Tshwane University of Technology

FACULTY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Principles of Programming A (Extended)

PPAF05D
Introduction to Programming 115R (Extended)
TROF05D
Unit 3
Basic programs in Java

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Unit 3: Basic programs in Java
Assessment criteria
The content covered in this unit relates to the following outcomes and assessment criteria:
Module descriptor UNIT 1: Problem solving
Outcome: The student must be able to apply logic and knowledge to solve basic problems.

Assessment Criteria
• Redundant information can be excluded from a basic programming problem statement by rewriting the problem without redundant information.
• Missing data can be identified in a basic programming problem statement, by listing the missing data elements.
• Problems requiring logical thought flow can be analysed and solutions provided by providing narratives, diagrams or completing tables.

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 Module descriptor UNIT 2: Basic programming principles
Outcome: The student must be able to apply algorithmic problem solving to basic mathematical and programming problems.
Assessment Criteria

• Input and output can be identified for a given programming problem.

• The variables needed as part of an algorithm can be identified by completing an input-processing-output (IPO) table.
• Valid variable names can be provided following the best practice standards of Java.
• Constants to be used in a program can be identified by writing it in the correct section of an algorithm.
• Valid data types for variables can be suggested by indicating the data type in an algorithm.
• The data type of a variable can be converted to another type using the type casting facilities of Java.
• The rules of the order of processing can be applied in writing pseudo code for a mathematical calculation.
• A solution can be planned using an input-output-processing (IPO) table.
• An algorithm to solve a basic mathematical problem requiring sequential steps can be designed, presented in pseudo code, and implemented in
Java providing correct output.
• Names of built-in classes and related methods can be identified for the OOP language used.

• A solution to solve a basic mathematical problem can be created using methods of built-in classes of Java.
• Source code can be indented according to best programming practices of the OOP language used.
• Comments can be added in a program to clarify the flow of the program.

• The output for a given algorithm using sequential steps and basic mathematical calculations can be predicted by means of a trace table.
• The output of a program can be formatted to display text and numbers in a certain format.
• Syntax errors can be identified and corrected in a given or a self-written program.
• The difference between syntax errors, run-time and logical errors can be explained by providing examples of each, and suggesting ways to
prevent, identify and solve these errors in a program.

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 Module descriptor UNIT 4: Introduction to object-oriented principles
Outcome: The students will be able to apply basic object-oriented programming terminology and principles to describe and construct solutions.

Assessment Criteria
• Objects can be identified in a real-life scenario.
• Characteristics (attributes) and action (behaviour) can be identified for real-life objects.
• Properties (members) and behaviour (methods) can be identified in predefined classes.
• The relation between a class and an object can be explained in a given OOP program.
• An object can be instantiated and used in a programming solution when a predefined class is provided.
• Advantages of the OOP paradigm can be provided with reference to a specific scenario.
• The different sections and required keywords can be identified in a class according to the syntax of rules of the OOP language used.
• Names for methods and data members can be suggested according to best practices of the OOP language used.

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Knowledge and skills needed
Before you attempt to work on this unit, you need to know and be able to:
• Accurately type text in a document at a reasonable speed.
• Type special characters such as {, ;, \ on the keyboard. It is extremely important that you are comfortable using the
• Type uppercase characters using the <Shift> key. keyboard, as well as File Explorer to manage files and folders,
otherwise you will not be able to execute instructions quickly and will
• Identify and use the arrow keys on the keyboard.
claim that Java is difficult.
• Use the following keys in combination:
o <ctrl> + <c> to copy text
o <ctrl> + <v> to paste text
o <ctrl> + <s> to save changes in a file
• Create folders and subfolders, and store files in relevant folders.
• Identify and use the Windows icon  to open specific applications.
• Switch between different applications by clicking on the relevant icon in the Taskbar.
• Move files from one folder to another.
• Provide definitions/explanations for the following terms
o The type of a file
o An executable file
o Machine code
o Source code
o Hard drive of a computer

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Contents
Unit 3: Basic programs in Java ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 1

Scratch vs. Java................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10

Writing and running a Java program .................................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Compare the Scratch and Java environments ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
First Java program ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
First Java program (class name Hola) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 15

Displaying output in Java .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Difference between print() and println() (class name PlayWithOutput) ........................................................................................................................... 17
Knowledge checklist ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Skills checklist ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22

Obtaining values from the user ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Read a name from the keyboard (class name GreetMe) ................................................................................................................................................... 23
Declaring variables ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Obtaining input from the keyboard ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Pseudo code vs Scratch vs Java .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Read and display name and age (class name NameAndAge) ............................................................................................................................................. 28
Concepts and terminology regarding methods ....................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Convert pseudo code to Java code ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Convert Java to pseudo code.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Knowledge checklist ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Primitive data types .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39

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 Determine the best data type .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Naming rules and conventions .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

Rules for identifier names........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Conventions for identifier names ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Valid / suitable identifiers ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 43

Declare and initialize variables .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

Declare and initialize variables ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 45

Numeric operators............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 46
Calculate age this year (Refer to activity 16 in Unit 2) (Class name CalculateAge) .......................................................................................................... 47

Constant values (final) ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47

Library fine (Refer to activity 21 in Unit 2) (Class name LibraryFine) ............................................................................................................................... 50
Calculate phone call cost (Refer to activity 24 in Unit 2) (Class name PhoneCallCost) .................................................................................................... 50
Calculate wages (Refer to Unit 2 activity 26) (class name Calculate Wages) ................................................................................................................... 51
Contractor fees (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 27) (class name ContractorFees) ..................................................................................................................... 51
Food cost (class name EatALot) ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 52
Knowledge checklist ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53

More about coding calculations ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 54

Translate Math to Java and vice versa .............................................................................................................................................................................. 56

The division operator in Java............................................................................................................................................................................................. 59

Doing integer division in Java ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 60

The remainder operator in Java ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 61

Predict results of \ and MOD operators ........................................................................................................................................................................... 64

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 Chairs in student centre (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 32) (class ChairsStudentCentre) ......................................................................................................... 65
Tablets in bottles (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 31) (class name TabletsInBottle) ................................................................................................................... 66
Knowledge checklist ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67

The char data type .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67

Storing characters – ASCII and Unicode ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
ASCII Decoder ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Coconut puzzle ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Working with character values ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Display initials (class DispInit)........................................................................................................................................................................................... 72

