UNIT III

Materials for Maintenance & Repairs

 Factors influencing the material selection for maintenance and repair:

1. Strength
Bond and compressive strengths are important properties in almost all repairs and
protective works. The strength of the base material and repair materials should be
nearly the same or that of repair materials should be slightly higher. This is to achieve
a proper and uniform flow of stress and strains through materials. However, when the
strength of both base and repair materials is great, then the repair material would
experience premature failure due to non-uniform flow of stresses and strains.
The bond between the underlying concrete surface and repair material should be
satisfactory. If there are uncertainties regarding the bond strength, then proper
measures can be considered to improve the bond strength such as the use of adhesive,
surface interlocking system, mechanical bonding, or combination thereof.
2. Durability
The repair material needs to be durable under exposure conditions to which the
defected structure is exposed. It should demonstrate adequate resistance against
chemical attack and resistance to any form of energy such as ultra-violate ray sand

heat.

Fig. 1: Durability of Concrete Specimen

3. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The repair material must have a coefficient of expansion almost same as that of the
existing concrete to make sure that undue stresses are not transferred to the bonding
interface or the substrate. Thermal incompatibility may cause failure either at the
interface or within the material of lower strength, particularly for overlays.
4. Low Drying Shrinkage
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 Due to the fact that concrete base shrinkage is already completed, it is essential for
repair materials to have lowest possible dry shrinkage to save the bond between repair
material and the underlying concrete surface.

If this condition is not met, then the repair material bond to the concrete base would be
endangered which leads to delamination or shrinkage crack development on surfaces.
Shrinkage cracks allow ingression of air and moisture, hence steel bars would face
corrosion.
The limits for cement-based repair materials for 28-day and ultimate drying shrinkage
are 400 and 1000 millionths, respectively.
Shrinkage of cementations repair materials can be reduced by using mixtures with
low w/c, the maximum practical size and volume of course aggregate, shrinkage-
reducing admixtures, or using construction procedures that minimize the shrinkage
potential. Curing of the materials is very critical especially if the thicknesses are
smaller.

5. Permeability
The permeability of the repair materials should be low to prevent the penetration of
aggressive substances such as carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and industrial gases and
vapors. This is to protect the reinforcement from corrosion. However, if impermeable
materials are used for large patches, overlays, or coatings, moisture that rises up
through the base concrete can be trapped between the concrete and the impermeable
repair material. This moisture can cause failure at the bond or may make freezing and
thawing significantly more critical. The repair or protection material must allow
breathing of concrete below.

Fig. 3: Permeability
6. Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of the repair material must be similar to that of the existing
concrete.

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In nonstructural repairs, a lower modulus of repair material is desirable to help in the
relaxation of tensile stresses induced by restrained drying shrinkage.
The maximum modulus of elasticity for cement-based repair materials is generally
taken equal to 24 GPa.
7. Chemical Properties
A pH close to 12 (alkaline environment) of repair material is better for corrosion
protection to embedded reinforcement. Otherwise, additional protection for the
existing reinforcement may be provided by cathodic protection or reinforcement
coatings.
8. Electrical Properties
Materials that have high electrical resistance tend to isolate repaired areas from
concrete having chances of corrosion.
Differentials in electrical potential between the repair material and the original
concrete may increase corrosion activity around the perimeter of the repair area,
resulting in premature failure. This is commonly referred to as the anodic ring or halo
effect.

9. Color and Texture Properties

For repair of architectural concrete surfaces, color and texture of the repair material
must not differ appreciably from the adjacent surface. Trials may be made on the site
before beginning actual repair work.
10. Curing Requirement
Repair materials with no or minimum curing requirement are highly desirable in order
to decrease post-repair care. Repair materials that need high curing effect may suffer
from improper curing and consequently designated strength would not be achieved.
11. Cost of Repair Material
It is desirable to employ cost-effective repair material but this measure should be at
the expense of the performance properties of the material.

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 Fig. 4: Curing of Repaired Concrete

 Anti-corrosion coating materials:

1) Cement slurry mortor:

When it comes to the quality of construction materials in house construction, it is important

to priorities durability and performance of the cement slurry. Opting for high-quality
materials ensures that your house will withstand environmental factors and maintain its
structural integrity in the long run. Additionally, choosing good quality materials can
enhance the safety of your home. Keep reading on to know more about the meaning of
cement slurry.

What Is Cement Slurry?

Cement slurry is a mixture composed of cement, water and chemical additives. It is
commonly used in construction projects to create a strong and stable foundation, particularly
in areas with soft or unstable soil. When poured onto wet ground, the cement slurry binds
with the soil, forming a hard, smooth and water-resistant layer. The thickness of the slurry
can vary depending on the specific construction project, and it is typically applied by being
pumped into a space or poured down a cement truck chute.
What are the Uses of Cement Slurry?
Cement slurry is used in a wide range of construction applications. Here are some common
uses for cement slurry:
Soil stabilization:
Cement slurry is poured onto wet or soft ground to create a stable and strong foundation. It
binds with the soil, thus forming a hard layer that provides stability for buildings, roads and
other structures. It also provides a solid base that can support heavy loads and resist
moisture.
Slurry walls:

