Capacity Development Training

Session: 6 & 7

Process Optimization
&
Basics of ETP
 EXPERT PROFILE

Engr. Shubhra Chanda Sumaia Akter Tanha

Sustainability Expert Sustainability Expert
Manager & Lead Trainer, ERI Engineer & Trainer, ERI
B.Sc. in Textile Engineering, MBA in Textile Management
B.Sc. in Chemical Engineering & Polymer Science
Expert in textile wet process, energy efficiency, ETP, and chemical management
TOT in Climate Action (UNFCCC & GIZ)
TOT in Capacity development of the ETP operators (GIZ)

Note: This training material is for self-reference and development; any commercial or public use is restricted.
 TOPICS TO COVER
1. Overview of ETP
2. ETP Operator and Responsibilities
3. Effluents Characteristics and Discharge
4. Types of Treatment
5. Activated Sludge
6. Hazards of ETP
What is an ETP?

An ETP is the Removes Depending on

facility to treat ETP employs pollutants like degree of
wastewater: to physical, chemical BOD, COD, TSS, treatment
remove pollutants and/or biological metals etc. and wastewater can be
to required levels treatment. make the pH recycled and
before discharge. neutral. reused.
Who and What is an ETP operator?
• An ETP operator is the one who operate,
maintain and monitor the ETP.
• ETP operator works in three shift and senior
ones in general shift.
• The ETP operator is the most important person
in the ETP. A bit carelessness can destroy entire
functioning of an expensive ETP.

• Background of an operator can be varying from

basic to technical qualifications.
• Sometimes operator also act as maintenance
technicians, laboratory assistant and stand-in
for the ETP manager.
Why does the operator needs training?
• Investments in ETPs in South Asia is > 85 billion USD. 9 billion
USD is spent annually to operate these plants.
• 92% of these plants underperforms. <45% performs with 50%
of designed efficiency, about 35% does not function at all!
• A non-performing ETP would be a waste of money, energy
and does not ensure legal security.
• Design mistakes account for 17% failures, 29% due to
wrong/substandard construction and 51% of the ETP failures
are due to bad operation.
• Few are deliberate operational failures
• Majority of the bad operation practices are due to
inefficient, unqualified and/or untrained operators.
Why does the operator needs training?
• Discharge of improperly treated effluents contaminates
huge amount of fresh water.
• Contamination of water bodies affect livelihoods of millions.
• Operationalising the non-functional ETPs through effective
training of operators would save huge amount of money,
• Industry achieve legal security & environment protected.
• Buyers and their customers assured of environment
protection.
• Many ETP personnel die not knowing Safety practices in ETP.
• In future, ETP operator need qualification as per ZDHC.
Why we do not see many ETP training programs?
• Despite benefits, ETP training programs seldom successful.
• Employer’s reluctant to sponsor, fresh students are not
interested to enrol and few qualified personnel seek job
elsewhere.
• Lack of interest from Employers - (a) lack of awareness &
seriousness, (c) fear of increase in salaries, (d) fear of trained
person leaving and (f) fear of increase (!!) in O & M costs after
training.
• Employees reluctant: loss of holidays, extra effort.
• Insufficient value of degree offered - unlike a Diploma or
Degree, a certificate course may not add value to trainee's
resume.
• Situation is changing : Greater awareness, increased pressure
for ETP performance, stipulation by agencies like ZDHC.
Water usage by textile industry in Dhaka

• Most industries have small land - low rain water

recharge against huge withdrawal.
• It is like thousands of pumps, continuously pump the
groundwater to river!
• Groundwater level in most areas very low- water
becomes saline or under yielding
• Adopting rain water harvesting is good, but the clayey
Dhaka soil, does not allow much water to percolate.
• Water scarcity would be disastrous for Bangladesh,
depending heavily on textile industry.
Issue of pollution

Lot of focus already DO levels in these Despite installation However, besides

on the huge pollution rivers are of ETPs in recent pollution, a grave
due to the industry. unsustainable for times, complaints threat to the
Rivers, viz., Chilai, aquatic organisms. only intensifies. May industry, often
Turag/Buriganga, Even the industry be situation will ignored, is “ LOSS
Shitalakkhya, Balu and does not want to improve with more OF WATER”
Bangshi-all heavily use this water! ETPs option for
contaminated. biological
treatment.
Effluent inflow & conditions of River Turag today!
Why to do proper effluent treatment?

• Industries install ETPs for legal requirement, satisfy

buyers/brands. Some has environmental concern.
• The real reason should be…water!
• Untreated/undertreated effluent has huge consequence on
the water resource.
• Water is one of the most important raw material for the
textile production.
• Interestingly, industry does audits: power/labour/ chemical
availability before location finalisation, forget this
important raw material…..water!
Impact of effluent discharge

The effluent with or

Almost entire quantity Unfortunately, this
without treatment This discharge of
of water used in direct & indirect loss
industry is discharged gets irreversibly lost, effluent cause loss of
of water is never
as effluent. once it is discharged water in two ways:
taken seriously.
into a flowing river.

huge quantity of water consumed When contaminated water reaches a

in the manufacturing gets water body, it gets polluted and
discharged as effluent and get much more quantity of fresh water
directly wasted, becomes unusable.
Pollution in Textile Industry
Water consumption in textile processing

• Water consumption in the factory depends on the material

processed (cotton, wool, Nylon, Rayon etc.).
• In Bangladesh, the normal water consumption varies from
90-160 litres per kg of material processed.
• Operations up to bleaching consumes about 40% of total
water needed. Dyeing & printing another 25%.

• Boiler and humidification 25% and about 8% for sanitary

applications. Most of these water comes out as effluent.
Water consumption in textile processing

Sanitary Desizing/washing
8% 11%
Humidification Scouring/washing
15% 11%

Boiler Bleaching/washing
11% 18%
Printing
8% Dyeing
18%

Desizing/washing Scouring/washing Bleaching/washing Dyeing

Printing Boiler Humidification Sanitary
16 08-10-2022 ToT-ETP Operators
Now, let us have a look at the effluent generated..
Characteristics of effluent from textile processing

Seizing
Biochemical
oxygen demand
from sizes,
enzymes, starch De-sizing Sodium
and waxes hydroxide,
surfactants,
soaps, fats,
Scouring pectin, oils,
Hydrogen
sizes and waxes
peroxide sodium
silicate organic
stabilizer and Bleaching
alkaline
condition
Mercerizing
Metals, salt,
surfactants,
colour and
Dyeing alkaline/acidic
conditions
Colour,
metals, urea
formaldehyde Printing Softeners,
and solvents solvents, resins
and waxes

Finishing
QUIZ

What are the pollutants

in textile effluents?
Pollutants in textile effluent
• Organic pollutants: residues of organic material used
both as raw material and process ingredients.