Data compatibility ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 72

Data type conversion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 73

Widening conversion .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Widening conversion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 77
Narrowing conversion using a cast operator .............................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Narrowing casting............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Casting integer division to a floating-point answer .................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Number of 85 g packets (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 34) (class NumSmallPackets).............................................................................................................. 82
Knowledge checklist ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84

Mathematical calculations ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 84

Methods from the Math class .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Rounding a value to a specific number of decimal places .......................................................................................................................................................... 87
Doing mathematical calculations ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
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 Coding more advanced calculations ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Convert Math  Pseudo code  Java code ..................................................................................................................................................................... 91

Predicting output of a program ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91

Substituting values into assignment statements ...................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Pseudo code format and substitution .............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Rewrite the following pseudo code statements as mathematical equations: ................................................................................................................. 95
Creating a trace table ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Predict the output using trace tables ............................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 100

Unary operators ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101

The unary minus operator – (negation).................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
The unary plus operator ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
The increment operator ++ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
The decrement operator -- ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Unary operators ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 104

Compound (augmented) assignment operators ............................................................................................................................................................... 105

Compound (augmented) operators ............................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Knowledge checklist ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 107

Formatting output .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108

Using escape sequences ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Predict output when escape sequences are used .......................................................................................................................................................... 109
Write code to format output using escape sequences................................................................................................................................................... 109
Using the DecimalFormat class ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 110
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 Predict the format of a number when DecimalFormat class is used.............................................................................................................................. 114
Format output using methods from the DecimalFormat class....................................................................................................................................... 114
Knowledge checklist ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 115

Finding errors in a Java program ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 116

Syntax or compile-time errors ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 117
Run-time or semantic errors .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Logical errors ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 118
Knowledge checklist ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Skills checklist ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 119

The Java environment .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 120

The Java Virtual Machine .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Advantages of the Java environment ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 122
Java distributions ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 122

Sources consulted and/or referenced .............................................................................................................................................................................. 123

Recommended additional learning resources .................................................................................................................................................................. 124

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 Scratch vs. Java
Java is an object-oriented programming (OOP) language. It can be used to create programs/applications for various environments such as Mobile applications;
Desktop GUI applications,Web-based applications and many more (Johari, 2019). Some of the differences between Scratch and Java are the following:

Programming in Scratch Programming in Java

A program is created by dragging code blocks onto the script area. A program is created by typing all the programming instructions into a
document.
public class Hola
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Hola bafethu");
}
}
A programmer does not have to type much code, since the instructions are No code is generated automatically. All instructions must be typed. A
available as existing code blocks. A program can be created in a short time programmer needs to be efficient and accurate in typing.
even if the programmer does not have a high level of typing skills.
To 'make something happen', you need to add code blocks in a script. To 'make something happen', you need to call a method, for example, println()
is a method that will display text on the screen.
A program (project) consists of one or more scripts for one or more sprites. • A basic program consists of a main() method that is stored in a class. All
No additional instructions are needed. instructions to create the class must be typed by the programmer. The
name of the class can be chosen by the programmer, but the name of the
method must be main().
• The class can contain more methods, but it must contain a main() method,
otherwise it cannot perform any tasks.
• The programmer must write the code to create the class and the main()
method.

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 To run a program, you need to click on a block or a script, or you need to A programmer needs to first compile a program, then run (execute) the
click on the green flag icon. program in a second step.
• A compiler is a special program that translates a program written in one
language (such as Java) to a language the computer can understand
Examples of other OOP languages arePython, Ruby and (machine code).
Smalltalk. • When a program is compiled, the compiler cannot continue if there are
any syntax errors (mistakes in the programming code that does not
follow the rules of the programming language).

Writing and running a Java program

Compare the Scratch and Java environments
In Scratch you write programming code in the Script Area, and the output is executed and displayed on the Stage. Input is entered in an edit box at the bottom of the
stage.

Program code (source code) in the Script Input in an edit box at the bottom of the Stage Output in a speech bubble next to the
Area sprite.

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 You also used the List component to display all lines of output on the Stage.

In Java, all program code (the source code) must be typed in a file (we are going to use NetBeans 8.2). There are no blocks to drag and drop.

This is what you will see when you write and run a Java program.

An output window is displayed below the source code

editor. In this window you will:
• See the prompt (the question displayed to the user).
Program code (source code) typed in the • Enter input values.
source code editor of NetBeans.
• See the final output message.

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 Terminology
• In Scratch programming code was stored in a file with an extension .sb3.
• Methods were called from classes to 'make something happen' to the sprite. For example, the say method was called from the Looks class to make a speech
bubble with words appear next to the sprite on the stage.
• Java provides many classes that contain methods. For example, the print() method from the System class will display words on the screen.
• To create a program, the programmer must create a class that contains one method – the main() method.
• The programmer can choose the name of the class – just like you could choose the name of a Scratch program.
• This class will be stored in a file with extension .java.

First Java program

Here are the steps to follow to create a Java program that will display a greeting on the screen. The program will be stored as a class called Hola.

1. Open NetBeans
2. Click on File> New Project ….

3. Click on Next
4. Enter a Project Name

The programmer chooses the project name. The project name will always be the same as the name of the
class that contains the main method.

5. Choose the folder where you are going to

store all your Java programs.
You only need to do this once. Click on the Browse… button to select the folder. When you open NetBeans
again, it will remember this location.

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 6. Make sure the checkbox is ticked.

7. Click on Finish

You will now see the editor where you need to enter programming code. A number of lines of code is automatically created, and you should not change it.

The name of the file containing the class. The project name, the class name and the file name is the same.

A Java project can contain many packages, and a package can contain many
classes. In this module we will only write code for one class – the 'main' class
The package name. Do not change it. that contain the main() method.
It is the same as the class name, but We choose the name of the project, NetBeans automatically creates a package
lowercase letters only. and a class with the same name. You should not change any of the names now.

The class declaration.

The main method declaration.

