Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historicdevelopment

The rail as supporting and guiding element was first utilised in the sixteenth century. In those times
the mines in England used wooden roadways to reduce the resistanceof the mining vehicles. The
running surface was providedwith an uprisingedge in order to keep the vehicles on the track.
During a crises as a result of overproductionin the iron industry in England in 1760, the wooden rails
were covered with cast iron plates which caused the running resistanceto diminishto such an extent
that the application of such plates soon proliferated.About 1800 the first free bearing rails were
applied (Outtram), which were supported at the ends by cast iron sockets on wooden sleepers.
Flangediron wheels took care of the guiding,as we still practicenow In the beginningthe vehicles
were moved forward by manpower or by horses.

The inventionof the steam engine led to the first steam locomotive,constructedin 1804 by the Eng-
lishmanTrevithick.GeorgeStephensonbuiltthe first steam locomotivewith tubularboilerin 1814. In
1825 the first railwayfor passengerswas opened between Stocktonand Darlington.On the mainland
of EuropeBelgiumwas the first countryto open a railway(Mechelen- Brussels).Belgiumwas quick
to create a connectionwith the German hinterlandbypassingthe Dutch waterways. The first railway
in The Netherlands(Amsterdam- Haarlem)came into existencemuch later:only in 1839. Here the
railway was regardedas a big rival of the inland wateruuays.

The railwaysformed a brand new means of transportationwith up till then unknown capacity,speed,
and reliability.Large areas were opened which could not be developed earlier because of the primi-
tive road and water connections.The railways formed an enormous stimulus to the political,econo-
mical and social developmentin the nineteenthcentury.Countries like the United States and Canada
were opened thanks to the railways and became a politicalunity. In countries like Russia and China
the railway still plays a crucial roll.

The trade unions originatedwhen the railways were a major employer (railway strikes in England in
1900 and 1911 and in The Netherlandsin 1903).The railwaycompanieswere also the first line of
businesswhich developedcareful planning,organisationand control systems to enable efficientman-
agement. Moreover,they gave the impulse to big developmentsin the area of civil engineering(rail-
way track building,bridges,tunnels, station roofing).

1.2 Railways

While the railways found themselves in a monopoly position up to the twentieth-century,with the
advent of the combustionengine and the jet engine they had to face strong competitionin the form of
buses, cars and aeroplanes.

Mass motorizationafter World War ll expressed by the growing prosperitybrought about many prob-
lems, especially in densely populated areas: lack of space, congestion, lack of safety, emission of
harmfulsubstancesand noise pollution.Exactlyin these cases railwayscan be advantageousas they
are characterizedby the following:

- Limited use of space compared to large transportcapacity;

- Reliabilityand safety;

- High degreeof automationand management;

- Moderate environmentalimpact.
 Modern Railway Track

Moreover,railwayshave a comfortlevelcomparablewith automobilesand have the possibilityof

highspeedswhichcancompetewithplaneson the middlerangedistance.
attaining Regarding pas-
this potentialshouldbe translatedinto:
sengertransport,

- commuterand urbantransport;
High-quality

- Fastintercityand high-speed up to 800 km;

dailyconnections

- Comfortable up to '1500km;
intercitynightconnections

- Seasonchartertransport(possiblywithcar).

exist on the medium-range

in case of freighttransport,high-gradeconnections
Furthermore, and
distance.
long-range

isgivenof the lengthof globalrailnetworks

In Table1.1an estimate

Under
Length 1000 km Existing
Construction
Europe 530 10
Asia 250 110
Africa 80 10
North-America 420 3
Middle-and South-America 150 15
Australia 50 3
Total 1500 150
Table 1.1: Length of railway track network anno 1990

The railwaysystemsare the propermeansfor massivepassenger transportovershortdistancesto

The qualityof the railwaysystemhas beensubstantially
and in withinbig conurbations. increasedin
the last yearsby implementing largestar-shaped networksaroundthe big citieswhichare run fre-
quentlyby quicklyacceleratingand decelerating trainscanenterthe cit-
stoppingtrains.lf necessary,
ies via specialtunnelroutes,which open up the city centresand enableconnections to be made.
Examples are commuterserviceslikethe S-Bahn(Munich,Hamburg) andthe RER(Paris). A good
integrationwithothermeansof pre-and post-transport(metro,tramway,bus,car,and bicycle)is very
important.