• Salt: Most chemicals used in textile processing

contributes to salts.

• Suspended particles: mostly fine fibers and residues of

chemicals.

• Heavy metals & hazardous substances: Normally

present in dyeing & printing chemicals and discharged
in these effluents.

• Colour & temperature: caused by the remnants of the

dyes & printing agents. The operation is done at high
temperature.
Nature of pollutants in textile effluent - Inorganic
• Only small portion of chemicals used in manufacturing is
consumed and most comes out in effluent.

• Alkalis, mineral acids, neutral salts (chlorides,

sulphates, phosphates and silicates) and oxidizing
agents like peroxides, chlorine and chlorine dioxide.

• Residuals of these chemicals mostly emerge as salts:

direct salts or salts formed due to inter-reaction of
alkali and acids,

• Other inorganic compounds in effluent include heavy

metals in chemicals used in manufacturing.

• Major heavy metals : Copper, Chromium, Nickel, Zinc,

Cadmium, Mercury, Antimony etc.
Nature of Pollutant in textile effluent-Organics
Medium organic load, but difficult to biodegrade
starch sizes, vegetable oils, fats and waxes, biodegradable
surfactants, organic acids and reducing agents
High Organic load, but difficult to degrade
dyes and fluorescent brighteners, fibres and polymeric
impurities, polyacrylate sizes, synthetic polymer finishes
and silicons
Moderate to high organic load but readily degradable
wool grease, PVA sizes, starch ethers and esters, mineral
oil (spin finish), surfactants, anionic /non-ionic softeners
Low organic load but very difficult to degrade
formaldehyde, N-methylol reactants, chlorinated solvents
and carriers, cationic retarding and softening
agents, biocides, sequestering agents.
Polluants in textile effluent: Colour & Odour

• Color not included in the Environment Conservation

Rules specified by DoE, but it is an aesthetic issue
• Colour removal is generally difficult & often produces
unwanted issues such as sludge to dispose.
• Textile effluent give foul smell if we keep it for some
time. It is due to chemicals and due to degradation
of organics and Sulphur containing compounds.
• Sulphur comes from sodium sulphate used in dying
and some other Sulphur containing chemicals
• Sulphur degradation generates foul smelling (rotten
egg smell) and poisonous hydrogen sulphide.
For common man, pollution is just colour and smell!
General pollutants in textile effluent - pH

• pH indicates how acidic or alkaline the wastewater is. pH is

measure of hydrogen atoms present in the water.
• Pure water has pH 7 - neutral. pH below 7 is acidic and
above 7 is alkaline.
• Different effluent streams from textile processing are
either acidic or alkaline.
• Composite effluent from cotton processing is generally
alkaline - large quantity of caustic soda used in the process.
• To operate our ETP is satisfactorily, we need to bring down
the pH, preferably in the range of 7.5-8.5 to allow micro-
organisms in ETP to strive.
General pollutants in textile effluent - Suspended Solids

• Suspended solids in effluent is visible solid particles - will

settle in the bottom if we keep the effluent for long time.
• Textile effluent contains suspended solids, generated from
minute fiber particles, remnants of chemicals used..
• The SS, especially the not readily degradable ones, need
to be removed before aeration tank.
• This is because they will retard the growth of micro-
organisms and clog diffusers.
• SS will also settle in tanks and pipes and create blockages.
Pollutants in textile effluent - Total dissolved Solids
• Total dissolved solids (TDS) contributed by salts used in
production, mainly dyeing.
• TDS is also contributed by salt generated through inter-
reactions of chemicals used (acid and alkali).
• TDS may include both organic & inorganic compounds,
generally it refers to only inorganic (fixed) salts.
• Most important TDS contributors - sodium chloride and
sodium sulphates used in dyeing process. Some chemicals
like caustic soda & acid too reacts and produce salts.
• We may think: what is the big deal in having some
harmless salt in the effluent? --- pollution due to salts are
severe and long lasting, because unlike organics, inorganic
salts does not get degraded over time.
Pollutants in textile effluent - non heavy metal hazardous compounds

• Cotton processing uses many organic chemicals which

can also be hazardous.
• They include formaldehyde, N-methylol reactants,
azodyes, chlorinated solvents and carriers, cationic
retarding and softening
agents, biocides (pentachlorophenol, organometal
complexes, insecticides), sequestering agents (EDTA,
NTA)
• Remnants of these chemicals are discharged along
with the effluent and enters the ETP.
• Many of these compounds are also carcinogenic, i.e.,
cancer causing material when enters the human body.
QUIZ

What is the problem if the

discharged effluent contains
high BOD?
Detrimental effects of pollutants : BOD

• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is measure of

bio-degradable organics in effluent.
• BOD is equal to oxygen consumed when organics in
the effluent is degraded by micro-organisms.
• BOD is calculated by measuring oxygen consumed
after 5 days at 200 C or 3 days in ambient temp.
Detrimental effects of pollutants : BOD

• Biodegradable organics in effluent is harmful. When BOD

rich effluent joins water body, it reduces dissolved
oxygen - essential for fish and aquatic life. If BOD is
very high such discharge into river can cause death of
fishes.
• BOD is also problematic due to its potential to degrade
anaerobically when stagnated causing foul odour.
• Largest source of BOD in textile effluent is desizing
effluents. Other streams too contribute to it.
General pollutants in textile effluent - organics: BOD
Detrimental effects of pollutants : COD

• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a measure of

oxygen consumed by both organic and some
inorganic compounds.
• COD include bio-degradable organics & will be
higher than BOD.
• Like BOD, COD is harmful to environment because
of its capability to reduce dissolved oxygen in
receiving water body.
Detrimental effects of pollutants : COD

