The End-of-Course Exam is provided as a separate component of this course. It covers the material in
all the lessons of this course, including any material found in the course’s annexes and appendices. The
exam may be found in your Student Classroom at https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_index.

Format of Questions
The exam consists of 50 multiple-choice questions. Each question gives the student a choice of four
answers marked A, B, C, and D, with only one of these being the correct answer.

Time Limit
There is no time limit for the exam. This allows the student to read and study the questions carefully, and
to consult the course text. Furthermore, if the student cannot complete the exam in one sitting, he or she
may save the exam and come back to it without being graded. The “Save” button is located at the bottom
of the exam, next to the “Submit my answers” button. Clicking on the “Submit my answers” button will end
the exam.

Passing Grade
To pass the exam, a score of 75 per cent or better is required. An electronic Certificate of Completion
will be awarded to those who have passed the exam. A score of less than 75 per cent is a failing grade,
and students who have received a failing grade will be provided with a second, alternate version of the
exam, which can likewise be completed without a time limit. Students who pass the second exam will be
awarded a Certificate of Completion. Those who fail the second exam will be disenrolled from the course.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SERVING ON A PEACEKEEPING MISSION AS A

U N M I L I TA R Y O B S E R V E R
 Courses at the Peace Operations Training Institute
Course Name English French Spanish Port. Ar.
An Introduction to the UN System     
Commanding UN Peacekeeping Operations     
The Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Operations   
Core Pre-deployment Training Materials 
Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)    
Ebola Virus Disease: Awareness and Precautions for
Peacekeeping Personnel 
Ethics in Peacekeeping   
Gender Perspectives in UN Peacekeeping Operations   
The History of UN Peacekeeping: 1945 to 1987   
The History of UN Peacekeeping: 1988 to 1996   
The History of UN Peacekeeping: 1997 to 2006   
Human Rights  
Human Rights and Peacekeeping 
Implementation of the UNSCRs on Women, Peace, and Security
in Africa  
Implementation of the UNSCRs on Women, Peace, and Security
in Asia and the Pacific 
Implementation of the UNSCRs on Women, Peace, and Security
in Latin America and the Caribbean  
International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Armed Conflict    
Logistical Support to UN Peacekeeping Operations   
Operational Logistical Support of UN Peacekeeping Missions   
Advanced Topics in UN Logistics   
Mine Action   
Peacekeeping and International Conflict Resolution   
Preventing Violence Against Women   
Principles and Guidelines  
Protection of Civilians  
Security for UN Peacekeepers 
United Nations Civil–Military Coordination (UN-CIMIC)   
United Nations Military Observers    
United Nations Police   

The Peace Operations Training Institute is committed to bringing essential, practical knowledge to students and is
always working to expand its curriculum with the most up-to-date and relevant information possible. POTI’s latest
course list can be found at www.peaceopstraining.org. Visit the website regularly
to keep abreast of the latest changes to POTI’s curriculum.

Peace Operations
Training Institute
®
Peace Operations Training Institute
®
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