Railwaycompaniesare unprofitable and governments haveto supportthemfinancially to enablethe

companies to operatetrains.Thiswill be the caseas longas the railways- contraryto roadtrafficand
inlandwaterwayshipping- haveto carrythe full costsof the infrastructure. Infrastructure is expen-
sive.Onekilometre of railtrackcostsaboutEUR7 - 10 million; bigstructuresnotincluded.
In an increasingnumberof countries,however,the propertyand management of the railwayinfra-
structureis takenoverby the government while(private)railwaycompaniespay for its use.Thiswill
also be the casein The Netherlands wherethe government demandsthe operatingexpensesto be
fullycoveredby the profits.
 Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

1.3 Tramwaysand metro

The railways,developedas a fast interurbanmeansof transport,are lesssuitablefor localtransport

functions.Theydo notfit intothe scaleof the city(curveradii,clearances) whilethe capacityof a train
is too big to suitthe localtrafficneedswith a diffusepatternof displacements. Therefore,in the sec-
ond halfof the nineteenth-century low-scaleformsof railtrafficweredevelopedwhichcan also use
the publicroad.At firsthorsepowerwas usedfor tractionand sometimessteampower;in the period
1890- 1920thesetractionformswerealmostcompletely replacedby electrictraction.In Table1.2 an
estimateis givenof the numberof globalmetroand tramways, whileTable1.3 and Table1.4show
sometrain and transportcharacteristics. Othercharacteristics like loads,tonnage,and speedsare
dealtwithlaterin thechapter'Train Loads'.

METRO TRAM
Europe 35 225
Asia 15 65
Africa 0 5
North-America 10
Middle-and South-America 5 5
Australia 0
total 65 325
Table 1.2: Metro- and tramway companies anno 1990

CAPACITY
LENGTH[m]
Ipersons]
Tram 30 175
Metro 100 1000
Suburb train 200 - 300 2000
Regionaltrain 30 - 100 100- 300
Intercitytrain 500 1000
Freighttrain 600 4 0 . 0 0 0k N
Table 1.3: Average values for length and capacity of trains

paskm/ mio paskm/ mio tonkm/

modal split
inhabit km track km track
The Netherlands 7% 650 3 I
Wesiern Europe 8% 800 I 1.5
USA 1% 100 0.07 4.4
Japan 38Yo 2700 10 0.7
Table 1.4: Some transpoft characteristics

The tramis alsousedfor minorsuburbanand ruraltransport,but herethe bus hastakenoverfor the

greaterpartas is the casein littleand mediumlargecities.Onlyin the bigcities(aboveca.300.000
inhabitants)
the tramhas survived,thanksto its largetransportcapacityandthe possibility
to operate
on closedtrackindependent of roadtraffic.Subsequently,
the tramwayhas moreand moreacquired
the characterof a low-scalerailway,althoughinteraction
with roadtrafficby no meansresembles the
absoluteprioritythe railwayhas. This demandsspecialrequirements with regardsto the braking
powerof thisvehicleandthe lavoutof the track.
1 INTRODUCTION Modern Railway Track

In citieswheremillionsof peoplelive,urbanrailwaysystems(metro's)havebeendevelopedwith a
completeinfrastructureof theirown which,by necessity, are built underground or on viaducts.The
highexpenseof thisinfrastructureis justified
by the heavy which
traffic, is with
dealt quicklyand relia-
blyusinglongmetrotrains,muchlongerthanthetram(100to 150m against30 to 50 m).

To achievethe samelargeadvantages of the metroin citieswith fewerinhabitants, one tries nowa-

days to realisein-betweenforms of metro and tram. This form, indicatedas light rapid transit,is built
parttyat streetlevel(as much as possibleon closedtrack,but sometimesin the streetwith level
crossings)and partlyin tunnelsand on viaducts.Examplesof thisdevelopment arefor instanceto be
foundin Rotterdam, Brussels,Cologneand Calgary(Canada).

1.4 Operationalaspects

1.4.1 Functionsof a railwaycompany

A railwaycompanyno doubtbelongsto the categoryof mostcomplicated Not only the

enterprises.
product(theseatkilometre)cannotbe deliveredfromstock,but it alsomustbe producedon the very
momentof acceptance. Moreover,a railwaycompanymustgenerallysupply,administer, and main-
tain the meansof production safetyequipment,rollingstock,and personnel).
(infrastructure, Finally,
the connectionbetweenthe means
different of production
is very firm,so all need
elements to match
eachotherveryaccurately.

In aid of the operation,meaningthe useof the meansin favourof the customer,a goodpreparation is
necessary, not only for the dailyprocesses,
but also in the longterm in orderto makesure that the
necessaryproduction meanswill be availableon time.Thesemeans,suchas rollingstockand espe-
ciallyinfrastructure,demanda longperiodof preparation: takeup to
a new railwaylinewillsometimes
20 years.