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It is used to create slurry walls, which are commonly used in construction projects. Slurry
walls act as a barrier between structures and soft ground or water. Thus, they help prevent
water seepage and provide structural support.
Paving:
This mixture is used in paving projects, such as parking lots and driveways. It is poured onto
a prepared surface and spread evenly to form a smooth, durable and water-resistant layer.
Repairing roads and holes:
It is useful in road repairs to fill cracks and potholes. It is also used to repair holes or
damaged areas in concrete surfaces, such as countertops or floors.
Environmental Impact of Cement Slurry
Cement slurry can have negative environmental impacts if its waste and washout are not
managed properly. Improper disposal of cement slurry waste can cause damage to vegetation
and animal life. When tools or barrows are washed out and the slurry is emptied into
surrounding garden beds or lawns, the chemical additives in the slurry mixture can alter the
chemical composition of the soil and may seep into groundwater, thus impacting the soil’s
pH levels.
Several measures can be taken to minimize its negative environmental impact and promote
sustainable practices. Strict guidelines for the collection, containment, and disposal of
cement slurry waste to prevent it from contaminating soil and water sources must be
implemented.
Advantages of Cement Slurry
Cement slurry offers several benefits in construction projects:
Multiple uses:
Cement slurry can be used for a wide range of construction applications. These include
stabilizing structures, filling voids or sealing construction elements.
Water-resistant:
Cement slurry can resist water. Because it can also be used to seal materials, it can resist
water penetration and provide durability to the structure.
Adaptability:
Cement slurry solidifiers can be used not only for slurry waste disposal but also for cleaning
equipment with dried slurry buildup. This flexibility makes them a useful tool in maintaining
cleanliness and efficiency on job sites.
Efficient Waste Management:
Cement slurry is used to solidify liquid slurry waste, transforming it into a disposable solid.
This process simplifies and speeds up waste management, thus making it faster and more
efficient than traditional methods.
How to Prepare Cement Slurry
To prepare this mixture, you will need the following ingredients and equipment.
Ingredients:

 Cement
 Water
 Chemical additives (optional)
Note: The choice of additives depends on the purpose of its use.
Equipment:

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  Mixing container
 Mixing tools (such as a mixing paddle, drill mixer or other suitable tool for blending
the ingredients)
Here are the steps to prepare cement slurry:
1. Measure the desired amount of cement:
Depending on your project requirements, measure the appropriate amount of cement and
place it in the mixing container.
2. Gradually add water:
Start by adding a portion of the water to the cement in the mixing container. It is best to pour
water gradually to achieve the desired consistency. The water-to-cement ratio will depend on
the specific application and the type of cement being used. Use the mixing tool to blend the
cement and water together.
3. Add chemical additives:
Add the additives gradually while continuing to mix the slurry. Continue mixing until the
slurry reaches a consistent and smooth consistency, free of lumps.
4. Test the consistency:
Check the consistency of the slurry by observing its flow and workability. Adjust the water
or cement content as needed to achieve the desired consistency.
2) Polymer modified cement slurry:
Polymer modified mortar is produced by mixing water with polymeric admixtures, Portland
cement, and sand. The addition of polymer improves mortar's performance and consequently
can be utilized advantageously and economically in several applications.
Latex polymers, redispersible dry polymers, water-soluble polymers are the different types
of polymer used to produce polymer modified mortar. In addition to improving the
workability, Polymers enhance adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and
resistance to chemicals, and freezing and thawing resistance of mortar.
Polymer modified mortar also requires less water compared to traditional mortar which
results in a more dense mortar with fewer pores.
How Polymers Improve Mortar Properties
1. Strength and Durability
Time and again, it has been demonstrated that polymers improve tensile strength, flexural
strength, impact and abrasion resistance, water resistance, and chemical resistance of
polymer modified mortar in comparison to mortars without polymers. Added to that,
polymers restrict the micro-crack propagation which improves the overall toughness of the
mortar.
2. Workability
Polymers make mortar more fluid and easier to handle and apply. It acts as a water-reducer,
eventually leading to a stronger mortar with fewer voids. Specific types of polymers extend
the hydration period which increase working time. This is considerably advantageous in hot
climates.
3. Adhesion
Due to the fact that Polymers act as an adhesive, it improves the adhesion of mortar to
different surfaces like concrete, masonry, brick, wood, rigid polystyrene and polyurethane
foam, glass, and metals. This property is specifically crucial in thin section overlay mortar
applications and applications with excessive vibration and heavy traffic.

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4. Cement Curing
Curing of mortar is one of the major factors that controls its strength. It is required to provide
adequate water to have proper curing especially during the early stages of curing process;
roughly the first five to seven days.
It has also been demonstrated that polymers improve mortar curing because it reduces the
rate of water evaporation. This reduced rate of water evaporation is especially important in
thin applications, where the surface area for evaporation is high, relative to the volume of the
mortar.
Finally, since polymer modified mortar requires less water compared to ordinary mortar, it
does not experience drying shrinkage as much as traditional mortar.

Fig. 1: Polymer Modified Mortar

Types of Polymers
There are different types of polymers which are used to make polymer modified mortar :

1. Latex polymers
2. Redispersible dry polymers (such as ethylene vinyl acetate)
3. Water soluble polymers like polyvinyl alcohol
Applications
1. Grouting Walls and Floor Tiles
It is the most widely used application of polymer modified mortar. Reduced water and salt
ingress makes polymer-modified mortar ideal for masonry exposed to weathering and other
exterior conditions. Polymer-modified thinset mortar is designed to adhere tile to concrete
and cement board substrates without needing to soak the tiles beforehand.
2. Patch and Repair
Polymer-modified mortars are widely used for repair purposes because of their minimized
shrinkage and ability to bond with the densest surfaces. It is used for repairing cracks and
delamination of concrete structure and cracks.

Fig. 2: Repair Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Beams using Polymer Modified Mortar

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 Fig. 3: Polymer Modified Mortar Used for Restoration of Piles
3. Waterproofing
Its application during the construction of basements, bulk water storage tanks, septic tanks,
ship decks, roof decks, and concrete walls helps provide a strong resistance towards water
and chemicals.
4. Flooring and Pavements
Polymer modified mortar can be utilized for commercial flooring overlay formulations,
warehouses, factories, hospitals, stairways, and garages.

Fig. 4: Use of Polymer Modified Mortar for Installing Tiles

3) Epoxy Zinc
Epoxy zinc phosphate primers contain zinc phosphate, which acts as a corrosion-inhibiting
pigment. Epoxy primers are used to waterproof materials that consequently protect the bare
metal from oxidation.
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 Quick curing ability, regardless of ambient humidity.
 Overcoating ease.
 Capability for greater film thickness without the risk of mud cracking.
 Suitability for using standard airless spray, without the need for the special spray
equipment required for zinc rich silicates.
 A greater tolerance of variable surface conditions and less stringent surface quality
requirements for the substrate.