• COD is measured by oxidizing a measured quantity of

effluent and then measuring oxygen consumed through
chemical analysis.
• Almost all effluent streams in textile effluent
contributes COD - more by desizing, scouring and dyeing
effluents.
• Unlike BOD tests which need 5 days (3 days minimum),
COD tests can be done in 2 hours and is more accurate.
Hence more operators take COD as the control
parameter for ETP.
General pollutants in textile effluent - COD
Impact of pollutants in textile effluent - Nutrients
• Nutrients present in the textile effluent are Phosphorous &
Nitrogen. Nutrients are also added in the ETP to facilitate
biological treatment.
• Excess nutrients in effluent when reaches a water body create a
problem called eutrophication.
• Eutrophication occurs when these nutrients produce excess
algae,
• Excessive algae growth reduce light penetration & the lack of
light stops photosynthesis making algae die in large quantity.
• Due to this all dissolved oxygen in the water is consumed by the
decaying algae.
• Then fish & other aquatic life dies due to shortage of oxygen.
General pollutants in textile effluent - Nutrients
Impact of pollutants - heavy metals & hazardous compounds
• The colouring processes (dyeing and printing) uses chemicals
containing heavy metals to impart the required colour.
• Almost all of these metals are discharged along with the
effluent.
• Chemical precipitation in the ETP (primary ETP) removes a part
of these metals which ends up in sludge.
• Due to the presence of these metals, the sludge from ETP is
considered hazardous by most environmental protection
agencies.
• Biological treatment does not remove heavy metals in effluent.
• So, in the first case part of the heavy metals end up in the
sludge whereas in the second, it flows out along with the
treated effluent.
Pollutants in textile effluent - heavy metals
The following metals are listed in the national environmental
quality standards for industrial wastewater and sludge :
• Cadmium
• Chromium
• Manganese
• Copper
• Iron
• Lead
• Mercury
• Boron
• Nickel
• Selenium and
• Zinc.

Heavy metals can be toxic to humans, plants, fish and other aquatic
life. They are capable of bio-accumulating in fishes and then reach
humans in higher quantities.
Bioaccumulation of heavy metals & hazardous compounds
Pollutants in textile effluent - High Temperature
• Many of the processes in the cotton processing such as scouring,
bleaching & dyeing is done at high temperature.
• The composite raw effluent comes out at a high temperature
(often > 600C). Hot water creates thermal pollution.
• Dissolution of oxygen in water is dependent on temperature of
water. Higher the temperature, lower the solubility of oxygen.
• If the hot water joins a water body, the dissolved oxygen in that
water falls drastically and kills aquatic life.
• Also, high temperature (i.e, say >400C) affects activity of
micro-organisms. Hence cooling towers are often used in ETP
after equalization to ensure effectiveness in all-biological ETPs.
QUIZ

Can there be a problem if the

treated effluent has high salts?
Pollutants in textile effluent - Total dissolved Solids
• Most international environmental standards fix upper limit of
TDS as 2100 mg/l in treated effluent, 1000 mg/l for chloride
(600 mg/l if discharge s into land) and 1000 mg/l for sulphate.
• For marine discharge, TDS limit is normally not insisted upon.
• High TDS in water makes it unfit for drinking. The desirable
limit of TDS in domestic water is less than 500 mg/l.
• Sodium salts increases blood pressure and high salt level
contributes to many health issues including kidney damages.
• Salt rich water is also unsuitable for construction.
• High TDS in water is also detrimental to vegetation. Many crops
& plants can have stunted growth and lower yield.
High salt concentration cause stunted growth of vegetation
Effect of Pollutants - non heavy metal hazardous compounds
• Being less biodegradable, these organic compounds do not
show much BOD, but show COD or Total organic carbon
readings.
• Due to the above reason, they are not easily removed in
biological treatment.
• But if the ETP operator succeeds to maintain a steady level of
these compounds in effluent and keep a high MLSS in
aeration, the bacteria which can degrade these would form
naturally and removes these toxic organics.
• This process involves ‘acclimatization’ of bacteria with these
organic compounds, persuading the bacteria to ‘eat’ it though
it is not a favourite food for them.
Primary Treatment systems
What is primary treatment?
• Primary treatment has physical and chemical components.

• many units including screening, grit removal, equalisation, chemical dosing,

flocculation & solids separation.

• Primary treatment Screens remove solids harmful to pumps/aerators

• Equalisation ensures uniform quality of effluent for subsequent stages.

• Chemical coagulation removes suspended solids, reduces colour, precipitate heavy

metals and a portion of organics.

• Primary treatment produces sludge equivalent to the suspended solids in the

effluent & the chemicals dosed.
Overview of primary treatment units and their
performance
Unit operation Functions Common units used
Screening • Removal of large particles (suspended or floating) Bar racks and screens of
above screen size. various description
Grit Removal • Removal of sand like materials from the effluent. Grit chamber

Equalization • Homogenizing the characteristics of the effluent Equalization tank

to maintain the efficiency of the chemical and Aerators, mixers
biological treatment.
• Flow balancing.
Coagulation/ • Facilitating settling of colloidal solids & allowing Flash mixer & flocculator
flocculation the small solids to join together to make it big,
facilitating solids separation.
Primary • Removal of organic/inorganic settleable solids Primary sedimentation tank
Sedimentation (clarifier)
Efficiency of Primary Treatment
To remove the coarse and settleable solids to avoid
Screening clogging in the pumps, valves and pipelines

Grit removal To remove the fine solids to avoid clogging in the pipelines

To maintain the process control, process monitoring

Flow metering
and discharge reports

Flow
To avoid shock loading in treatment, to homogenize effluent,
equalization
Chemical To remove the settleable organic and inorganic solids by
treatment sedimentation

Solids To remove the settleable solids/ chemical sludge and

separation thickening of sludge
What is primary treatment?

Heavy metal BOD removal : TSS removal :

COD removal :
removal: 80-90% 25-50% 70 - 80%
50 -60%
Screening

• Purpose
▪ To protect following treatment units against large objects

▪ To prevent obstructions, blockages and clogging (e.g.

pumps, mixers)

▪ To ensure efficiency of subsequent treatment process

▪ To easily separate and remove large matter in raw

effluent
Manually cleaned screen
Screening

• Concept
• Efficiency depending on spacing between screen bars:

▪ Fine screening (spacing under 10 mm)

▪ Medium screening (spacing between 10 to 40 mm)

▪ Coarse screening (spacing more than 40 mm)

• Fine screening usually preceded by manually cleaned screen

for purposes of protection.
Manually cleaned screen

52
Screening

• Manually cleaned screening

▪ First screening by manually cleaned bar screen
− Commonly 20 - 50 mm spacing
− Stainless steel or also non-corrosive poly propylene

▪ Cleaning with a fork like gadget attached to spindle by

operator stand outside screen chamber

▪ Little or no equipment maintenance required Rake and spindle for cleaning screen

▪ Good choice for smaller ETPs with few screenings.