1.4.2 Infrastructure

are:
The maindemandson railinfrastructure

- Forthe passenger:
traveltimeas shortas possible(byshortdistanceand/orspeed);

- nuisanceas minimalas possible(sufficient

For localresidents: integration),

sound,and accepta-
- Forthe railwaycompany:traveltimeas shortas possible,sufficientcapacity,
ble costs.

The layoutdeterminesthe maximumspeedsand hencethe minimalpossibletraveltimes.The speed

by:
can be restricted

- Curvesand gradients;

-. Switches(whennegotiated
in divergingdirection);

- of stock(forinstancepower);
Performance

- Catenaryvoltage(declineof voltagemayleadto speedloss);

- Signalsystem(locationof signsshouldnotcausespeedloss).
Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

aspectof layoutsarethe crossingswith roadwaysand waterways.Level

A specialtrafficengineering
crossingswith roads(levelcrossings)shouldbe preventedas muchas possible.Althoughthe train
has priorityunderall circumstances,collisionscan hardlybe preventedwhen a trainapproachesa
vehicleon the crossing.The brakingdistanceof the trainis mostlytoo long.

In principlefly-oversare appliedto motorways speedof 160 km/h

and to railwayswith an admissible
and moreor with morethantwo tracks.The loss of time for the roadtrafficwouldbe unacceptably
highin thesecases.

Crossingswithwaterwaystakeplacevia tunnelsor movableor unmovablebridges.Movablebridges

meana lossof capacityfor the railwayline.The bridgeshouldbe openedaccordingto a fixedregime
and at these momentstrainscannotuse the railway.Nevertheless, the advantageof a movable
bridgeis thatthe trainhasto overcomelessdifferencein height.
Thiscan be financiallyor operationally for it preventsa longgradient(savingof spaceand
attractive,
costs)or a steepgradient(an undisturbed passageof a freighttrainon the spotalsoleadsto lossof
capacity).Therefore,one may be forcedto buildmoretracks(profitin alignmentand loss in cross
section).

1.4.3 Rollingstock

The rollingstockcan be dividedinto:

- Passenger
andfreightstock;

- Hauledand poweredstock;

- Electricand dieselstock(thelatterdiesel-electric
or diesel-hydraulic);

Generallyelectricrollingstockcan makea fasterstartand reacha higherspeed.Someconsidera-

tionsrelatedto the choiceof hauledor poweredrollingstockare:

- With trainsof greaterlengththe locomotivepoweris betterusedand the operationwith hauled

trainswill be cheaper,with train-setsthe numberof motorsis in proportion
to the numberof car-
nages;

- Simplecombining
andsplitting;
- Simplechangeof direction(is alsopossiblewithso-calledpull-and-push
trains:theseare pulledor
pushedby a reversible
trainset at the otherend of the train);

* Multipleuse of rollingstock(onelocomotivemay pullpassengertrainsin the daytimeand freight

trainsat night).

A relativelynewdevelopment is the tiltingcoachtrain.Thistrainwill adjustitselfregardingcurvesin

suchan anglewith respectto the verticalaxisthatthe centrifugalforceis completely cancelled.This
meansthat in tightcurveswith a maximumcantand limitedspeed,the tiltingtraincan nevertheless
passwith higherspeed.In this way a fast trainservicecan be operatedwithoutadaptingthe infra-
structure(buildingof spaciouscurves).

1.4.4 Personnel

The personnelcan be subdividedinto the categories:management, execution,and maintenance.

The operationaldepartmentconsistsmainlyof executivepersonnelsubdividedinto productionand
sales.The production
personnelconsistof drivers,ticketcollectors,
andtrafficcontrollers.
1 INTRODUCTION Modern Railway Track

Personnelconstitutethe most expensivepart of the production(morethan half of the operating

expenses) personnelshould
andalsorequiremuchattentionin socialrespect.In planningoperations,
neverbe consideredas a balancingitem,on the contrary.The followingitemsshouldbe takeninto
accountin duetime:

- Desirednumberswith respectto qualityand kindof work;

- Desiredandactualplaceof residence;

- dutyand restperiod);
(setof tasks,roadknowledge,
Employability

- Permittedweekend-and nightwork;

- and motivation;
Participation

- Jobtraining
andretraining;

- Possibleuseof thirdpartypersonnel.

1.4.5 Electrification

of a railwaylinemeansinvestment
The electrification for powersupply(catenary
in bothinfrastructure
wires with suspensionsystem)and expensiveelectricrollingstock.These investmentsentail a
cheaperoperationbecause:

- The stockhas more poweravailableper volumeunit (comparea electriclocomotivewith 3000-

with2000-3500kW):
7500kW witha diesellocomotive

- The stockrequireslessmaintenance
and the lifetimeof motorunitsis longer;

- The stockhasa higheracceleration.