 Adhesive materials:
1) Solvent free adhesives:
Solvent based adhesives are the most commonly used type of adhesive in some sectors,
owing to their fast bonding and drying properties. Using a solvent based adhesive gives
manufacturers’ peace of mind that the substance will remain firmly attached to the film
during the manufacturing process. However, there are financial, environmental, and
health & safety reasons why solvent based adhesives are not always the best choice,
especially for food contact products.
Advantages

 Bond strength
 Versatility – solvent based adhesives can be applied to a variety of situations.
 Temperature range – solvent based adhesives are not liable to freeze at low
temperatures and can withstand high temperatures well (although are not food safe for
use in ovens).

Disadvantages

 Cost – solvent based adhesives are more expensive than water-based adhesives.
 Environmental damage – All stages of the manufacturing and application process for
solvent-based adhesives, including formulation, drying and curing, release volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. These atmospheric pollutants are
linked to a number of serious health problems in people, as well as to the formation of
ground-level ozone, which contributes to global warming.
 Health & Safety in the workplace: The regulation of solvents in manufacturing
products has become tighter over recent years – a trend that is likely to continue.
Limitations on solvents have been driven by two factors: environmental legislation
coming from the government, and self-regulation from market factors, due to end
users opting out of solvent-based products.
 Consumer Safety: The presence of solvents in an adhesive makes it unsuitable for use
in food packaging or clothing products.
 Cleaning: Residues from solvent-adhesive spillages will not come off with water. You
will need a special solvent-based cleaning solution to remove spills and dried on
deposits.

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2) Water Based Adhesives
At this point it is only fair to say that at Formulated Polymers we deal exclusively with
water-based, or wet bond adhesives. We do not produce solvent-based products.
Here are the advantages and disadvantages...
Advantages

 Application: Historically solvent based adhesives were the preferred choice of many
businesses because of their perceived application advantages when compared with
water-based products. However, this is not the case with modern wet bond adhesives,
which are extremely quick and easy to apply. Water-based adhesives can be applied
through rollers, spray guns or immersion, far more easily than a solvent-based product,
without risk of rollers becoming clogged as the product dries.
 Cost: Solvents cost more to produce than water, meaning that a solvent based
adhesive will always be more expensive than a water-based equivalent.
 Bond stability: Water-based adhesives have been shown to maintain a stable bond
over time equal to or greater to solvent alternatives.
 Consistency: It is easier to maintain a uniform consistency with a wet bond adhesive,
giving an even spread. Being water-based also means the adhesive is easier to remove
from equipment, reducing the risk of blockages.
 Eco-friendly: Being low in VOC content, a water-based formulation is safer and more
environmentally friendly. There are fewer environmental regulations to worry about,
and less safety concerns about use in consumer products.
 Versatility: Wet bond adhesives can be successfully used on a range of substrates,
including natural and synthetic textiles, plastics, metallic films, paper and cardboard.
 Low Odour: Water based adhesives have very little odour.
Disadvantages

 Slower drying than solvent based adhesives

 Susceptible to freezing at low temperatures.
 Some water-based glues include dextrin, starch and casein, although ours do not.
These and other ingredients are potential allergens, and should be avoided by food
packaging manufacturers.
 Lower water resistance than solvent-based products.
 Solvent free adhesives:
i) Epoxy adhesive:
Epoxy adhesives are very common thermoset adhesives used in a wide variety of
applications.
They are composed of epoxy resins. All epoxies are formed as a result of the reaction
between an epoxide and a polyamine hardener; for this reason epoxies are often referred to
as copolymers. Epoxy adhesive systems may or may not include chemical modifiers.
Unmodified epoxies cure to hard, brittle solids, while other adhesives are modified for
increased flexibility or toughness after curing. All cured epoxies are typically hard and rigid.
ii) Polyster adhesive:
polyester resins are used in adhesives and fillers. Automotive filler is one example that’s
used extensively. This can of resin comes with a small tube of activator. Mixing in a small

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amount of activator initiates the cure chemistry — leading to a hard polymer, which can be
sanded with excellent adhesion to metal.
Formulations for stone construction, stone repair, and wood filler employ the same
chemistry. Gel coats for marine and bath applications are typically polyesters that work
well and offer UV resistance. In many cases, repairs with epoxies — not widely known
for their UV stability — are covered with polyester resin topcoats.
Polyesters also find use in the fabrication of composite materials, like fiberglass. They’re
employed extensively in the production of kitchen, bath, marine, and enclosure products.
Polyesters are also sold as casting resins.
Polyester resins are typically formed from the free-radical polymerization of dibasic acids
or anhydrides and dials. Depending on the end-use, there are other free-radical
polymerizable monomers, such as styrene. The hardeners used are typically peroxides.
When mixed, a free-radical chain reaction creates a polymer.
The resins cure quickly, generally within minutes. Several applications benefit from the fast
cure capability, such as the installation of kitchen countertops. Sanding or painting can be
done almost immediately after curing. The resulting polymer is strong, chemically resistant
and, for the most part, environmentally stable. However, the bonds are not quite as resilient
as other adhesives.
iii) Acrylic adhesive:
From construction to automotive and aerospace engineering, acrylic adhesives help form
strong bonds between a wide range of substrates. An acrylic adhesive (also known as methyl
methacrylate, acrylate, or MMA) is a resin-based, two-part adhesive comprised of acrylic or
methyl acrylic polymers. They are extremely strong and efficient in bonding multiple objects
together and are very environmentally resistant.
Acrylic adhesives are also among the strongest adhesives available. This is largely due to
two factors: their cohesion and adhesion properties.

 Cohesion is the measure of an adhesive’s ability to stick to itself.

 Adhesion is its ability to stick to other objects.

Acrylics have some of the best cohesion and adhesion in the industry. They also come in a
wide range of cure time, cure temperature, viscosities and with a wide variety of special
properties.