Terminology
• { } braces
• ( ) parentheses
• [ ] brackets

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 Where must my code be entered?
Pseudo code Java code
begin public class Hola { Your programming code goes between the two
braces.
say "Hola bafethu" public static void main(String[] args) {
{
end System.out.println("Hola bafethu");
}
}
}

First Java program (class name Hola)

• Java is case-sensitive - that means it does not see, for example, the letter a, and the letter A as
Create the program to display a greeting in the output
the same letter. Therefore, you must type each character and letter as in the example program. If
window. you type, for example, system.Out instead of System.out, your program will not compile.
• You must type all the letters and characters exactly as they are. The only choices you have, is the
name of the class, and the words you want to have displayed. You can, for example, use "Dumela
Mogwera", or "Hi, how are you!".
• Take note of the indentation.
• See that braces, brackets and parentheses are always in pairs.
• The end of every programming instruction is indicated by a semi-colon.

Note
• It is a Java convention to let the name of a class start with a capital letter, for example:
public class Hola
public class CalcArea
public class InstallmentPerMonth

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 • In Scratch you could attach comments to a code block. In Java you can add comments in a program in different ways.
Option 1: Use the characters //. This is used to type one line of comments.
Option 2: Use the /* */. This is used to type a block comment that can run over more than one line.
• You may delete the commented lines in the NetBeans
editor that is automatically added. Therefore your code
may look like this before you start to add code in the
main() method.

• You will learn the meaning of the various words and characters in the header of the main() method later. What is important now, is that you may not
change anything in the header.
• The left brace { indicates the start of the main() method.
• The right brace } indicates the end of the main() method.
• Your code must be entered between the braces.
• The brace indicating the start of the main method may be on the same line as the header, or it
may be on the next line.

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 Displaying output in Java
Output in Scratch Output in Java
The [say] block (method) is used to display output on • Two methods are available to display output on the screen.They are print() and println().
the screen. (We say 'print line' for the println() method.
System.out.println("Hallo!")
System.out.print("How are you?")
• In Java you call a method by entering the name of the programming structure where a
method is stored, and then enter the method name.
• The print() and println() methods can be found in the System class in a field called out.
(You will learn about fields and classes later. For now, you just need to know the methods
are available in a programming structure called System.out, and you must enter the name
of the structure before the methods can be called.)

Difference between print() and println() (class name PlayWithOutput)

Create the following program. Compile and run it. Then answer the questions that follow.

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 a) Describe to a fellow student what the difference is between the print() and the println() methods.

b) The output looks like this: Adapt the program code so that the
output looks like this:

c) Why does line 22 and line 23 (of the Java code) produce different output?

d) Change the program so that an open line is displayed after the line "I am a Java program! "

e) Change the program so that a line of asterisks (*) is displayed at the end.

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 OOP Terminologies
There are important terminologies that will be referred to in the rest of this Unit. Refer to these descriptions while you work through the unit.
Methods and arguments
These are examples of Scratch methods. They were called code blocks (note that the
• A method can be seen as a set of instructions that was 'names' of the methods are verbs).
developed by another programmer (e.g. a Java
developer). A method commands the computer to
perform an action. For example, to print a line on the
console (screen) we use a print() or println() method. .
• The println() method needs an argument – the string that
must be displayed on the console. An argument is the data
that must be supplied to a method for it to perform a
All these Scratch methods had
specific task. Arguments are always presented inside a pair
arguments – values that was
of parentheses ( ).
provided to the methods.
• String (text) values are always presented in a pair of double
quotes. " "
• The syntax rules of Java require that even methods that do
not need any arguments need to have parentheses.

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 Objects
• As the name suggests, object-oriented programming (OOP) languages make use of objects to provide tools to build programs.
• In real life we are surrounded by objects. Look around you, you may see a desk, chair, television set, cell phone (nouns). All objects have:

characteristics and behaviour

• It describes what the object looks like. • It determines the actions an object can perform
• It is also called attributes or states. – what the object can do.
• It is the object's data / fields. • It is the methods of an object.
• For example, a cell phone has a certain colour, width, • For example, a cell phone can make a call, take
length, height. photos, and send text messages.

• In Scratch, you used objects such as sprites and the stage (without really knowing that they were called objects).

characteristics (fields) of a sprite object and behaviour (methods) of a sprite object

• Some examples are – the sprite has a certain colour; • Some examples are - the sprite can move, turn,
size, costume, x and y position on the stage and a glide and play a sound.
direction in which the sprite is pointing.

• A software object is a programming structure that can be used in combination with other objects to build a program (application).
Classes
• All real-life objects have been created using a recipe or blueprint or plan. For example, a cake is an object, but you need a recipe to describe how to
bake it. A house is an object, but you need plans to build it. In the same way a software object needs to be described/defined, and the plan for a
software object is called a class.
• Therefore, a class describes what fields (data / attributes) an object contains, and what methods the object has (the tasks it can perform, or its
behaviour). You can say: 'A class is the recipe for an object'.
• In Scratch, you do not need to give any instructions regarding classes. Every time you choose a sprite, an object is automatically created for you,

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 based on the class (the recipe) for a sprite. In OOP language, we say:
o The object (sprite) was instantiated (created),
o A sprite is an instantiation of the class Sprite (using the recipe for a sprite).
Java classes, objects, and methods you have used so far
• You created your own class, containing one method – the main() method – it describes the behaviour of your class.
• Your class did not have any fields / data yet.
• The System class (a recipe) contains data and methods that can be called to display output in the console window.
• One of the fields of the System class is an object called out.
• The out object contains the print() and println() methods that you called.
System. out. print ("Hola bafehtu!");
Class name field name method name argument – a string
Class names start with Object names start with Methods names start with A method always has parentheses, even if it does
a capital letter. lowercase letters. lowercase letters. not need an argument value.
A string is always enclosed in double quotes " ".

Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

Argument of a method
Behaviour / actions / method of an object
Braces, brackets and parentheses
Class
Compiler
Fields /data / attributes of an object

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 main() method
Math class
Method
Object
OOP
Run a program
Syntax errors

Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:
Create a new Java project in NetBeans.
Type code in the main() method of a class.
Run a Java program.
Display output in Java using the print() and println() methods.

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 Obtaining values from the user
We now want to obtain values from the keyboard (the standard input device). Complete the following activity, then we will discuss the purpose of each of the
additional statements (the ones highlighted in colours).