The resultof this is thatfor specificserviceslessrollingstockneedsto be purchased,

as is the case
with non-electric operation.Moreover,electricoperationis more beneficialfor the environmentin
termsof noiseand air oollution.

Generatingelectricenergyis possibleusingdifferentfuel materials.This makesthe electricsystem

flexibleand lessdependenton the pricelevelsof thesematerials.Whenchoosingelectrification,the
costsof energyalso play a part.In countrieswith cheapelectricity(Switzerland)
manyrailwaylines
are electrified.

railwaylinescanespeciallybe foundin cityareaswitha largenumberof stops.

Electrified

Two electricsystemscan be distinguished: current.Directcurrentgen-

directcurrentand alternating
erallyuseslow voltages(tramand metro600 to 750V train1500to 3000V), alternating currenthas
highvoltages(15.000vllrc.2ls
Hz to 25.000V/50Hz).

Becausein the pastthe production of electriccurrentwith highvoltagewas moreexpensiveandthere

was some doubtwith regardsto safety,directcurrentsystemsare found in a lot of countries(for
instanceThe Netherlands). In urbanareashighvoltageis not appliedbecauseit may interferewith
the electricalequipmentin households and companies.
Nevertheless, alternating
currentwith highvoltagehas manyadvantages:

- The crosssectionof the (copper)catenarywirescan be smaller(hencelowercosts);

o
 Modern Railway Tnck I INTRODUCTION

- Thereis lessvoltagelossfromthe pointof supply(converter

station)overthe lengthof the cate-
naryi

- A smallernumberof converterstationsis needed(hencelowerinvestment

expenses).

A drawbackof alternatingcurrentis the extraequipmentthe locomotive

hasto carryto transformthe
voltageto a lowervalue.

Globallymanyelectricsystemsare used.This meansthatat almosteachbordera changeof voltage

takesplace.Henceinternational trainsmustbe providedwitha newpullingforceat the border.Onlyif
a (againcostly!)multiple-system
locomotiveis used,the traincan proceedwithouttime loss.

In The Netherlands
engineersare facedwith the problemthat in designinghighspeedrailwaylines
the 1500Voltsystemis notsuitablefor trainspeedsof 200 km/hand higher(moreconverterstations
are necessary,
catenarysystemis too heavy,accelerationis too low).

1.4.6 Catenarysystems

Electrified track sec-

tionsare generallysup- I Tramsuspension
plied by regional/ V=20i25km/h
provincial power sta- Catenarysuspension
tions. With an alter- V = 100km/h
natingvoltageof 10 kV, ll Catenarysuspension with
the energy is trans- auxiliarycanyingcable
portedvia high voltage V = 140km/h
lines to convertersta-
lV Catenarysuspensionwith
tions of the railway. auxiliarycarryingcable
Theseare situatedat a andwithmovable
lll
mutualdistanceof 20 fastening
km (directcurrentsys- V > 140km/h
tems) to 50 km (alter- Catenarycables :
nating current).In the Tensionforce:1okNeachcable
converter station the lV Length:1500 m (section,in the
centerfixed point)
alternatingvoltage is, variationsummer- winter50 cm
dependingof the volt
age system, trans- Figure 1.1: Catenary suspension systems
formed to the applied
voltage and switched
over to directcurrent(in The Netherlands1500V and nominal1800 V). This voltagecurrentis
presenton the isolatedpartof the catenarysystem.

The catenarysystemexistsof carryingcablesand contactwireswhichare fastenedto the carrying

cablesby meansof hangers(seeFigure1.1). By meansof the contactbetweenthe contactwire and
the pantograph,the trainis Suppliedwithenergy.
The contactwirehangsabovethe trackin the shapeof azigzag(withthe NS a deviationof 30 cm on
bothsidesof the lineof the track).Therefore,the carbonpieceof the pantograph
wearsevenlyover
twicethe widthof the deviation.

The contactlineshouldbe keptat a constanttensionfor a goodand continuous contactwiththe pan-

tographwhichis pushedagainstthe wireby meansof springs.The tensionis obtainedby weightsor
by meansof gas cylindersat the end of thewire.Giventhe materialof thewire (copper),the tengthof
the wire (about1500m), and temperature fluctuations,
lengthvariationsappearof about50 cm. lt is
thereforeof importance
thatthe suspensionpointsof the wiresare ableto movewith the expanding
and contractingwire.
1 INTRODUCTION Modern Railway Track

carrying cable (fixed)

8.50+ BS

5.50+ BS

contact wire (movable)

'140km/h
Catenarysystemvia portalstructure:V < 140km/h Catenarysystemvia rotatinglever:V >