There are three main features to consider when looking for the right acrylic :

I. Viscosity: how thick or runny your adhesive is.

II.
cure time: how long it takes the adhesives to form a structural bond between your
surfaces.
III. Application: Some examples of special properties include added color, UV
resistance, high temperature resistance, increased flexibility and glass spacer
beads. There are also acrylic adhesives that specialize on specific surfaces like low
surface energy materials or dissimilar substrate bonding.
The Benefits of Structural Acrylic Adhesives:

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Beyond strength, acrylic adhesives provide a wide range of generalized benefits for
construction, assembly and manufacturing projects. Here are the biggest.
1. Lightweight & Optimize
Acrylic adhesives (and all structural adhesives) bond across a continuous, even area. That
distributes stress across the surface of the material instead of concentrating stress at certain
points. This even distribution creates fewer failure points of the structure and improves the
overall durability.
2. Save Time & Money by Replacing Traditional Methods
 Acrylic adhesives save manufacturers time and money.
 Acrylic adhesives can reduce total cost of assembly by up to 50%.
 They don’t require specialized labor.

 Water borne adhesives:

i) Polyvinyl Acetate:
polyvinyl acetate (PVAc), a synthetic resin prepared by the polymerization of vinyl
acetate. In its most important application, polyvinyl acetate serves as the film-forming
ingredient in water-based (latex) paints; it also used in adhesives.
polyvinyl acetate (PVA, PVAc, poly(ethenyl ethanoate)), commonly known as wood
glue, PVA glue, white glue, carpenter's glue, school glue, or Elmer's Glue in the US, is a
widely available adhesive used for porous materials like wood, paper, and cloth.
Due to its unique chemical properties, polyvinyl acetate finds a wide range of applications
across multiple industries:

 Adhesives: PVA’s excellent adhesive properties make it a common component in

white glues, commonly used in woodworking, paper crafts, and school projects.
 Textiles: In the textile industry, PVA is often used as a warp sizing agent, providing
strength and protection to yarn during the weaving process.
 Paints and Coatings: Due to its ability to increase viscosity and improve the resistance
to oil and grease, PVA is often used as an additive in paints and coatings.
 Food Packaging: PVA is utilized in food packaging due to its resistance to oils and
greases. This also lends the material superior sealing properties, protecting the food
products inside.
 Construction Industry: Polyvinyl acetate is used as a binding agent in construction
materials, providing enhanced cohesion and overall structural integrity.
 Medical Field: PVA is used in the production of certain medical and pharmaceutical
products, such as tablets and capsules, owing to its non-toxic nature and bioadhesive
properties.

ii) Vinyl acetate copolymer:

Vinyl acetate is an organic compound . This colorless liquid is the precursor to polyvinyl
acetate, ethene-vinyl acetate copolymers, polyvinyl alcohol, and other important industrial
polymers. Vinyl acetate was originally prepared industrially by the reaction of acetylene with
acetic acid or by oxidation of ethylene. This is ideal for use in coatings due to their non-
oxidizing and permanently flexible qualities. It is available in both powder or solution form.
It is generally characterized by the absence of colour, their odour and taste as well as high
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 purity compatibility of dissolvability. It has a outstanding fludity at molten state and suited to
processing at low temperature. This is generally used for flooring
 Packaging, surface protection and greenhouse covers in extrusion film processes
 Photovoltaic cell encapsulation
 Molded caps and seals, footwear and car interiors
 Waterproofing coatings, carpet backings, engineered fabrics, paints and coatings,
woodworking adhesives, laminating applications and others
 Footwear manufacturing companies
 Mortor repair materials:
There are many reasons for the deterioration of the reinforced concrete elements. Corrosion
of reinforcement, sulphate attack or alkali silica reaction results in extensive cracking/
spalling. In such a situation, it is necessary to remove the damaged concrete and refill it with
repair mortar and concrete. The repair mortar broadly classified as

1. Cementitious mortar
2. Polymer modified cementitious mortar
3. Resin mortar
1. Cementitious mortar:
Portland cement mortar is generally used only for repair of exposed surfaces and new
concrete surfaces, when the defective part is too wide for dry packing and thickness is less
than this type of mortar will be used for repairing purposes. Portland cement mortar with low
water content finds it applications as a good repair material. Low water contents reduces
shrinkage of the repair portion while the effectiveness gets increased.
The properties of cement mortar can be further modified with the addition of suitable
admixtures like super plasticizers, hydrophobic agents, pozzolona, flyash etc.

2. Polymer Modified Cement Motor (PMI): –

Certain polymer can be added to cementitious mortars to help overcome many of the
problems of using unmodified mortar as repair materials. The polymer used as admixture for
cementitious systems are milky white dispersion (latex) in water.This type of Mortar is used
only for repairing the open surface of the old concrete. Polymer Modified Cement
Mortar can be placed in a single application of 12 to 15 mm thickness which gives adequate
protective cover. It is mainly used for the repair of reinforced concrete, where the cover to be
replaced is more than 12mm and less than 30 mm in thickness.
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In addition to cement, sand, water, polymers are added to this type of motor. The polymer
is available in the following form.
 Polymer latexes
 Redispersible polymer powders
 Water-soluble polymer
 Liquid resins

3. Resin mortar:
Resin mortar is made from a mixture of Epoxy resin, hardener, and sand. On an old surface
of concrete, first applied Epoxy Bond coat then apply Epoxy Mortar on concrete surface and
repair. Such a mortar acquires Strength in a few hours. Such mortars have
 High strength.
 Good adhesion.
 Chemical resistant
 Rapid cure
 impermeable
 The barrier against wear and tear is high.
 Moisture barrier,
 Can be applied in fairly thin layers.
This type of mortar can be used in such a condition.
 Where the epoxy bonded concrete Couldn’t be used
 The thickness of repair (like, cracks) is not more than 40mm.
 Repair area is less than 0.1 square meter.