53
Screening

• Manually cleaned screening

▪ Use of screening platform with perforations for
screening removal after draining water

▪ Low cost solution

• No electricity consumed
• Low maintenance requirements
• Higher labour costs than mechanically
cleaned screens
Cross section and layout of bar screen

54
Screening

• Mechanically cleaned screening

▪ Often after manually cleaned screen and protected by
coarse bar-screen
▪ Automatic cleaning system
▪ Suitable when raw water contains high volume of
coarse matter.

55
Screening

• Mechanically cleaned screening

• Three popular types
1. Like manually cleaned screen with mechanical comb
for cleaning
2. Brush screen with screen portion in trough and series
of rotating blade with brushes for cleaning
3. Drum screen with effluent flowing through
perforated drum and screenings removed by brush-
blades

56
 It accommodates
Equalization Tank quantity of effluents
which comes in short
time & goes out in
20-24 hrs.
There will be
some self-
neutralisation: Storage also
less chemicals. reduces the high
temperature of
In short, equalisation is to equalize effluent to some
flow, minimize temperature and extent.
homogenise the wastewater
It equalises
quality of
wastewater to After screening & grit
make it fit for removal, is equalisation,
further also known as
treatment. homogenisation.
Equalisation tank types

Circular equalization tank Rectangular equalization tank

Description of equalization tank

• Normal retention time 16 -24 hours. It can be circular

or rectangular in shape.
• Mostly tanks are kept below ground level. Where
inflow level of screens & grit chamber is too low, a
pumping well is given
• In diffused aeration, there are main air headers &
lateral headers.
• Liftable air header & diffusers are preferred : can
change/ clean diffusers without emptying the tank.
• In some equalisation, aeration is supplemented by
submersible mixers
Aeration in Equalization Tank
Most equalisation tanks • To keep good mixing, ensuring homogenisation,
has aeration. It has • To prevent anaerobic conditions, bad smell etc.
three purposes • To reduce the temperature to some extent.

Most common aeration

system in BD is • About 80% of equalisation tank mixing is by submerged
diffused aeration. aeration: diffusers or perforated pipes.

Unlike aeration tanks,

fixed aerators
mounted on platforms
• Level of the tank goes up and down
are not suitable

Main handicap of • Floating aerator, jet aeration, aerators, aspirators

diffused aeration is
choking of diffusers • Small ETPs : perforated pipes.

Other aerators are

less common. They • Floating aerator, jet aeration, aerators, aspirators
include • Small ETPs : perforated pipes.
Control of equalization

• Where two equalisation tanks or a tank with two

compartments, operate alternatively.
• Keep Inlet and outlet points of the equalisation tanks distant
to prevent channelling.
• Ensure no settlement of sludge, especially in the corners.
Adjust position of floating aerator
• Pumping lines from the equalisation tank should extend till
bottom of the tank. Take safety precautions.
• Maintenance of level is most important operation control
Equalisation tank levels

Maximum water level

0.5 meter Buffer Water level for extra water inflow

Desirable max water level

3 meter
Water level to be maintained for
effective equalisation
1.75 meter

Minimum water level

0.75 meter
Minimum Water level to be maintained for
homogenisation
pH control of Equalized effluent

• Biological treatment need neutral pH in influent.

• If pH is acidic, pH adjustment done by an alkali like
caustic soda or soda ash.
• Mostly pH is alkaline and adjustment done with
Hydrochloric acid or Sulphuric acid
• In small plants, acid dosing done from a chemical barrel.
Large ETPs have dosing pump with variable speed
control.
• In some cases, automatic pH control done using an online
pH meter coupled with PID control of dosing valves.
• A lab study is a must to decide on the quantity of acid to
be dosed.
Cooling of Equalised effluent

• Textile dyeing effluent is hot.

• Biological treatment need ambient temperature
effluent.
• Normally biological treatment efficiency increases
with temperature (thermophilic micro-organisms).

• However, if temperature goes above 40-42oC,

microbes may die.
• Hence, most biological ETPs have a cooling system at
inlet of aeration.
Chemical Treatment systems
Units in Chemical treatment

Chemical slurry • consists of 2 or 3 small tanks with

preparation & agitators. coagulant, neutralising agent
dosing units and polyelectrolytes

• Where the prepared chemical slurry is

Flash mixer
mixed with equalised effluent

Flocculator • To aid settleable floc formation of solids

• Where the precipitated solids are

Solids separated throough settling, filtration or
separation unit floatation
Flocculator & clarifier
QUIZ

What are the chemicals

used in Textile ETP?
Coagulation
Reaction Tank / Flash Mixers

• Fitted with mixer for rapid mixing (rpm=60-150)

• HRT = 5 - 10 minutes
• Dosing system of Lime (5% solution) and FeSO4
(10% solution)
• Excess FeSO4 1 kg = 0.4 kg excess sludge and
retain colour in aeration tank

Total Volume (m3)

HRT (hours) = ----------------------------------------
Flow Rate of Effluent (m3/hr)
Color change on oxidation of ferrous ion

Ferrous sulphate` Ferric sulphate

No overdosing of ferrous sulphate please!!

Flocculation aids
Flocculation Tank

• Fitted with mixer for rapid mixing (rpm=20)

• HRT = 20 - 30 minutes
• Dosing system of Poly Electrolyte (0.05-0.1% solution)
pH Correction Tank

• Fitted with mixer for rapid mixing (rpm=20)

• HRT = 5 - 10 minutes
• to bring down the pH within a range of 6.5 to 8.5
• Dosing system of lime/sulphuric acid (2.5% solution)
• Excess lime produces excess sludge
Dosing Tanks

• At least two sets for each chemical with agitator

• Can hold sufficient quantities of solution for at least 8 h

• Tank Volume (m3) = Feed Rate (m3/h) x Time (h)

Where: Feed rate = Required flow of chemical (m3/h)

Time = 8 h
QUIZ

What are the types of solids

separation units used in ETP?
Sedimentation
• Sedimentation removes suspended solids present. It works
based on the difference in density.
• Types of sedimentation are:

▪ Discrete settling, if the wastewater is relatively diluted and

the particles do not interact.
▪ Flocculent settling, if the particles are flocculated particles
of larger mass and faster settling rate.
▪ Zone settling, also called hindered settling : when particles
adhere together and settle as a blanket. e.g: sludge setting
in secondary clarifiers

• This sedimentation is used in both primary treatment and

secondary treatment.
Horizontal flow settling units
Circular clarifiers

• Circular tanks more effective. Types - Centre fed and

rim tanks.

• Settled solids are removed from center, bottom slope

10%.

• Sludge is swept to center by two or four arms with

scrapers (Central/ Peripheral drive)

• Center-fed tanks - circular inflow well. Rim-fed tanks

has baffle, effluent enters tangentially.