Figure 1.2: Catenary systems: fixed and flexible suspension

thistwo catenarysystemscan be distinguished:

Regarding

for instanceportalstructures(Figure1-2,leftpicture),
a. fixedsuspension:

poles(Figure1.2,rightpicture)
for instance
b. flexiblesuspension:

With a. the portalsand carryingcablesare fixedto eachother.Becauseof this the carryingcables

sag a littlewith warm weatherand hencethe contactwire as well.With b. the polesand carrying
cablesare fastenedto eachotherflexibly.The cantileversof the polesare movableand will change
alongwiththe carryingcableswhentemperature changes.The contactwirecan nowstaycompletely
flat. The singlepolestructureis usedwith speedsof 140 km/hand higher.At lowerspeedsportal
structures can be used.

Concerningmetrosystemsthe so-calledthirdrailtakescareof the supplyof the current.This rail is

installednextto the two railscarryingand guidingthe train.Becauseof this no catenarysystemis
necessary.Thisleadsto a smallerclearanceandthereforea smallerand cheapertunnelconstruction
is possible.Whencrossingovermetrolines,the requiredheightunderthe bridgecan be lower.How-
ever,peopleshouldalwaysbe kept awayfrom this third rail;the trackshouldbe inaccessible and
withoutlevelcrossings.

1.4,7 Road crossings

The natureand extent

In practicethe viewof roadcrossings(or levelcrossings)is ofteninsufficient.
of roadtrafficandthe speedandfrequencyof the traintrafficnecessitatein manycasesthe provision
of roadcrossingswithbarriers,warningfacilitiesor safetydevices.
Roadcrossingscan be providedwith:

- Liftinggates;

- Semi-barrier withflashinglights;
in combination

- lights;
Flashing

- Gateswhichdo notswingto the sideof the railway.

B
 Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

For road crossings several standard constructionshave been developed, amongst others some for
very intensive road and train traffic.

'1.4.8 Major rail infrastructure projects

In prosperouscountrieswith substantiallyflourishingeconomiestwo problemscan be identifiedwhich

give rise to the buildingof high qualityrailwaylines:

- lnsufficientcapacityof the existing rail (and road) infrastructure;

- Harmful effect on the environmentdue to road and air traffic.

In order to generate sufficientcompetitionwith respect to the use of cars and planes at distances of
some hundreds of kilometres,fast passenger rail services are necessary.Trains should be moving at
a maximum speed of about 300 km/h and an operationalspeed of 200-250 km/h. Freighttraffic by rail
may be competitivewith road traffic at distancesof more than 300 km if train services are offered with
speeds in the range 120-160km/h.

In Europe (France,Germany,Italy,Spain),Japan, and the United States high-speedrail links have

been establishedduring the last decades and new lines are under construction.Europe and Japan
produce their own systems. The U.S. buys systems from other countries. France and Germany are
leaders in buildinghigh-speedlines; moreover,they are mutual competitorson the world market. Both
try to obtain a positionand are involved in projectsin the United States and South Korea.

A paralleldevelopment is taking place in the case of trains which are made to run faster making use
of existing infrastructure:so-calledtilting coaches. These tilting coaches produce an additionalhigher
cant in curves compared to the track cant. Tilting coach trains are used, amongst others, in ltaly and
Sweden.

Railway lines for freight traffic (and more specificallyfor higher speeds) are an exception.The plans
for the Dutch "Betuweroute"are an example of this. The higher axle load on this category of railways
is more characteristicthan higher speed. 'Heavy haul' lines can also be found in South Africa (for ore
transport)"There trains run with a weight of 200.000 kN. The world record is 700.000 kN.

1.4.9 Developingcountries

The developingcountriescannot be regarded as one with respect to quality.There are countrieswith

operating systems which work well, although not according to our western standards. Especially in
Indiaand the PeoplesRepublicof China,a large networkof railwaylines is availableoperatingsub-
stantial (overburdened)train services.

On the other hand, in many other developingcountriesthe railway network is underdeveloped.Mostly

there are remnants from a colonial past. Lack of maintenance has deterioratedthe track condition
which demands urgent renovation. Moreover, the routes should in many cases be adapted. Often
heard wishes are increasingthe permittedaxle loads and speeds as well as improvingthe safety sys-
tem. The curve radii should therefore be increasedand gradientsshould be less steep.