 Joint sealant materials:

In building structures, the term sealant is specially used for sealing of expansion joints and
gap between dissimilar building material. A joint sealant is any material provided to
maintain a seal or act as barrier between two sides of a joint which may be subjected to some
degree of movement. Mastic is mainly used as joint filler, dilatation, filling, and bonding of
building elements such as metal and glass joinery, tiles, pvc

i) Oleo resinous mastics:

(Mastics* is a filler used to seal or fill the gaps between building materials to prevent the
entry of liquids, air, and pests. Mastic is widely used in construction as an adhesive and
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sealant.) Oleo resinous mastic is a type of coating that contains a resin known as oleoresin.
This resin is a naturally occurring resin and oil mixture obtained from a variety of plants,
such as balsam fir and pine. This type of resin is referred to as balsams and is considered to
be a soft variety that may contain cinnamic acid and benzoic acid.

ii) Acrylic resin sealant:

Acrylic mastics are nature-friendly and can be painted. However, it should not be applied in
areas that are often exposed to water. Its ability to provide color harmony is easily
recognizable and weather-affected areas make it useful. However, acrylic mastics are not as
flexible as others, so moving them can cause cracks over time.

iii) Bitumen/ rubber based sealant:

Bitumen mastic is a one-component and elastic filler containing bitumen-based solvents. It is

used in trim works in construction, sealing, bonding and processes that require rapid
modification. It can be applied to damp surfaces and painted. Bitumen mastics are always
ready to use as they can be applied cold.

 Grout materials:
Grout is a dense fluid which is used to fill gaps or used as reinforcement in existing
structures. Grout is generally a mixture of water, cement, and sand and is employed in
pressure grouting, embedding rebar in masonry walls, connecting sections of pre-cast
concrete, filling voids, and sealing joints such as those between tiles.
i) Cement grout:

Cementitious grouting is a process in which a fluid cementitious grout is pumped under

pressure to fill forms, voids, and cracks. It can be used in several settings including bridges,
marine applications, dams, and rock anchors. The grouted mass has an increased strength,
stiffness, and reduced permeability. Cement grouting can offer an economic advantage for
underpinning applications over alternative approaches such as removal and replacement or
piling, and can be performed where access is difficult and space is limited. Since the
effectiveness of cement grouting is independent of structural connections, this technique is
readily adaptable to existing foundations and can typically be accomplished without
disrupting normal facility operations.

ii) Cement sand grout:

Grout mixtures may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and water, depending on
the width of the crack. However, the water–cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to
maximize the strength and minimize shrinkage.

iii) Cement sand grout with additives:

All grouting must be carried out with a cement based grout incorporating a plasticised,
expanding powder admixture. The grout admixture must be iron-free and chloride-free and
shall be added to the cement grout in the proportion of 225g per 50kg of cement.

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 iv) Polymer modified cement grout;

Polymer modified mortar is produced by mixing water with polymeric admixtures, Portland
cement, and sand. The addition of polymer improves mortar's performance and consequently
can be utilized advantageously and economically in several applications. Latex polymers,
redispersible dry polymers, water-soluble polymers are the different types of polymer used to
produce polymer modified mortar. In addition to improving the workability, Polymers
enhance adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to chemicals, and
freezing and thawing resistance of mortar. Polymer modified mortar also requires less water
compared to traditional mortar which results in a more dense mortar with fewer pores.

v) Epoxy grout:

Epoxy grout is a type of adhesive for grouting porous surfaces such as tile or brick. Epoxy
grout is composed of a two-part liquid substance; one part is a resin, and the other is a
hardener. The mixture becomes a permanent adhesive when a chemical reaction is triggered
by the mixing. Grout is a filler that keeps dirt and debris from getting in between or under
your tiles. It adds strength to your tile flooring and prevents it from getting out of shape.
When applying grout, tillers need to spread the mix over your floor, wait for it to set quickly,
and then scrub it off. However, regular grout might not be feasible If you are thinking of
getting mosaic tiles for your floor. Fortunately, there is another grout option that will lessen
the cleaning time and make your mosaic tiles look brand new for months. Epoxy grout is
waterproof because of its components. It is made from epoxy resin combined with a filler
powder. Besides becoming waterproof, it is also stain-resistant, making it the perfect grout
material for your floors or splash backs. Epoxy grout is also resistant to harsh chemicals and
durable enough not to crack, shrink, or discolor. Finally, it is a non-porous material that does
not need to be sealed after.

 Waterproofing roof materials:

Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water-resistant

so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under
specific conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified
depths.

i) Polyisobutylene (PIP/ PIB) sheet:

PIB insulation covering (Polyisobutylene) is the ideal material to give your exposed
insulation and ductwork that final protective coating. It is the premier covering used in a
wide range of Industrial applications in the chemical and oil sectors. This tough weather and
water-resistant rubber has a high abrasion resistance and can withstand mechanical damage.
PIB sheeting is available in sheet form in a range of thicknesses. It can provide a lagging
solution to every application whether that's small pipework or a major ducting installation.
Once installed, the PIB insulation covering is virtually non-ageing and will not harden, crack
or peel. It's highly resistant to ozone and UV and will provide protection to your insulation
for years to come.

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PIB Insulation Sheeting - Features and Benefits
 Simple to install - place the sheeting over your insulation and brush the overlap with
the PIB solvent. The seam will weld together and form a perfect seal.
 Fit once and forget - extremely durable material will protect your installation for 20
years plus!
 PIB Sheeting is the preferred material for many contractors because it is easy to use -
demanding joints and difficult shapes are simply cut and welded on site.
 Completely Waterproof and possesses outstanding properties over a wide temperature
range ( -30°C to 100°C) - hence it is used globally in oil refineries, chemical works
and Power Stations.
 Ozone Resistant and UV resistant
 The standard colour is Black in a range of thicknesses from 0.5mm to 1.2mm
 Also available in White sheeting 0.8mm thick internal applications only.
 Highly resistant to a wide range of chemicals including many strong acids.
The sheeting also conforms to the latest fire standards relating to the spread of flames.

ii) Glass fiber reinforced plastic:

GFRP stands for Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer is a variant of
traditional fiber reinforced polymers that when blended with a fiber matrix, forms fiberglass or glass
reinforced polymer. GFRP is used in similar practices like regular fiber reinforced polymers but
there are certain cases in which an engineer may opt to use glass fiber reinforced polymers instead
of the more traditional product because of its high strength to weight ratio.