• Even distribution of inlet and outlet flows avoid short-

circuiting - reduce separation efficiency.
 Circular clarifiers

Circular clarifiers are the most common settling units elsewhere in the world, though tube settlers are
more popular in Bangladesh
Hopper bottom settling tanks

The advantage of sloped bottom

sedimentation tank is that a rotating
sludge scraper is not required.

82
Tube settler

• A tube settler is made up tubular channels that are placed

adjacent to each other.
• These are placed at 60 degrees and combined to increase the
effective settling area of particles.
• The settling zone depth is less than conventional clarifier.

• Individual tubes makes it easier for floc to settle fast.

• Tube settler make use of fine floc that manages to go past
clarification zone to arrest fine particles
Tube settler

• Larger particles in a better shape.

• Operate on principle of settling velocity.
• Lightweight PVC tubes which are adjacently
placed and joined at an angle (60 degrees)
• Tube settler is different from a plate settler
 Surface Overflow Rate (SOR)

Surface Overflow Rate (SOR) calculated falls within the guidelines:

Plain clarifier: 0.9 - 1.2 m3/hr/m2(m/h)

Tube settler: 2.0 - 2.5 m3/hr/m2(m/h)

Lamella clarifier: 1.2 -1.5 m3/hr/m2(m/h)

Note: SOR (Surface Overflow Rate) is the main criteria for calculation of area (size) of clarifier,

not retention time

Surface Overflow Rate (SOR)
 Basic concept of biological treatment

Image: textile today

 Activated Sludge process

Image: water online

QUIZ

What is activated sludge?

Why is called so?
Basic concept

• treatment of organics using micro-organisms in

biologically ‘activated’ sludge.
• Mixed liquor = raw effluent + returned bio-sludge -
mixed liquor suspended solids, in short MLSS, housing
bacteria
• intermittent product formed during degradation of
organics in effluent.
• Usually dark brown in color, varying with micro-
organisms health and nature of organics
• Consisting of 95% variety of mostly aerobic bacteria
species, 5% fungi, protozoa and higher forms of
invertebrates
Basic concept

Air • Effluent mixed with activated sludge and

aerated for treatment in aeration tank
Aeration 1 2 • Bio-sludge separated from clear effluent in
Tank Secondary
Clarifier secondary clarifier
• Separated bio-sludge returned to aeration
3 tank to maintain required quantity of bio-
Return Activated Sludge (RAS) sludge.
4
• Some excess bio-sludge wasted to keep bio-
Waste Activated sludge fresh and healthy
Sludge (WAS)
Basic concept

Common microorganisms in aeration basin of

activated sludge

• Bacteria : organic reduction

• Protozoa: remove and digest dispersed bacteria
and suspended particles.
• Protozoa Types: Amoebae, Flagellates, Ciliates
& free-swimming Ciliates
• Algae and fungi: with pH changes/older sludge
• Metazoa : longer age systems including lagoons,
• Metazoa Types: Rotifers Nematodes,
Tardigrades
Basic concept
Appearance of microorganisms in aeration basin of activated sludge

Individual bacteria Bacteria in cluster with Micro-organisms in MLSS

other microorganisms as seen in microscope
Basic concept
Activated sludge through microscope
 Activated sludge treatment stages

Image: cropaia
Activated sludge treatment stages
Stage 1
• Making food (BOD) in wastewater available to bacteria.
• mixing wastewater thoroughly with bio-sludge, i.e., MLSS
• providing required time for reaction, i.e. retention time
Stage 2
• Converting organic material to carbon dioxide, water and cell matter
• Part of organics directly converted to end products
• some portion remain as intermediate product, i.e. cell mass,
becoming MLSS
Stage 3
• Bio-flocculation, when MLSS settling as a block trapping organic
materials.
• pumped back to aeration tank as return activated sludge (RAS) and
further treated
Activated sludge treatment stages

Differentiation based on retention time (HRT) and/or organic

loading rate, activated sludge systems
• Conventional activated sludge systems
✓ F/M ratio of about 0.2-0.4 retention time 8-12 hours.
• Extended aeration activated sludge systems
✓ F/M ratio about 0.08 -0.15 and 16-24 hours HRT.
• High rate activated sludge systems:
✓ F/M ratio of about 1-2 and HRT as 3-4 hours.
Activated sludge treatment stages

Differentiation by solid separation

• Conventional aeration systems with external settling tanks
• In-situ settling systems such as sequential batch reactors
• Membrane bio-reactors using filtration for bio-solids
separation instead of clarifiers.
• Hybrid reactors including MBBR, IFAS, FAB
✓ not considered as pure activated sludge systems
 Activated sludge parameters

Image: cropaia
QUIZ

What you mean by the

terms MLSS and F/M?
Activated sludge parameters
MLSS and MLVSS
• Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) referring to
suspended solids in aeration tank.
• Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS)
referring to volatile portion of activated sludge
✓ loss in weight determined by heating MLSS at
above 500 degree C with organic portion
evaporated
✓ required for calculating F/M ratio as key
operational parameter
✓ If MLVSS value not available, MLSS value used
for calculating F/M ratio e.g. in case of steady
operating plant
Activated sludge parameters

F/M Ratio
= amount of food given to bacteria
• ‘F’ (= food) referring to quantity of organics (e.g. BOD)
• ‘M’ (= micro-organisms) referring to quantity of bio-sludge
(i.e. MLSS)
• Bacteria requiring certain food quantity to survive
✓ Ratio of kilogram BOD per day to the kilogram of
MLSS
Activated sludge parameters
F/M Ratio
depending on type of activated sludge system

Food to
Type of activated sludge Oxygen to food
microorganisms
process
F/M kg O2/kg BOD
Extended aeration ASP 0.1 2.0
Conventional ASP 0.3 1.2
High rate ASP 1.0 0.8
0.3 F/M meaning 1 kg BOD needing 3 kg MLSS
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 1

ETP flow rate 800 m3/d.

Aeration tank size 600 m3
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l
MLSSV 70 %
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l

What is the F/M maintained in your ETP?

Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 1
Step 1:
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d. Calculate kg BOD load to aeration tank.
Aeration tank size 600 m3 BOD = 500 mg/l, flow = 800 m3/d.
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l 500 milligrams/litre = 0.5 grams/litre
MLSSV 70 % = 0.5 kg/1000 litres = 0.5 kg/m3
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l Total BOD load for 800 m3 = 800 x 0.5
= 400 kg.
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 1 Step 2:
Calculate kg MLVSS in aeration tank. MLSS is
3000 mg/l, aeration tank volume 600 m3
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d.
and MLVSS is 70%.
Aeration tank size 600 m3
MLSS quantity = 3000 milligrams/litre =
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l 3 grams/litre = 3 kg/1000 litres = 3 kg/m3
MLSSV 70 %
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l Total MLSS for 600 m3 = 600 x 3 = 1800
kg, MLVSS = 70% of 1800 kg = 1260 kg
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 1
Step 3:
Calculating F/M
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d.
Aeration tank size 600 m3 F/M based on MLSS = kg BOD/kg MLSS
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l F/M based on MLSS = 400 kg/1800 kg = 0.22
MLSSV 70 % F/M based on MLVSS = kg BOD/kg MLVSS
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l F/M based on MLVSS = 400 kg/1260 kg = 0.32
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 2
Step 2:
Calculate the kg BOD needed @ F/M 0.2
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d.
based on MLSS, flow is 800 m3/d
Aeration tank size 600 m3
F/M = 0.2, Food (F) = M x 0.2, F (kg) = 0.2 x
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l 1800 kg = 360 kg
MVLSS 70 %
mg/l BOD = kg BOD/flow m3 = 360/800 =
F/M as per design 0.2 MLSS 0.45 kg/m3 = 450 g/m3 = 450 g/1000 litres =
450 mg/l
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 2 (Calculating MLSS needed to maintain good operation.)

ETP flow rate 800 m3/d.

Aeration tank size 600 m3
How much MLSS needed
MLSS concentration 3000 mg/l
in the aeration tank?
MLSSV 70 %
F/M as per design 0.2 MLSS
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 3 (Calculating MLSS needed to maintain good operation.)

ETP flow rate 800 m3/d. Step 1:

Aeration tank size 600 m3 Calculate BOD load to aeration
tank; flowrate 600 m3/d and BOD
F/M 0.2 MLSS
500 mg/l.
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l
BOD quantity = 500
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d. milligrams/litre = 0.5 grams/litre =
0.5 kg/1000 litres =0.5 kg/m3
BOD quantity for 800 m3 = 0.5 x
800 = 400 kg
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating F/M Ratio for ETP
Example 3
Step 2:
Calculate kg MLSS needed @ F/M
ETP flow rate 800 m3/d. 0.2, tank volume 600 m3
Aeration tank size 600 m3 F/M = 0.2, M = F ⁒ 0.2, Food (kg) =
F/M 0.2 MLSS 400 kg/0.2 = 2000 kg
BOD at inlet 500 mg/l Total MLSS = 2000 kg, MLSS
kilogram/m3 = 2000/600 = 3.3
kg/m3 = 3.3 g/l = 3300 mg/l
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

= quantity of settled bio-sludge returned to aeration
tank from secondary settling tank;
• important to maintain bacterial population and
health of aeration tank.
✓ Generally about 85-90% of bio-solids entering
settling tank returned as RAS
✓ 5% overflows as suspended solids in treated
effluent and 5-10% wasted as excess sludge.
• RAS quantity about 100% of inlet (range 80% -125%)
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

Example:
RAS 1000 m3/d
• 1000 m3/d inflow to aeration tank = RAS 1000
m3/d.
2000 1000
Influent 1000
m3/d
m3/d m3/d
Explanation
• 1000 m3/d RAS pumped back
1000 m3/d
• Actual inflow increasing to 2000 m3/d (1000 m3 of
inlet + 1000 m3/d RAS)
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

• Maintain proper RAS level

✓ Too much RAS thinning bio-sludge and

increasing hydraulic load with effect on
settling process.

✓ Too low RAS leading to insufficient return

of bio-solids and bio-solids overflow out of
secondary clarifier, spoiling treated effluent
quality and loss of bio-sludge.
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

• Need to observe settleability of bio-sludge
✓ Take aeration tank MLSS in 1000 ml beaker and
allowed to settle for some time
✓ Good MLSS settling to about 30-40% in 30 minutes
• Good settling process gradual and smooth
✓ Too fast settling resulting in insufficient bio-
flocculation in secondary settling tank
✓ Too slow settling resulting in loss of bio-solids
through overflow in treated effluent.
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

Example of bad settling

• Settling rate too fast.

• Within 15 mins sludge settled to about 250 ml.
• Sludge not settling as a block in settling tank.
• Results in poor BOD removal.
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

Example of good settling

• Settling rate too slow.

• Even after one hour, sludge occupying 700 ml of
beaker volume.
• Bio-solids overflowing in secondary clarifier and
loss of MLSS.
Activated sludge parameters

Return activated sludge (RAS)

Example of good settling

• Settling rate even and smooth.

• Within 30 min. sludge settled to about 300 ml
(i.e, about 30% of total volume).
• This shows good compaction
Activated sludge parameters
Sludge volume index (SVI)
= volume (in milliliters) occupied by one gram of activated
sludge settled for 30 min in ml/g
To calculate SVI
1. keep bio-sludge in beaker of 1 litre and settle same for
30 mins
2. Check MLSS (mg/l) in laboratory and calculate
concentration as grams per litre
✓ 3000 mg/MLSS = 3 grams per litre
3. Calculate SVI as ml of settled bio-sludge divided by
grams per litre of MLSS
✓ General SVI range 75 -150 ml/g, for textile ETP
around 90 - 110 ml/g.
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating SVI for ETP operation
Example 3

MLSS concentration 3500 mg/l

Sludge volume settling 325 ml What is the SVI?
after 30 min in 1 litre
beaker
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating SVI for ETP operation
Example 3

Step 1
MLSS concentration 3500 mg/l
Calculate MLSS as grams per litre
Sludge volume settling 325 ml
after 30 min in 1 litre MLSS = 3500 milligrams/litre =
beaker 3.5 grams/litre
Activated sludge parameters
Calculating SVI for ETP operation
Example 3 Step 2
Verify the settleability of bio-sludge
MLSS concentration 3500 mg/l in milli litres in a one litre beaker
Sludge volume settling 325 ml after settling for 30 minutes. Sludge
after 30 min in 1 litre settled in 30 minutes = 325
beaker millilitre
SVI = Sludge volume settling
Range of SVI needed for ETP =93
(ml)/MLSS (gr/l)
ETP appears to be in a good operational
level (between 90 - 110 ml/g) SVI = 325/3.5 = 92.8 = say 93
.
Activated sludge parameters
Sludge volume index (SVI)
Effects of different SVI in settling of bio-sludge