Read a name from the keyboard (class name GreetMe)

import java.util.Scanner; //import the Scanner class form the java.util package
public class GreetMe
{ //start class
public static void main(String[] args)
{ //start main method
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in); //create an object to read data from the keyboard
String sName; //declare a variable
System.out.print("What is your name?");
sName = keyboard.nextLine(); //call a method to read data from the keyboard
System.out.println("Dumela " + sName);
} //end main method
} //end class
How will the output change if you use a println() method to display "What is your name? ", and a print() method to display the greeting?

Change the code and observe the change. Never be afraid to change code to 'see what happens'. That is how you learn to code. You do
not have to wait for someone else to provide the answer.

Did you notice?

The print() method prints what was provided as an argument, then the cursor waits on the same line.
The println() method prints what was provided as an argument, then the cursor jumps to the next line.

Now we will discuss the highlighted code. The purple highlighted code shows how to declare a variable in Java.

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 Declaring variables
In Scratch you only need to create (make) a variable: In Java, the scope of a variable is determined by the
o Give it a name place in the program where the variable is
o Indicate the scope (For all sprites, or For this sprite only). declared.
In Java you need to declare a variable – the declaration process involves two steps: To start with, we will only write programs with a
o Give the variable a name that is descriptive and follows rules and conventions of the programming main method, and all variables will 'belong' to the
language. main method. We can say the variables have
o Indicate the type of data that will be stored in the variable – for example, integer, real, string, char. For method scope.
the first few programs you are going to write, you will use the following data types:
int (integer for whole numbers); double (floating point / real numbers) and String.

int iNumStudents; The data type of a string value is indicated with the capital
double rAverage; //we keep the prefix as r
letter S. This because Java considers a string value as a class. In
String sName; //capital letter S for a String
the beginning you will use a String as a single value containing
alphanumeric values, for example, "Grade 6", "Katlego",
So, generally, we can indicate the declaration of a variable as follows:
"0846675422". The use of methods of the String class will be
discussed later.
type tVariableName;
Obtaining input from the keyboard
In Scratch you use an ask method to display a prompt on the stage, and a In Java you use a print() or println() method to display a prompt in the console
set method to transfer the input on the keyboard to a specific variable. window.

System.out.print("What is your name?");

To transfer the input from the keyboard to a specific variable in Java, you need to add
additional code. The code is explained in the table below:

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 1. Add code to specify that the class containing input methods will be needed. We import java.util.Scanner;
say the Scanner class from the java.util package must be imported (added to the
program).

All the classes available in Java are organized into packages. So, a package is a group of related classes. The Scanner class is part of the java.util package. You can
think of a package as a library where classes are stored on shelves. In a library each shelve contains related books (computer science, chemistry, life sciences.)

2. Create an object called keyboard based on the Scanner class. Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);

Some objects are created automatically by Java – for example, the out object containing the print() and println() methods.
Some methods can only be accessed once the programmer created an object in the program where the methods must be called.
The Scanner class contains methods to read values from the keyboard (the standard input device).
The programmer needs to instantiate an object based on the Scanner class before the methods to read values from the keyboard can be called.
Examples of these methods are:
Reads real values nextDouble() rAmount = keyboard.nextDouble(); NOTE
Reads integers nextInt() iAge = keyboard.nextInt(); Different methods are called to read different data types
Reads more than one word nextLine() sNameSurn = keyboard.nextLine(); from the keyboard.
Reads a single word next() sOneWord = keyboard.next();

3. Call the nextLine() method from the keyboard object to transfer the value sName = keyboard.nextLine();
entered on the keyboard to the variable with the name sName.

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 Pseudo code vs Scratch vs Java
Let us look at the way pseudo code, Scratch code and Java code are related when values are read from the keyboard and displayed on a screen. You need to realize that
the pseudo code you wrote for Scratch can be translated to Java. Therefore, if you have pseudo code for the activities for the Scratch programs in Unit 2, you do not
need to write pseudo code again if you want to write the same program in Java. You just translate the pseudo code to meet the Java syntax requirements.

Pseudo code Scratch code Java code

ask "What's your name? "

System.out.print("What is your name? ");
display "What's your name? "

In Java we are going to use the word display in pseudocode instead of ask, since the methods for a prompt for input, and for displaying output is the same.

enter sName sName = keyboard.nextLine();

display "Dumela " + sName System.out.println("Dumela " + sName );

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 Creating a Scanner object
This is a breakdown of the way an object based on the Scanner class is created in a Java program. Creating other objects follow the same pattern.
The Scanner class is stored in the java.util package. The programmer needs to import the Scanner class from the java.util package before an object based on the
Scanner class can be created.

import java.util.Scanner;
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner (System.in);
The name (type) of the class The name of the object. A Java keyword A call to the Scanner method in the The data needed by the object, in this case the
the object should be based Scanner class. This method name of the standard input device.
on. (The name you want to use constructs (creates)the object This is the argument of the Scanner method (the
called keyboard. constructor).
in your program to refer to
This method is called the
the keyboard).
constructor method.
(You can also say: 'The recipe The name must start with a
to follow.') lower-case character. All constructors have the same name as the class. That is why the name of
You can use any name you the method starts with a capital letter, whereas the convention stipulates a
want, for example: method name should start with a lower-case letter.
kb or input

Creating an object can be done in two separate steps, for example:

Scanner keyboard; //declaring the object name similar to declaring a variable name
keyboard = new Scanner (System.in); // Creating the keyboard object by calling the constructor method on the Scanner class.

Terminologies
When an object has been created, we say the object is an instance of the class.
o keyboard is an instance of the Scanner class.
o The keyboard object has been instantiated by calling the constructor method called Scanner.

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 The System class
• A standard library of pre-written classes is available to all Java programs. These classes are part of the Java Application Programmer Interface (API).
• The System class is part of the API.
• The System class is stored in the java.lang package, but the package does not have to be imported.
• The System class contains an object (a field) called out.
• The out object is based on the PrintStream class from the java.io package. (It is an instantiation of the PrintStream class).

Read and display name and age (class name NameAndAge)

a) Write a Java program to read a name from the keyboard, and display a greeting using the name entered.
b) Add code to the Java program to also read the age of a person, then display a message such as the following:

Input – variable sName

Input variable iAge

Complete Java programs

Two complete examples of programs you wrote in Scratch will now be provided in Java, so that you can see how the logic involved is the same, but the syntax
of the two programming languages is different.