Just like regular fiber reinforced polymers, GFRP is gaining popularity in infrastructure and
construction systems. They are a great addition to traditional methods of construction, such as
concrete and steel because of their lightweight, noncorrosive properties. GFRP is also being widely
used for rehabilitation of many structures, including bridge decks, modular structures, concrete
structures, and precast structures. There are many benefits to using glass fiber reinforced polymers
over more traditional reinforcement methods. Some of these reasons include cost, their resistance to
corrosion, and their flexible application methods. Below, we elaborate on each benefit.

Cost - Compared to carbon fiber reinforced polymer, glass fiber reinforced polymers can be less
expensive in some applications. This can be a large benefit when completing large projects, such as
entire bridge decks or large concrete structures.

Corrosion Resistant – Glass fiber reinforced polymers are inherently anti corrosive. This makes
them a great option for environments that are particularly harsh, such as coastlines structures. This
aversion to corrosion helps structure owners save on maintenance and corrosion preventing
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procedures.
Application – Since fiber reinforced polymers are much more flexible than traditional steel and
concrete reinforcement methods, they can be used on a much wider array of solution designs.

iii) Bitumen and bitumen emulsion:

Bitumen emulsion is a mixture of fine droplets of bitumen and water. But as the bitumen is a
petroleum product it doesn't mix with water and as it is sticky in nature, it doesn't easily gets
disintegrated into fine droplets. To overcome this problem an emulsifier is used. Emulsifier
can be defined as a surface-active agent. Emulsifier keeps the bitumen in its fine droplet state
by disallowing it to mix with other droplets. As the droplets are very fine they suspend in
water. Hence bitumen emulsion is a dispersed liquid consisting of three products, i.e. water,
bitumen and emulsion. The bitumen emulsion is classified into two types i.e. Based on
Setting Time and Based on Surface Charge. Bitumen emulsion are extensively used for
maintenance and repair work, Emulsions can be used in wet weather even if it is raining, Is
ecofriendly as it is water based, Bitumen emulation is also used in soil stabilization in desert
areas, It doesn't need extra heat while placing, There is no wastage in placing and laying of
bitumen, They possess anti-stripping properties, Rapid setting type of emulsion are used in
surface of roads, Medium setting type of emulsion are used in premixing of bitumen
emulsion and coarse aggregate, Slow setting type of emulsion are used with fine aggregates
as the surface area is large and requires time for uniform mixing. At the same time the
Limitations of Bitumen Emulsion is its storage time, the Storage time of bitumen emulsion
ranges from few days to 6 months depending upon the percentage of Bitumen added while
production, setting time may vary due to temperature, wind and type of emulsion. Single
type of bitumen emulsion can not be used for all works as it depends upon the aggregate
type, setting time and nature of work etc.

iv) Latex Cement Coating:

Latex cement is composed of Portland cement, sand and a latex binder. Latex cements come
in many forms. Some latex cements are dry and must be mixed with water. Other mixtures
are premixed and can be used directly from the container, other types require that the liquid
latex be mixed with the dry cement immediately before use. Latex cements have many uses,
including for concrete resurfacing, tuck pointing, patching cracks or pits in concrete and
installing tile. Latex cement can be applied with a broom, brush, spray or trowel. The surface
is generally usable after six to eight hours of drying time. Latex has been added to cement
for many reasons for more than 70 years. Today's latex cement uses a number of specific
polymers to provide more flexibility, greater water resistance, less shrinkage and a more
durable patch for concrete surfaces. Latex cement also has superior adhering power, which
makes it a good choice for tiling applications. This bonding capability is particularly
advantageous for use on concrete flooring materials. Latex cement materials are resistant to
salt, as well as many chemical compounds. This quality makes latex cement advantageous
for concrete flooring that is often in contact with chemical substances, such as automotive
paints and solvents and other materials. The manufacturing of latex cements is more
complex than the manufacturing of traditional concrete mixtures. As a result, latex cement is
generally costlier. The latex component can leach out of the concrete under certain
conditions. This residue is different than common concrete efflorescence which can be

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removed with sulfuric acid, hence Latex leaching must be removed with a solvent seal
stripper.

 Surface coating materials for concrete protection:

Protective coatings for exposed concrete surfaces have become essential elements in
construction projects, especially in harsh environments or for concrete surfaces subjected to
any kind of harmful attack. Ingress of moisture into concrete may cause corrosion of steel to
concrete. Durability of even good quality suffer due to persistent chemical attacks, abrasion,
freezing and thawing etc. Various external hostile environmental substances, such as, water,
carbon dioxide, oxygen, chlorides, sulphides and biological organisms are transported from
the atmosphere into the concrete and attack steel and concrete in different mechanisms
causing premature deterioration of reinforced concrete, challenging its durability and
resulting in premature failure of the structures. The entry of the harmful agents can be
restricted and or avoided by providing the barrier surface coatings on the concrete.
Some important quality requirements of protective coatings for various
environments are: the protective coating should be durable. The coating material should have
waterproofing or hydrophobic properties. It should develop strong ong and lasting adhesion
with the concrete surface. It should provide relentless protection against chemical and other
attacks. The coating material should have good thermal resistance, ie it should be able to
withstand high temperature and fluctuations in temp. The coating material should have good
resistance to impact and abrasion. It should have good resistance against constant exposure
to UV radiations from the sun. It should be resistant to salts (e.g. chlorides, sulphates etc.),
acids, alkalis, oils, grease etc. The concrete protective coating should be able to prevent
ingress of harmful gases like carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide etc. and other atmospheric
pollutants. It should be non-porous, sleek and be able to prevent growth of fungus, algae etc.
It should be economical and require no or low maintenance. Concrete protective coating
should be environment-friendly.