SVI ml/g Effect on settling & quality of treated effluent

Too low, bio-sludge not settling as block since not enough
< 60 filaments, possibility of fine suspended solids in treated
effluent
Good settling of bio-sludge, clear treated effluent, compact
60-120
sludge blanket formation.
120-180 Fair settleability, clear treated effluent
180-250 Poor settleability, reasonably clear treated effluent
Very poor settleability, sludge bulking, turbid effluent with
>250
intermittent sludge overflow.
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Attached growth systems: Moving Bed Bio Reactors

(MBBR)
▪ Modernized’ version of trickling filter
▪ Special plastic media with high surface area
− Up to thousands of m2 per cubic meter of media Typical MBBR media

▪ Bacterial slime growing over media disintegrating organics

in wastewater into carbon dioxide and water
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Attached growth systems: Moving Bed Bio Reactors

(MBBR)
▪ Two versions:
− Fluidised Aerobic Bed (FAB) reactor with larger size media
− Normal MBBR using small (10-25 mm diameter) media

▪ Outlet to settling tank with overflow for treated effluent

discharge
▪ Small FAB reactors with integrated settling compartment.
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Attached growth systems: Moving Bed Bio

Reactors (MBBR)

Inlet effluent
To settling Treated
tank Effluent

MBBR media

Sludge

Air Blower
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Attached growth systems: Moving Bed Bio Reactors

(MBBR)
• Advantages
▪ Smaller area compared to conventional treatment
▪ High efficiency in BOD/COD removal.
• Disadvantages
▪ Higher operation and maintenance requirement
▪ Care for maintaining biomass
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Suspended Growth Systems: Sequential Batch

Reactors (SBR)
Conventional activated sludge Sequential Batch Reactors
system (SBR)
Sequential system Batch process system
Effluent from aeration tank Sludge allowed to settle within
settled in settling tank same aeration tank called SBR
Settled sludge returned to Several parallel units operated
aeration tank to maintain in turn with automatic control
necessary bio-sludge
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Suspended Growth Systems: Sequential Batch Reactors (SBR)

• SBR operation
1. Effluent admitted into aeration tank with bio-sludge

2. Aeration for fixed period (4 - 6 hours)

3. Aeration switched off with bio-sludge allowed to be settle.

4. Clear supernatant drained off (but sludge retained)

5. After draining of supernatant refilling of SBR with fresh effluent

Overview of biological treatment systems

• Suspended Growth Systems: Sequential Batch Reactors (SBR)

Stage 1: Filling
Stage 2: Aeration Stage 3: Settling

Settled sludge

Air Blower Diffusers Air Blower Air Blower

(switched On/Off) Diffusers Diffusers
(switched on) (switched Off)

Treated effluent
Stage 5: Re-aeration
drained (ready for next cycle)
Stage 4: Draining

Settled sludge Settled sludge

Air Blower Air Blower

Diffusers (switched off)

Overview of biological treatment systems

• Suspended Growth Systems: Sequential

Batch Reactors (SBR)
Under aeration Under settling
▪ Outlet pipe mounted on float to decant supernatant
after settling
− saving time and sludge carry over
▪ Some wasting of excess sludge after decanting of
treated effluent.
▪ Typical cycle time 8 - 14 hours.
▪ Some SBRs are with mixers to add stage for anoxic
treatment too.
▪ More suited for small and medium scale ETPs.
Overview of biological treatment systems

• Suspended Growth Systems: Sequential Batch Reactors (SBR)

• Advantages
▪ Lower capital cost, Under aeration Under settling

▪ Relatively lower area requirement

▪ High treatment efficiency
▪ Flexibility in operation
• Disadvantages
▪ Higher operation and maintenance efforts
▪ Need for automation
▪ Need for uninterrupted power for effective operation
 1. Click on this icon 2. Reset the slide. 3. Where necessary, change
to insert a new the section using the ‘Crop’
photo. function.

Membrane-based treatment
GIZ FABRIC – ETP Operator Course
Basic concept of membrane technology
Basic concept of membrane treatment

• Membranes
▪ fine filters capable to filter suspended and colloidal solids and sometimes
dissolved solids.
▪ Performance depending on pore size of filters
▪ Common types of filters
− Micron filters (MF)
− Ultrafilters (UF)
− Nano-filters (NF)
− Reverse osmosis membranes (RO)

10/8/2022 ETP OPERATOR COURSE – MEMBRANE BASED TREATMENT 135

Basic concept of membrane treatment

• Types of filters
▪ Micron filters (MF)
− for removing bacteria and viruses
− generally used in membrane bio reactors (MBR)
▪ Ultrafilters (UF)
− for removing all suspended and colloidal solids, turbidity and fine-level silt
− commonly used in pre-treatment for reverse osmosis units
Basic concept of membrane treatment

• Types of filters
▪ Nano-filters (NF)
− for removing organics
− tighter NF also for multi-valent salts.
▪ Reverse osmosis membranes (RO)
− for removing salts
− used in most wastewater recycling systems and zero liquid discharge (ZLD)
systems
Basic concept of membrane treatment

• Overview of filters by pore size

Use of nano-filtration

▪ Filtration of salt laden exhaust dye bath

through nano-membrane:
− salt allowed to pass
− filtering out organics, colour and other
impurities
Use of membrane bio-reactors (MBR)
Use of membrane bio reactor (MBR)

▪ MBR = Type of activated sludge treatment with micro or ultra filtration

of biosolids instead of secondary settling tank
− Higher MLSS in aeration tank possible (10000-15000 mg/l) since no
limitations due to MLSS settling characteristics
− Smaller size of units and less area required for ETP
▪ Development of submerged MBRs (with less power consumption)
making MBR more popular
▪ Frequent fouling of membranes challenging
▪ External MBR (or side stream MBR) preferred system for small ETPs
Use of membrane bio reactor (MBR)

• Operation of MBR AIR

• Focus on BLOWER

▪ Aerating in aeration tank

▪ Filtering effluent with set of micro/ultra
filter PRIMARY TREATED
EFFLUENT
▪ Pumping back filtered MLSS into aeration MBR stack

tank AERATION TANK

Treated
effluent
(permeate)
Use of membrane bio reactor (MBR)

• Variations of MBR
▪ Possible set-up of submerged MBR:
− Membrane cassettes installed directly in aeration tank
− aeration tank constructed with two compartments with
membrane stack in one compartment
▪ Side stream MBR and air-lift MBR
− Sidestream is external MBR, operates like a
conventional UF. Submerged MBR with placement of membranes;
− In air-lift, scouring by air used as an additional photo: Courtesy Koch

backwash step. It is less common.