Example 1: Calculate percentage

In Scratch you wrote a program to calculate the percentage for a test if the score and the test total are provided. Compare the Scratch code to the Java code.

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28
 The Java code will look as follows:
import java.util.Scanner; // Scanner is stored in the java.util package Classes are grouped together and stored in packages. Therefore, a package is a
public class CalcPercentage //Create new class CalcPercentage container of several classes. The java.util package includes various miscellaneous
utility classes for example, classes to read data from the keyboard and to generate
{ //start class
random numbers.
public static void main(String[] args)

{ //start main method

//Create an object called keyboard, based on the Scanner class, to read data from the keyboard
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
1. Create an object to read input from the keyboard using the Scanner class.
//Declare variables

int iTestTotal; 2. Specify the names of all the variables you want to use in your program and indicate what type of data you
double rScore, rPercentage; are going to store in each variable.

//Prompt the user to enter the score obtained in the test

System.out.print("Test score:");
//Read score from the keyboard and store it in the variable called rScore
rScore = keyboard.nextDouble();
//Prompt the user to enter the total for the test
System.out.print("Test total:");
//Read score from the keyboard and store it in the variable called iTestTotal
iTestTotal = keyboard.nextInt();
//Calculate the percentage
3. Call methods from the keyboard object
rPercentage = rScore/iTestTotal * 100; to read values from the keyboard.
//Display the percentage on the screen

System.out.println("The percentage is: " + rPercentage + " %");

} //end main method

Type the calculation in Java similar to the way you write the
} //end class
calculation in pseudo code.

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

29
 In Java you can write the pseudo code for this solution as follows:
CalcPercentage // the class name
begin //start of the class
main method Since the data type of a variable is very
important in Java, we can also indicate it
begin //main method
in the pseudo code.

//declare variables
int iTestTotal
double rScore, rPercentage

//Prompt the user to enter the score obtained in the test

display "Test score: "
//Read score from the keyboard and store it in the variable called rScore
enter rScore

//Prompt the user to enter the total for the test

display "Test total: "
//Read score from the keyboard and store it in the variable called iScore
enter iTestTotal

//Calculate the percentage

rPercentage = rScore/iTestTotal * 100

//Display the percentage on the screen

display "The percentage is: " + rPercentage + " %"

end //main method

end //end of the class
Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java
30
 Example 2: Cost of tickets
In Scratch you wrote a program that will read a person’s name and the number of tickets sold, then calculate and display the total money
the person owes. The Java code can look as follows:
import java.util.Scanner; // Scanner is in the java.util package The code in grey forms part of the framework of code you
public class CostTickets //A new class called CostTickets is created. should use for every program.
{ //start class
public static void main(String[] args)
{ //start main method
//Create an object based on the Scanner class to read input from the keyboard
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
//Declare variables
int iNumTickets;
double rCost;
String sName;
//Prompt the user to enter a name
System.out.print("What is your name?:");
//Read name from the keyboard store it in the variable called sName
sName = keyboard.nextLine();
//Prompt the user to enter the number of tickets bought
System.out.print("How many tickets do you want to buy?:");
//Read number of tickets from the keyboard and store it in the variable called iNumTickets
iNumTickets = keyboard.nextInt();
//Calculate the cost
rCost = iNumTickets * 200;
//Display the cost on the screen
System.out.println(sName + " you need to pay R" + rCost);
} //end main method
} //end class

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 Java has two ways in which methods can be accessed (called):

1. Call methods from a class (static / anonymous / class methods) 2. Call methods from an object (instance methods)
ClassName.methodName(arguments) objectName.methodName(arguments)

Call a method directly from a class. The following code shows how the ceil() Use a class as a 'recipe' or 'blueprint', and create an object based on the
class. Then call methods of the object. The following code shows how
method is called from the Math class:
methods are called from the keyboard object based on the Scanner
class.
double rNumBoxes = iLitrePaint / iInContainer;
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
rNumBoxes = Math.ceil(rNumBoxes); String sName = keyboard.nextLine();
int iAge = keyboard.nextInt();
The ceil() method is called a static / anonymous/ class method – it can be
accessed directly from a class without creating an object. Methods such as nextLine() and nextInt() are called instance methods. The
methods are part of the Scanner class, but they require an object based on
the Scanner class to be created before they can be called.
The object/class name is always followed by a dot (.), and then
the method name is provided.

This is called the dot-notation. Keyboard is an object created by the programmer, therefore the
programmer can choose the name. For example:
You say Math dot ceil(), or
keyboard dot nextLine.
Scanner reader = new Scanner(System.in);
sName = reader.nextLine();

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 Concepts and terminology regarding methods

There are two ways in which methods perform tasks

1. Value-returning methods 2. Void methods
These are examples of methods that return values when they are called: These are examples of methods that just perform tasks:

rScore = keyboard.nextDouble(); System.out.print("Hi how are you!");

The nextDouble() method returns a double value.

It receives no arguments. The print() method displays the data that is passed to it through the
argument. It does not return a value. It is called a void method.
rNumBoxes = Math.ceil(rNumBoxes);

The ceil() method returns a number rounded to the next whole

number – the returned value is of data type double.
It has an argument that should be a floating-point number.

Value-returning methods are called by treating it as a value in an assignment

statement.

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

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 Convert pseudo code to Java code
a) The pseudo code that follows aims to calculate the average percentage of a student in 3 subjects identified as PPA, COH and CFA. Translate this into
a Java program, compile and execute your program. Include all the comments on your code. The code should produce results as shown in the screen
shot.
CalculateAverage // the class name
begin //start of the class
main method
begin //main method
//declare variables
String sStudentName
int iPPA,iCOH,iCFA
double rAverage
//Prompt the user to enter the Name of the student whose Average is to be calculated
display "Enter the name of the student: "
//Read the name from the keyboard and store it in variable sStudentName
enter sStudentName
//Prompt the user to enter the marks obtained in PPA
display "Enter the marks for PPA: "
//Read the marks from the keyboard and store it in variable iPPA
enter iPPA
//Prompt the user to enter the marks obtained in COH
display "Enter the marks for COH: "
//Read the marks from the keyboard and store it in variable iCOH
enter iCOH
//Prompt the user to enter the marks obtained in CFA
display "Enter the marks for CFA: "
//Read the marks from the keyboard and store it in variable iCFA
enter iCFA
//Calculate the average score
rAverage = (iPPA + iCOH + iCFA )/3
//Display the Average on the screen
display "In the three tests conducted: " + sStudentName + " scored an average of " + rAverage + "%"
end //main method
end //end of the class