Besides renovationsthere is an enormous need for newly built track. The bad state of the roads plays
a part in this. Most of the new projects are being developed for freight transport, mainly of low value
(ores and other raw material).
Especiallythe high oil prices have given a push to making new plans. Buildingrail connections
between the mines in the interior part of the country and the harbours is most urgent. But also the
passengertransport needs improving.The suburban traffic cannot cope with the rush of passengers
and the long distancetransport is very defective.lt is illustrativethat a railwayjourney through Africa,
from cairo to cape Town, still takes four weeks when a part of the journey is made by boat.
1 INTRODUQTION Modern Railway Track

The most important problem is of a financial nature. lt may be true that modern, gigantic excavating
machines offer all sorts of possibilitiesfor building railway lines in hilly areas, but the constructionis
expensive.Because of this assistancefrom outside parties is essential'

Available technical aid is sufficient.Consultantsfrom industrialisedcountries provide the necessary

completeddesigns.The realisationof the constructionand improvementof railway lines is mostly car-
ried out by European and American firms, which mainly introduce the technical know-how and are
concernedwith the supplyof materials.For the buildingactivities,local labouris calledin.

EspeciallyIndiaand the PeoplesRepublicof China are Third World countrieswhich are activein the
railway field. They are - by own experience - well informed about the important social and cultural
problems. These deal primarilywith the transfer of knowledge as well as instructionsand attending
local personnel.
The transport problem in the explodingcities of the Third World where millionsof people live asks for
rail solutionsin terms of suburbanrail, metro, and light rail lines. Here and there metro or light rail
projects have been carried out (mostly South-America,the Middle East and SoutheastAsia: Mexico
City,Caracas,Cairo,Teheran,Singapore,Hong-Kong,Manila).Elsewhereplans are ready and wait-
ing for financing (for instance by means of the World Bank) before they are able to be carried out
(Bangkok,Jakarta).

1.5 Geometryof a railwayline

1.5.1 Clearances

Aboveand nextto the tracksa certainspaceshouldbe reservedto ensurethe unrestricted passage

of thisstructuregauge(or clearance)
of vehicles.The dimensions is alsobasedon the internationally
approvedvehiclegaugeof railwayrollingstockandthe loadinggauge,withinwhichthe loadingof the
railwayvehiclesshouldbe kept.In thisclearanceextraeffectsare dealtwith:

- deviationof the correct track geom-

etry;

- Swinging
movement;

- Deviation
dueto windloading;

- Tiltingdue to cant;

- Unequalloadingof vehicles;

- Tolerance
of vehicledimensions.

Figure'1.3shows the normalclear-

ance;the left side appliesto straight
track,the right side to curveswith a
radius greaterthan 250 m. Height : \ 4 ; + . 1 '

measuresare measuredfrom toP of : 1220 \ 1220 't i

rail.

ln a numberof cases the clearance Figure 1.3: Normal clearance (structure gauge)
hasothermeasures:

Decreaseof the widthunderthe train(onlybogieis present);

lncreaseof the widthat smallercurveradii;

 Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

- Rotationdue to trackcant;

- Wideningwithverticalcurves;

- Wideningin sectionswithfrequenttrafficoutsidegauge(Redmeasuring
area).

Fixedobjectslocatedwithinthe clearanceare registered.

All present or future fixed objects

locatedwithinthe'redmeasuring area'
(about20.000objects)are also regis-
tered.lf a transportis presentedout-
sidethe clearance, a quickevaluation
is possibleto judgeif andunderwhich
conditions the transport can take
place.

To make a comparisonbetweenthe
loadinggauge,the vehiclegaugeand
the normalclearance,Figure1.4 has
been drawn.The clearancewith the
'red measurement
area' was alreadv
pictured.
I
The distancebetweenthe centresof
two tracksin doubletrackamountsto -l
N 1
- !

4.25m. (inoldsituationsa minimum of

3.60 m can stillbe found).At higher +
speeds (more than 160 km/h) a
greaterdistanceof up to 4.70 m is
Figure 1.4: Loading gauge, vehicle gauge and clearance
applied.
In curvesthe distanceis increasedas
well.

The increaseis higher as the curve radius is

smalleror the cantdifferencebecomesmoreune-
qual.

In multitrack
sectionsan alternativelystandardand
a higherdistanceshouldbe appliedbetweenthe
tracks(depending on the speed6-8 m). lt depends
on the localcircumstances if in case of a fourfold
track the constructionaccordingto A or B is
I Existino
tracks I
applied(bothdrawnin Figure1.5).