Use of membrane bio reactor (MBR)

• Advantages of MBR
▪ Better removal of BOD/COD and pathogens compared to
conventional activated sludge systems
▪ Better degradation of complex organics/Oils & Grease due to
higher sludge retention time
▪ Treated effluent very clear and less turbid
▪ Lesser pre-treatment when considering effluent recovery
▪ Good for ETPs with limited space and considering future recycling
options
Use of membrane bio reactor (MBR)

• Disadvantages of MBR
▪ Higher capital cost for good system
▪ Higher operation and maintenance cost due to additional
power and membrane cleaning/replacement
▪ System more sensitive and complex in operation
▪ Membrane replacement adding to list of consumables.
Use of reverse osmosis
Use of reverse osmosis

• Process separating saline water from fresh water

by membrane
▪ Membrane allowing passage of fresh water only
▪ pressure exerted by salt water called ‘osmotic
pressure’
▪ Reverse Osmosis (RO)
− reversal of process by applying pressure on salt side to
overcome osmotic pressure)
− water from saline side passing to fresh water side
Use of reverse osmosis

▪ Reverse Osmosis membranes finest pore size

− Small enough to filter salt molecules and only
allowing passage of water
▪ RO operating under very high pressure
− pressure depending on salt concentration at
system inlet
▪ Unlike MF or UF, in RO units no backwashing but
only cleaning using chemicals
Use of reverse osmosis

▪ RO system elements:
− pre-treatment
− high pressure pump
− RO membranes stacked in a vessel
− permeate collection
Use of reverse osmosis

• RO membranes
▪ Initially made of cellulose acetate
▪ Today mostly made of polyamide layer placed
over poly sulfone layer and mounted on
polyester base.
▪ Specialty coating on membranes to reduce
membrane fouling
Spiral wound RO configuration
Common hazards in ETPs

▪ Physical hazards
▪ Mechanical hazards
▪ Biological hazards
▪ Chemical hazards
▪ Ergonomic and work-environment related hazards
▪ Psychological and social hazards
Common hazards in ETPs

Corrosive Bio-hazardous infectious

Slippery when wet
material
Common hazards in ETPs

• Physical hazards
▪ Falls from height and working in elevated position
(tanks, clarifiers, ladders, chambers)
▪ Slipping on wet surfaces (walkways, stairs)
▪ Common in
− Construction
− Extraction
− Transportation
− Cleaning and maintenance
▪ Risk of
 occupational injuries and fatalities
Common hazards in ETPs

• Mechanical hazards
▪ Contact with
− moving machine parts (e.g. gears, motors)
− sharp edges
− hot surfaces
− other hazards with potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab,
strike workers
• Risk of
 occupational injuries, burns and fatalities
Common hazards in ETPs

• Electrical hazards
▪ Contact with high voltage in
− motors
− switchboard
− cables
− Enhanced risk due to poor installations, maintenance, wet
and corrosive environment
 electric shocks and (fatal) electrocution
 electrical burns
 fall injuries caused by jolts after contact with electricity
 igniting fire (faulty wire, poor wiring, static electricity)
Common hazards in ETPs

• Work-environment related hazards

▪ Noise
− Equipment in ETP emitting high noise levels
• Air blowers
• Sludge centrifuges
• Poorly maintained or lubricated moving machine parts
• Pressurized air leaks or bursts
▪ Noise exposure for long period causing
 gradual and often irreversible hearing loss
 stress and high blood pressure
 indirect cause of injuries due to lack of concentration or distraction
Common hazards in ETPs

• Work-environment related hazards

▪ Vibration and pressure
− Vicinity to poorly balanced machinery
− Contact to highly pressurized water or air
• High pressure cleaners
• Air compressors and compressor lines
▪ Risk of
 injuries
 work-related illnesses
Common hazards in ETPs

• Work-environment related hazards

▪ Heat-stress
− Exposure to high ambient temperature and direct sunlight
during work in ETP
− Exposure to high radiant temperatures from raw effluent as
well as hot or heat emitting equipment
▪ Risk of
 heat exhaustion
 dehydration
 heatstroke and fatigue
Common hazards in ETPs

• Biological hazards
▪ Exposure to disease causing biological agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi,
mould, blood borne pathogens, parasites)
− Ingestion (eating, drinking or smoking at workplace or without washing
hands)
− Inhalation (small droplets, aerosols)
− Skin and eye contact (e.g. skin wounds, softened skin, splashes on eyes)
▪ Bites by disease-carrying mosquitos
▪ Many places in ETP (aerated tanks, mixers, inflows)
Common hazards in ETPs

• Chemical hazards
▪ Exposure to and contact with treatment chemicals by
− Skin and eye contact
− Inhalation (gases, dust, vapours, mist and fume)
− Accidental ingestion (eating, drinking or smoking at workplace or
without washing hands after handling chemicals)
▪ Common ETP locations with chemical hazards (primary treatment)
− Chemical storage
− Chemical preparation and dosing
− Disposal of chemical waste (e.g. residuals, packaging)
− ETP laboratory
Common hazards in ETPs

• Chemical hazards
▪ Potentially hazardous chemicals in ETP:
− Lime (e.g. dust released during handling)
− Acidic chemicals (e.g. Ferrous Sulphate/Alum.
− Acids/Alkali stored and used for neutralization.
− De-foamer used for foam control.
− Chlorine used for disinfection and sludge bulking control
 Identify possible hazards by consulting safety data sheets
Common hazards in ETPs

• Ergonomic hazards
▪ In processes involving
− heavy lifting or handling of heavy tools or loads (e.g. machine
maintenance, replacement of aeration systems, tank cleaning)
− prolonged unconformable or strained working position

▪ Risk of
 injuries
 musculoskeletal disorders
Common hazards in ETPs

• Other hazards
▪ Asphyxiation (suffocation) while
− working in confined space
− Cleaning of clogged pipes
− Removal of sludge and sediments
▪ Drowning following falls or slips into tanks
▪ Risk of
 Fatalities
Common hazards in ETPs

• Other hazards – Hydrogen sulphide gas

▪ Common hazard and main contributor to fatalities in ETPs
▪ At any place with stagnating effluent or sludge
▪ Produced when effluent degrading in anaerobic condition
− also degradation product of sulphates by sulphate reducing bacteria
▪ Characteristics
− Highly corrosive and flammable
− Heavier than air
− Poisonous gas (with smell of rotten eggs in low concentration, no
detection by smelling in dangerous concentrations!)
THANK YOU