i) Bituminous cutbacks:
There are different categories of cutback bitumen, mainly based on the volatility of the
solvent:
1. Rapid-Curing (RC): RC cutbacks use solvents with high volatility. These solvents
evaporate quickly, resulting in a rapid curing time. ...
2. Medium-Curing (MC): MC cutbacks use solvents with intermediate volatility. They
provide a moderate curing time, making them suitable for a wide range of construction
purposes.
3. Slow-Curing (SC): SC cutbacks use solvents with low volatility. ..
Cutback bitumen is a specialized form of bituminous material used in construction,
especially in the road and pavement industry. Bitumen is a naturally occurring, highly
viscous substance derived from petroleum and is solid at room temperature. However, to
make it easier to work with and apply in various construction applications, it is sometimes
necessary to reduce its viscosity. This is where cutback bitumen comes into play. The
term “cutback” refers to the process of reducing the viscosity (thickness) of bitumen by
adding a solvent. The choice of solvent and its characteristics determine the specific
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 properties of the cutback bitumen, including its curing time and application temperature.
The benefit Cutbacks offer compared to Emulsions, is a much higher residual Bitumen
percentage, usually over 80% while the rate for emulsions is around 40-65% . As a result,
for the same volume of binder applied, more Bitumen is left on the roadway after curing
Environmental regulations. Cutback asphalts contain volatile chemicals that evaporate
into the air. Emulsified asphalts evaporate water into the atmosphere and can be
considered an eco friendly. The petroleum solvents used require higher amounts of energy
to manufacture and are expensive compared to the water and emulsifying agents used in
emulsified asphalts.

ii) Chlorinated rubber coating:

An odorless, pale yellow resin prepared by adding up to 65% chlorine to an elastomer, such
as natural rubber, butyl rubber, or styrene-butadiene. Chlorinated rubber produces a hard
tough, glossy film. It is used primarily in the paints, varnishes, adhesives, inks and paper
coatings. Chlorinated rubber is also used for waterproof paints on floors and swimming
pools. It is very resistant to chemicals and moisture. Chlorinated rubber is a nonflammable
white powder chemical substance that is formed by reacting carbon tetrachloride with
chlorine. It has increased hardness and decreased reactivity with most chemicals, making it
ideal for use as a protective barrier against corrosion on metal surfaces. chlorinated rubber is
a primary substance used as an ingredient for paints, coatings and adhesives that are applied
as protective films, and is a common ingredient in single pack coatings. These film-like
materials are applied on corrosion-prone metal surfaces. Chlorinated rubber has the
following properties that make it particularly effective for this application:

1. Fireproof due to its increased chlorine content

2. Moisture and water resistant
3. Chemical stability and reduced reactivity
4. Good adhesion and prolonged life
5. Anti-fouling properties and mold resistance

Chlorinated rubber is often categorized according to its manufactured viscosity under

one of the following: low, medium or high. Variations in viscosity allow for a wide
range of applications in the creation of paints, additives and adhesive protective films.

iii) Vinyl coating:

A vinyl coating is a type of coating that is composed of synthetic resin or plastic. It is a thin
layer of a protective covering substance, deposited or applied on the surface of an object,
mainly to improve its properties and to create a protective barrier against surface
deterioration due to the object's reaction with its environment. Vinyl coatings may be
composed of various forms of resin, such as polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl chloride. Vinyl
coatings may be applied to provide the following means of protection, among others:

 Abrasion and scratch resistance

 Fire and heat resistance

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  Insulation against the flow of an electric charge
 Sealing ability and wettability
 Improved physical appearance and aesthetics
 Corrosion resistance
 Resistance against general wear, erosion, pitting and cavitation
 Improved physical appearance and aesthetics
 Release or nonstick properties

iv) Epoxy coating:

Epoxy is the family of basic components or cured end products of epoxy resins. Epoxy
resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which
contain epoxide groups. The epoxide functional group is also collectively called epoxy.
Epoxy coating is a chemical mix created by polymerizing of two liquid components, epoxy
resin and hardener, to create a tough, solvent-resistant finish that can be applied to surfaces
to be protected from environmental conditions. Epoxy coatings provide optimum protection
against abrasion, turbulence, corrosive fluids and extreme temperatures. Epoxy coating is not
only durable, but also resistant to many corrosive substances. Epoxies are a top choice for
many industrial coating applications, including steel, metal, concrete, and more. It requires
low maintenance, epoxy resins are considered as non-toxic, the risk of damage caused by
ingestion of epoxy resin can be considered as very small. Most curing agents in use today
have a certain toxicity. But it takes quite a large volume of harm occurring due precisely
toxicity.

v) Coal Tar Epoxy:

Coal tar epoxy is made by the conversion of polyamide epoxy with a pitch of refined coal tar
Coal tar epoxy is a black surface protection polymer used on surfaces subjected to extremely
corrosive environments. It is mostly used on metal substrates and concrete in offshore,
petroleum and industrial environments. The fluctuation of temperatures can make the
product crystallize. It is stable at room temperature. The environmental conditions affect the
drying time of the coal tar epoxy. It forms paints or coatings that are smooth in brush, roller
and spray application, It bonds well with oily surfaces, hence preferable in garages, It forms
a good moisture sealing for paints or coatings, It produces paints or coatings with abrasion,
thermal shock, impact and chemical resistance; suitable for sustained immersions in saline or
freshwater,, Provides maximum corrosion protection, Provides protection against soil stress,
Provides a semi-gloss with a matte surface finish, It provides self-priming and good adhesion
in paints or coatings.
A coal tar epoxy is a black surface protection polymer used on surfaces subjected to
extremely corrosive environments. It is a blend of various epoxy resins and coal tar. It is
commonly used to make high solids coatings or paints to provide moisture protection for
underground systems like pipelines, water treatment facilities, clarifiers and tanks; it is
further used in the sewage industry and for prevention from microorganisms. There are
different types of paints: two-component paint, three-component paint, etc. The mixture is
used in two-component paints.