With an expansionfrom two to four tracks,the

choicefor one- or two-sidedexpansiondepends
on:

The availablespace;

The soil (oneshouldbe carefulwith soil exca- g A-,\J+q

I vsl4P Jiq A )51r!|
vationnextto a trackwhich has becomecom- i--,zuo ; +.zsI o.ool-\
pactoverthe yearsin orderto preventshear);
Figure 1.5: Two situations with foutfold track
The intendeduseof the track.
I INTRODUCTION Moclern Railway Track

In Figure1.6 an example
is given of the cross sec-
5.20+TOR tion of a fourfold track.
Especially at the outer
tracks orovisions are
made to allow a clearance
'red measuring
with a

The distance between

1 ...: 0.50-TOR r:..
newly built yard tracks is
l 2.80 ! : 2 . 8 0 t a :2 S O , preferably4.50 m. Moreo-
-,!---------l
ver there should be, after
2.40 : 3.00 3.00 3.O0 | 2.92
each 4 to 5 tracks, a wider
4.50 track distance of 5 m to
enable personnelto walk
Figure 1.6: Cross sectlon with foutfold track
safelyoveralmpath.lf
catenary portal structures
are to be built, the track
distanceshouldbe 6-8 m.

Clearance around the rail track

The railway law stipulates that no

object may be erected that causes an
obstructionof the view:
-r4r.+o-
:i--T*
I
Within a distance of 8 m in straight .2E.zs* I|
track and on the outside of a curve (temporary
situation)
with a radiusof more than 1000m:

Within a distance of 20 m on the

inside of a curve with a radius of
cycle path
less than 1000 m.
a. Overhead crossingwith closed sidewalls

A A
l l

Figure1.7 indicates which areas -1b.40;r-f

should be cleared of (the building of) -2\.2sa I
structures (bridges, tunnels, etc.). lt
should be kept in mind that in due
course the track distance mav be
increasedto 4.25 m.
cycle path cycle path
Between a track and a closed wall
b. Overhead crossingwith columns
there should be at least 3.50 m room.
-
Between a track centre and an open is 5.65 m.
11AtVtt+o km/h minimal height
"2)
wall (columns) offering the possibility Lines A-A indicateextreme limits of the formwork, the suspensionof
'the
carryingcable should then be locatedwithin the formwork limit.
to run away, at least 3.00 m should be .3)
maintained. In case of bad view or placementof fixed objects within the overbridge
these measures should be adapted.
*11As
a structurehas a long service life the possibilityof expandingthe
The width of the cycle path is meas- 'track
distanceto 4.25 m should be kept in mind.
ured from the sidewall to the place
where a ballastbed connects to the Figure 1.7: Clearances with structures
cycle path.

12
Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

Noisebarriersmay not be installedcloserthan4.50 m fromthe trackin orderto ensurethe safetyof

personneland allowthe necessaryroomfor cyclepathsand spaceto put awaymechanical manual
equipmentfor maintenance purposes.In curvesthisdistanceis 4.80m.

The heightof the barriersshouldbe limitedand installingbarriersbetweentracksis not allowed.

Moreover,thereshouldbe a safetydoorin the barrierafterevery100m. lf the viewof the trackis less
than 1500m due to a barrier,the barriersshouldbe madeless highor warninglightsshouldbe
installed.

1.5.2 Alignment

The alignmentof a railwaylineexistsof gradients(thesteepnessis expressedin a permillage) and

verticalroundingoff curves.Withgradientsof 5%ono difficulties
willariseon the opentrack.All rolling
stockin The Netherlands will be ableto moveoff fromstandstill.
Steepergradientscan be applied;maximumvaluescannotbe givenas theydependon:

- The lengthof the gradient;

- The possibility
to developa startingspeed;
- The characteristic
of the appliedpullingforceandtrainloading.

It shouldbe keptin mindthatelectriclocomotives,

whenclimbinggradients,
arenotallowedto apply
the maximumforceat lowspeedfor a longerperiodbecausethe seriesresistances
mayburn.

lf gradientsandcurvescoincide,the gradientshouldbe decreased a littleon the spotto keepthe total

resistanceconstant.Descending gradientsextendthe brakingdistance.

1.6 Generaltrack considerations

1.6.1 Trackrequirements

The termrailwaytrackor "permanent way"entailstracks,switches,crossings, and ballastbeds.The

trackis usedby locomotives, coaches,and wagonswhichin Europenormallyhave maximumaxle
loadsof 22.5tand which,on NS,runat speedsof up to 140km/h.The factthatthe purposeof the
trackis to transportpassengersandfreightandthatoperationis requiredto be as eionomicalas pos-
sible,givesriseto a numberof requirementsto be met by the track.Theseareformulatedas follows:
- Bearingin mindpermissible speedsand axle loads,the railsand switchesmustbe safefor vehi-
clesto runon. Toensurethisthe trackcomponents, suchas the rails,mustbe of suchdimensions
that they do not fail underthe trafficload. Moreover,the correctgeometrymust be maintained
whetherthe trackis underloador not.