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

34
 b) Thandy is an Olympic swimmer with a full year membership at a sports centre. She has 3 different pools, poolA, poolB and poolC to practice at in every
visit. You are expected to enter the details of a pool (name, length and width) in meters and then calculate and display the perimeter and the area of the
pool. Include all the comments. Result should be as shown in the screenshot.
PoolDimentions // the class name
begin //start of the class
main method
begin //main method
//declare variables
String sPoolName
double rLength, rWidth, rPerimeter, rArea
//Prompt the user to provide the Name of the pool used
display "Which pool are you interested in? "
//Read the name from the keyboard and store it in variable sPoolName
enter sPoolName
//Prompt the user to enter the length of the pool
display "What is its Length? "
//Read the length from the keyboard and store it in variable rLength
enter rLength
//Prompt the user to enter the Width of the pool
display "What is its Width? "
//Read the length from the keyboard and store it in variable rWidth
enter rWidth
//Perform the calculations
rPerimeter = 2 * (rLength + rWidth)
rArea = rLength * rWidth
//Display the Answers
display "The Perimeter of " + sPoolName + " is " + rPerimeter + " meters, and its Area is " + rArea +
" square meters."
end //main method
end //end of the class

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

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 Convert Java to pseudo code

a) On your way to and from school, you cover a certain distance in kilometres. Enter the distance you cover each day and then convert this distance to
meters and centimetres. The Java code provided below already performs this calculation. Translate it to back to an algorithm in pseudo code. Add
comments to your algorithm. Provided is a screenshot of the output:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class ConvertDistance
{ //start class
public static void main(String[] args)
{ //start main method
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
//declare variables
int iKilometer;
int iMeter;
int iCentimeter;
//Input
System.out.print("How many Kilometers did you cover today? ");
iKilometer = keyboard.nextInt();
//Processing
iMeter = iKilometer * 1000;
iCentimeter = iMeter * 100;
//Output
System.out.println("Today you covered an equivalent of " + iMeter + " m");
System.out.println("This is also equivalent to " + iCentimeter + " cm");
} //end main method
} //end of the class

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

36
 b) Student assistants in all TUT libraries are paid according to the number of hours they work in a month. As a finance official, you are expected to read in
the assistant’s name, hours they worked as well as their pay rate; then calculate and display their salary. The Java code provided below already
performsthis calculation. Translate it to back to an algorithm in pseudo code; add comments to your algorithm. Provided is a screenshot of the console
window:

import java.util.Scanner; // Import the java.util package

public class CalculateSalary { //Start class
public static void main(String[] args) { //start main method
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
//Declare variables
String sAssistantName;
double rSalary, rRate;
int iHourWorked;
//Input
System.out.print("Please provide the name of the Assistant: ");
sAssistantName = keyboard.nextLine();
System.out.print("Please provide the hours worked: ");
iHourWorked = keyboard.nextInt();
System.out.print("Please provide the pay per hour: ");
rRate = keyboard.nextDouble();
//Calculate the salary
rSalary = iHourWorked * rRate;
//Display the Salary
System.out.println("For this month + " + sAssistantName + " will earn a total of R " + rSalary);
} //end main method
} //end of the class

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

37
 Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/? ✓/?
Constructor method. Object attributes.
Dot-notation Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
Import a class Package
Instance method Scanner class
Instance of a class Static / anonymous / class method
Instantiation System object
Method scope Value-returning methods
Object void methods

Skills checklist
Use the following checklist to ensure you are able to do the following:

✓/?
Import the Java scanner class from its relevant package
Create an object based on the Scanner class to read values from the keyboard.
Call the relevant methods from an object based on the Scanner class to read variables of specific data types from the keyboard.
Declare a variable of a specific data type.
Prompt users for input and perform appropriate calculations based on the inputs provided by a user
Convert pseudo code statements into executable Java code
Convert Java code to correct and understandable pseudo code

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

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 Primitive data types
You have already declared variables and indicated data types for them, and you only declared variables of type int, double and String. The table below
contains more detail about the purpose of each of the 8 primitive data types available in Java.
• "A primitive data type specifies the size and type of variable values, and it has no additional methods" (w2schools.com, 2020).
• "A primitive type is predefined by the language and is named by a reserved keyword" (Oracle, 2019). As a programmer one of your tasks is to
determine
• what type of values will be stored in each variable, and
• what the range of the values will be
• what precision will be needed.
The range of the values will help you to determine which data type will use the least amount of memory space. For example, if you have avariable that will
store the grade of a learner (a value between 1 and 12), there is no need to declare it as a data type long that will use 8 bytes in memory. Rather use a
data type byte that will only require 1 byte (8 bits).

Type Number of bytes Use

double 8 (64 bits) Double-precision, floating-point numbers range from -1.7E308 to 1.7E308 with up to 16 significant digits. (A double-
numbers
Floating-

precision number uses twice as many bits as a single-precision number. Therefore,it is called double-precision.)
point

float 4 (32 bits) Single-precision, floating-point numbers from -3.4E38 to 3.4E38 with up to 7 significant digits. (This is the regular/standard
floating-point number. Therefore, it is called single precision.)
long 8 Long integers from -9 223 372 036 854 775 808 to 9 223 372 036 854 775 807
Whole numbers

int 4 Integers from -2 147 483 648 to 2 147 483 647

short 2 Short integers from -32 768 to 32767

byte 1 Very short integers from -128 to 127

char 2 (16 bits) A single Unicode character that is stored in two bytes. An example of a character is the letter 'A', or the symbol '*'. (Note:
When you assign a character value to a variable, you use single quotes.)
boolean 1 A true or false value.

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

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 Note the following
• Significant digits:
Numbers in real life applications are mostly a measure of something, e.g. km between home and campus, GB memory-storage on your phone, characters
in a tweet, weight of an atom, etc. The digits of a number that express a magnitude to a specified degree of accuracy are very important. They are
sometimes also called significant figures (or significant digits or decimal places). Usually the number is rounded off. In the process of rounding numbers,
you are required to round to an appropriate number of significant digits.
When a lotto advert said the estimated jackpot for Saturday (April 4th) was R6 million, this number has been rounded to one significant figure (National
Lottery, 2020). The actual value however was R5 996 533.86, which has nine significant figures. Which value is more accurate?
Definition: The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to how precise and accurate the measurement is.