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  Additional Repairing Materials:

i) Plastic or aluminum nipples:

To do the grouting while repairing the cracks in the structures a nipples is to be fixed at
appropriate interval so that the grout must reach up to its required depth. The nipples must be
sealed at their bottom to avoid loss of grout and its pressure. In general plastic or nipples are
widely used for this purpose.

ii) Polyester putty:

Polyester putty compounds are used for a variety of bonding and void filling applications.
Putty and bonding compounds are made by adding high concentrations of fillers and/or fiber
to polyester resin. These formulations are ideal for bonding, filling, and repairing composite
parts.
Solvent-Based Putty: this putty is commonly utilized to fill substantial spaces between
walls, tiles, or floors. It is applied with a trowel and solidifies within ten minutes. After it has
dried, the putty can be sanded to match the texture of the surrounding wall. This type of
putty is effective on porous surfaces like concrete or plaster but may not work on non-porous
materials like wood or gypsum board as they do not absorb water.
Water-Based Putties: This kind of putty is an alternative to solvent-based types, making it
safer for indoor applications as there are no flammable components involved. This putty also
dries faster than other types, with a drying time of approximately 45 minutes. The main
disadvantage of this putty is its relatively long drying time, which requires the user to work
quickly or have good estimating skills to ensure that the right amount of material is applied
in the right place, avoiding gaps in the surface. Additionally, since water-based putties dry
quickly, they may leave porous surfaces like concrete looking rough, but sanding them after
application can improve the final result compared to non-porous materials like wood or
gypsum board.
Epoxy Putties: These are one of the most versatile types of putties available. They’re used
for all kinds of applications, like filling in cracks or significant gaps between two surfaces
(like tiles). This filler is applied with a trowel and becomes solid after a certain period,
typically an hour or two. Depending on the type of gap filler you are using, you can measure
the amount of material you need before applying it to the surface.
Since epoxy putty takes time to dry, we recommend using this kind of putty if you have the
patience to wait. This allows you to have more time to work with the putty before it becomes
solid, and it dries more slowly than other types of putties.

Plastic Putties: There are a few different plastic putties, but they all share one common
property: they can be molded into any shape. This makes them perfect for filling in small
gaps and cracks because you don’t need to use a lot of material, and it’s easy to get the right
shape. You can also use plastic putties as a sealant around windows or doors. Like other
putties, make sure that the surface is clean and dry before applying the plastic putty. Use a
caulking gun to apply the putty, pressing firmly against the gap or crack you’re trying to fill
in until it’s flush with the surface. Let it dry completely (it takes about 24 hours) before
painting over it or using it as a sealant.

iii) 1:3 cement sand mortar:

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 Cement Mortar is one of the most common and cheapest binding materials used in
construction industry. Cement mortar is basically a mixture of cement, sand and water. It is
used in various aspects of civil engineering works such as masonry, brickwork, plastering,
flooring etc. Generally, sand is not used in the mortar to increase its strength. Rather it is
mainly used as an inert material to increase the volume of mortar for the economy. Sand
offers the requisite surface area for the film of cementing materials to adhere and to spread.
Sand helps to prevent mortar shrinkage. There are two types of mortar, dry mortar and wet
mortar. Based on its applicability the cement mortar is also classified as:

Type N mortar : It is generally used for internal and external plastering of parapet walls,
exterior walls and interior walls. It is also best suitable for flooring. The initial and final
setting time ranges from 2 hours and 24 hours respectively. It has the lesser compressive
strength in comparison with the other types of mortars which ranges from 5 to 7 MPa.
Type S mortar : This type of mortar can only be used on load bearing exterior walls, interior
walls and parapet walls. The time of setting ranges from 1.5 min to 24 hour. The
compressive strength ranges from 13 to 20 MPa. It is best suitable for substructures such as
masonry foundations, retaining walls, sewers, manholes etc.
Type M mortar: It consists of highest amount of Portland cement with compressive strengt
ranging from 13 to 21 MPa. It can bear heavy loads and can be used for driveways, heavy
foundation, retaining wall etc.

iv) Galvanized steel wire fabrics:

Galvanized wire mesh is a unique material in application in which the steel is coated
with a protective zinc coating. The material is dipped or submerged in a bath of hot zinc.
The zinc coating prevents rusting; it gives the galvanized wire mesh durability and long-
lasting use; it takes acidity to break it down.
Galvanized steel wire is coated with zinc through a process known as galvanizing. This
coating protects against corrosion and rust, making galvanized wire an excellent choice for
projects exposed to harsh conditions. The zinc coating acts as a sacrificial barrier, corroding
before the steel underneath. Its durability and corrosion resistance make it ideal for outdoor
applications like fencing, wire mesh, and support cables.

 Advantages of Galvanized Steel Wire:

I. Corrosion Resistance: Galvanized wire resists corrosion, even in wet or corrosive
environments.
II. Longevity: The zinc coating extends the wire’s life, reducing maintenance and replacement
costs.
III. Versatility: It’s suitable for many outdoor applications due to its durability and elemental
resistance.
Non-Galvanized Steel Wire: Economical Strength

Non-galvanized steel wire, or plain steel wire, doesn’t have the protective zinc coating of its
galvanized counterpart. While it might not offer as much corrosion resistance, it has notable
23
 strength and versatility at a reduced cost. This wire is ideal for interior projects or where
minimal exposure to moisture occurs, and extra protection isn’t necessary.

 Advantages of Non-Galvanized Steel Wire:

I. Economy: It’s often less expensive, suitable for budget-tight projects.
II. Strength: It retains steel’s inherent strength, fit for load-bearing tasks.
III. Indoor Applications: Commonly used for hanging artwork, crafts, and other indoor projects.
The choice between the two wire types depends on your project’s demands. Consider:
I. Environmental Conditions: For projects exposed to moisture or adverse conditions,
galvanized wire is better.
II. Budget: If cost matters and corrosion isn’t a significant risk, non-galvanized might be your
choice.
III. Longevity: For long-term durability and low maintenance, opt for galvanized wire.
In summary, choosing between galvanized and non-galvanized steel wire depends on
corrosion resistance, budget, and project demands. By evaluating these aspects, you’ll
confidently pick the right steel wire for your project’s success and longevity.

v) Clamping rods:
These are involved in the process of supporting a work crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all the other man-made
structures. These are also used to distribute the load on the structural member which is
required be repair. These are similar to the components used for formwork and shoring,
grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps,
half pipes and art projects.

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