- Tracksandswitchesmustallowcomfortable passageat all times.Evenif safetyis notjeopardised,

the locomotives
and coachesmay experience suchvibrationsand oscillations duringthe journey
that passagebecomesunpleasantfor the passengers. An unfortunate combination of switches,
curvesand reversecurvesmay,evenif the trackis verywell constructed and has perfectgeome-
try causesuchstrongmovementsin a vehiclethat the passengers experiencemost unpleasant
and sometimesevenfrightening
sensations.
- Trackmust be electricallyinsulatedso that the track circuitsrequiredfor signallingcontinueto
functionevenunderthe leastfavourable weatherconditions. lt shouldalsobe electrically
insulated
to ensurethaton electrified
sectionsthe returncurrentdoesnot returnto earthas stravcurrent.

13
l INTRODUCTION Modern Railway Track

- Track must be con-

structedin sucha way Axle load = 225 kN max.
that the trainsrunning Sleeper
Concreteor Wood
on it do not cause
excessiveenvironmen- Spacing0.6 m
R a i lq = 9 0 0 N / m m '
tal pollutionin the form
of noise and ground
vibrations.

- Costs of the total serv-

ice life of the track
mustbe as low as pos-
sible.

- Maintenance shoulc
be lOw and aS inexpen- trackstructure
Figure1.8:Conventional
sive as possible.

Tracks and switches are assets which will last for quite some years. The choice of a particulartrack
system and the decision to use this system on certain lines, therefore, generally involves a decision
which will hold good for 20 to 50 years. Consequently,such decisions must be taken with the future in
mind, however difficult it may be to make a valid prediction.The only sure factor is that a certain
degree of objectivitymust be maintainedvis-ir-visthe presentday situation,and not too much empha-
sis placed on random everyday events.

When choosing a track system, the above-mentionedrequirementsmust all be given due considera-
tion and it is clearly necessary to form some idea of the axle loads and maximum speeds to be
expected in the decades to come. After this the situation regarding the various track components,
such as rails, sleepers,fastenings,switches,and ballastshould be examinedso that the optimum
track design is obtained.

1.6.2 Load-bearing function of the track

The purposeof trackis to

Axle: P=200kN
transfertrain loadsto the
W h e e lQ
: =100kN
formation. Conventional
l\4eanstress track still in use consists
area level (under rail 50 %) of a discretesystemmade
up of rails,sleepers, and
AH = 1 cm' on = 100000N/cm'
, Wheel/rail ballastbed. Figure1.8
A^ = 200 cm' Raiurailpad o* = 250 N/cm, showsa principlesketch
/basePlate withthe maindimensions.
= 750 cm' Baseplate
ou" = 70 N/cm'
/sleeper Load transfer works on
A* = 1500 cm' Sleeper the principleof stress
6"0 = 30 N/cm'
/ballastbed reduction,which means
Ballastbed o=5N/cm, layerby layer,as depicted
/substructure schematically in
Figure1.9. The greatest
stress occurs between
Figure 1.9: Principle of load transfer wheel and rail and is in
the orderof 30 kN/cm2(=
300 MPa). Even higher values may occur (see chapter 2). Between rail and sleeper the stress is two
orderssmallerand diminishesbetweensleeperand ballastbed down to about 30 N/cm'. Finallythe
stress on the formation is only about 5 N/cm'.

14
Modern Railway Treck 1 INTRODUCTION

1.6.3 Indicationof rail forces and displacements

In rail track literaturethe

wheel-rail forces
(Figure1.10) are usually
indicatedwith Q for the
vertical force b-direc-
tion), Y for the lateral
force (y-direction), and T
for the longitudinalforce
(x-direction).

Figure 1.10: Rail forces and displacements

Apartfrom theseexternalforces,internallongitudinal forcesmay be presentand are

temperature
indicatedwiththe symbolN.

The Hertzcontactareaand contactstressdistribution,

shownin the detailview,will be discussedin a
laterchapter.

In the givenxyz-coordinate
system,railor trackdisplacements
are usuallyindicatedas u, v, andw.

1.6.4 Track geometry components

An importantaspectof construction is trackgeometry.

The primarygeometrycomponents
are meas-
uredin the cross-section
of the trackas drawnin Figure1.11.

Eachrail has2 degreesof freedom.These4 degreesof freedomare normallyreplacedby an equiv-

alentsystemconsisting
of cant,level,alignment,
andgauge.

An additionalimportantparameteris twist,which is definedas the differencein cant over a given

length.All quantities
arefunctionsof the lengthcoordinate
of the track(x-axis).

Twist =
Cant (x) - Cant (x - b)

Alignment
Figure 1.11: Geometric track
@mponents

15