The following table contains rules for significant figures (Columbia University, n.d.)

1. All non-zero numbers ARE significant. The number 33.2 has THREE significant figures because all the digits present are non-
zero.
2. Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE 2051 has FOUR significant figures. The zero is between a 2 and a 5.
significant.
3. Leading zeros are NOT significant. They are nothing more than place holders. The number 0.54 has only TWO
significant figures. 0.0032 also has TWO significant figures. All the zeros are leading.
4. Trailing zeros to the right of the There are FOUR significant figures in 92.00. The value 92.00 is different from 92: a
decimal ARE significant. scientist who measures 92.00 milliliters knows his value to the nearest 1/100th milliliter;
meanwhile his colleague who measured 92 milliliters only knows his value to the
nearest 1 milliliter. It is important to understand that "zero" does not mean "nothing."
Zero denotes actual information, just like any other number. You cannot tag on zeros
that are not certain to belong there.
5. Trailing zeros in a whole number with the Placing a decimal at the end of a number is usually not done. By convention, however,
decimal shown ARE significant. this decimal indicates a significant zero. For example, 540. indicates that the trailing
zero IS significant; there are THREE significant figures in this value.

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

40
 6. Trailing zeros in a whole number with no Writing just 540 indicates that the zero is NOT significant, and there are only TWO
decimal shown are NOT significant. significant figures in this value.
7. Exact numbers have an INFINITE number of This rule applies to numbers that are definitions. For example, 1 meter = 1.00
significant figures. meters = 1.0000 meters = 1.0000000000000000000 meters, etc.

8. For a number in scientific notation: N x10y, 5.02 x 104 has THREE significant figures:
all digits comprising N ARE significantby 5.02.
the first 6 rules; 10 and y are NOT
10 and 4 are not significant.
significant.
Rule 8 provides the opportunity to change the number of significant figures in a value by manipulating its form. For example, let us try writing 1100 with
THREE significant figures. Before you read further – what is your answer?
By rule 6, 1100 has TWO significant figures; its two trailing zeros are not significant. If we add a decimal to the end, we have 1100., with FOUR significant
figures (by rule 5.) But by writing it in scientific notation: 1.10 x 103, we create a THREE-significant- figure value.
• A floating-point number is a number with a fractional part, containing decimal values. (Note, a value such as 45.0 is also a floating-point number, even
though it does not have a value after the decimal point. In computer programming, the value 45.0 is stored in a different way than the value 45.) The
term float is used because there is no fixed number of digits before and after the decimal point – the decimal point can 'float'. For example, 123.456;
1.23456; 12345.6 are all floating-point numbers.
• The term real value can also be used instead of floating-point number.
• When you write a program, you can use scientific notation to express the value of a floating-point number (you learned how to write real (floating-
point) values in scientific notation in Computational Mathematics, Chapter 1).
For example, the following values are all equivalent.

Mathematical value Scientific notation Value in Java code

238.2 2.382 x 102 2.382E2
0.000456 4.56 x 10-4 4.56E-4
• String is not a primitive data type. It is a class. In this module you will not notice the difference between a primitive data type, and a class, since we will use
String values as single values only. We will discuss how methods from the String class can be used to manipulate values later.

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

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 Determine the best data type

Which data type is the most appropriate for the following variables values?
Variables' descriptions Data types

byte short int long float double char

The interest rate is 13.50
5000 registered students
The number of meters is 1274367851
The number of tickets sold is 5
The change is R45.50
The answer is the square root of 500
The class group is H
The weight is 10

Naming rules and conventions

When programmers develop a program, or a programming language, there are many things that need to have names. For example, classes, variables, methods,
objects. These names are called identifiers. Some rules for identifiers are specific to the syntax of programming languages. There are also conventions programmer
follow (common practice) – rules they agree to follow to make programs easier to read and interpret.
Rules for identifier names
• Identifier may not start with a digit.
• It may only contain letters, digits (0 to 9), and the underscore character (_).
• An identifier name may not be a Java keyword. For example, class is not a valid identifier.

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 Conventions for identifier names
• Start a variable name with a lowercase character and let every new word in the name start with an uppercase letter. For example, topSpeed; numberOfLearners.
Note – in this module we follow the additional convention to let the first letter be an indication of the data type stored in a variable. For example, rTopSpeed;
iNumberOfLearners; sName.
• Start the name of a class with an uppercase letter.
• Use meaningful variable names that are easy to remember.
• Remember that Java is case-sensitive. Do not use variable names such as iNUM, and iNum in the same program. They represent different values and may make
the program confusing to follow.
• Let the name of a constant consist of only uppercase letters e.g. TAX_PERC.

Valid / suitable identifiers

In the following activity, you need to indicate whether an identifier is valid, and whether it is suitable. If your answer is no, you need to motivate why, and
suggest a better option. The first two variables are examples of what your answers should look like.
Type of Name Valid ? ✓/ motivation & Suitable ✓ / motivation & suggestion
identifier suggestion
class costTickets ✓  The convention is to start the name
of a class with a capital letter.
variable 1_Price
 May not start with a digit.
Valid name is rPrice_1
If an identifier is not valid, the suitability is not
relevant. You can just write N/A in both columns.
N/A

variable iNum&Litres
variable iHours
Class Hours
Class Class
variable price 2
variable payRate
methods print Ln
methods nextInt
class rands
Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java
43
 Declare and initialize variables
You can declare and assign initial values to variables in different ways.

Use two statements to declare and initialize a variable

type variableName; //declare
variableName = value; //initialize
int iCounter; double rTotal; String sName;
iCounter = 1; rTotal = 5.6; sName = "James";
Use one statement to declare and initialize a variable at the same time
type variableName = value;
int iCounter = 1;
double rTotal = 5.6;
String sName = "James";
int iAge = keyboard.nextInt();
These are more examples of the way values can be assigned to variables of different types.
int iCounter = 10; double rTotal = 25.99;
double rCost = 5.0;
float rFinal = 9.345F; //You must add the letter F to indicate it is data type float
long iNumBytes = 20000L; //You must add the letter L to indicate it is data type long
double rDistance = 2.5E+8; //Scientific notation
char cClass = 'D'; //To assign a value to a character, you use single quotes
char cRegisterClass = 68; //This is valid –the Unicode value of the letter D is 68
boolean bValid = false; //false is a keyword
int a = 8, b = 9; //You can initialize two values in one statement
String sPassWord = "James123*";

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

44
 Enrichment: The following web sites provide information about assigning hexadecimal, octal and binary literal values to variables
https://data-flair.training/blogs/literals-in-java/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/literals-in-java/
https://riptutorial.com/java/example/6654/hexadecimal--octal-and-binary-literals

Declare and initialize variables

1. Translate the following lines into Java code:
a) Declare an integer variable called iDistance with an initial value 100.
b) Declare and initialize a double variable called rValue to 1.406.
c) Declare a Boolean variable bAnswer and set the value of the variable to true.
2. Which of the following is an invalid assignment statement?
a) iTotal=9;
b) 75.00=price;
c) cAns='N';
d) iSum=150;
3. Fix all the errors in the following code:
public class Test
{
pablic statics void main(string[] args)
{
iAge = 52 ;
int iGift = iAge * 5
System.Out.printline("Your gift is R" + Gift);
}
}

Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java

45
 Numeric operators
The following is an assignment statement (a programming instruction).
double rAverage = (67 + rTest2 + 58) / 3;
• A value will be assigned to the variable rAverage.
• The data type of the variable rAverage is double, and only one statement is used to declare the variable and assign a value to it.
• The = sign is an assignment operator.
• (67 + rTest2 + 58) / 3 is an arithmetic expression.
• The arithmetic operators used in this expression is + and /.
• The operands in this expression are 67; rTest2; 48 and 3 – so there are four operands in the expression.
• Some of the operands are literals (a value that appears directly in a program) such as 67; 58 and 3.
• One of the operands is a variable (rTest2).
• Operators such as + and – work on two operands. Such operators are called arithmetic binary operators. For example, the expression 6 + 4 has two
operands, so the plus operator works on two operands.

Operators for numeric data types include standard arithmetic operators:

• Addition +
• Subtraction -
• Multiplication *
• Division /
• Remainder or Modulus %
You wrote several programs in Scratch. You will now write many of the same activities in Java. These activities use the +; - ; * and /
arithmetic binary operators.

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46
 Calculate age this year (Refer to activity 16 in Unit 2) (Class name CalculateAge)
Ask the user for the current year and the user’s year of birth, and then calculate and tell the user how old he or she will be in the current year
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in Is it an input/intermediate
thevariable /output variable

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

Constant values (final)

In Scratch you wrote programs where certain values will stay constant in the program. For example, VAT will stay 15% throughout a program, or the cost of
one pen will be R20.00.
In Java, the syntax is as follows:
final type CONSTANT_NAME = value; final double VAT = 0.15;
final String PASSWORD_ADMIN = "HiBaby123*";
final double DISTANCE = 3.65e+9;
final int PERC_DISC = 10;

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 Information about constant values
• Use all capital letters for constant values, and separate words using an underscore character.
• The value of a constant cannot be changed later in the program.
• Advantages of using constant values:
• You do not have to repeatedly type the same value if it is used multiple times.
• If the value needs to change (e.g. VAT changes to 16%), you only have to change it once at the beginning of the program.
• A descriptive name makes a program easier to read.
• In Scratch, a constant value was just a variable, a value was assigned to the variable at the beginning of the program, and we used capital letters to
indicate it is a constant value. In Java, the program will not execute if you declare a constant value, and then add code to change the value of the constant.
Look at the following Java code:

The program will not execute, an error message will be displayed:

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 In pseudo code a constant value can be used as follows: The Java code looks as follows:

CashRegister // the class name import java.util.Scanner;

begin //start of the class public class CashRegister
main method { // begin class
begin //main method public static void main(String[] args)
//declare a constant value { // begin main method
Scanner kb = new Scanner(System.in);
PERC_DISC = 10
//declare variables //declare a constant value
final double PERC_DISC = 10;
int: iNumItems
//declare variables
double: rPriceOne, rCost, rDiscount, rTotalAmount
int iNumItems;
// Input
double rPriceOne, rCost, rDiscount, rTotalAmount;
display "Number of items: "
// Input
enter iNumItems System.out.print("Number of items: ");
display "Cost of one item: R" iNumItems = kb.nextInt();
enter rPriceOne System.out.print("Cost of one item: R ");
// Processing rPriceOne = kb.nextDouble();
rCost = iNumItems * rPriceOne //Processing
rDiscount = PERC_DISC / 100 * rCost rCost = iNumItems * rPriceOne;
rTotalAmount = rcost - rDiscount rDiscount = PERC_DISC / 100 * rCost;
// Output rTotalAmount = rCost - rDiscount;
display "The discount amount is: R" + rDiscount //Output
display "The total amount to pay is: R" + rTotalAmount System.out.println("The discount amount is: R" + rDiscount);
System.out.println("The total amount to pay is: R" + rTotalAmount);
end //main method
} // end main method
end //end of the class
} //end class

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 Library fine (Refer to activity 21 in Unit 2) (Class name LibraryFine)
A library charges a fine of 50c per day per book if a book is returned late. Write pseudo code using valid variable names to read the number of
books and the number of days they have been returned late, then calculate and display the fine in Rand.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in Is it an input/intermediate
the variable /output variable

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

Calculate phone call cost (Refer to activity 24 in Unit 2) (Class name PhoneCallCost)

The first three minutes of a phone call costs 50c per minute. The remaining minutes (everything more than 3 minutes), costs 15c
per minute. Write pseudo code using valid variable names to calculate the total cost of a phone call when the duration of the call
is provided.Assume the user will never enter a value less than 3.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in Is it an input/intermediate
thevariable /output variable

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

You will learn how to display only two

decimal values later.

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 Calculate wages (Refer to Unit 2 activity 26) (class name Calculate Wages)
William is a temporary worker and receives a wage of R100 per hour for the first 5 hours worked but for any additional hours the hourly wage is
increased by 15%. He must pay tax at a rate of 22.5% of his gross income. The hours worked by him must be entered (e.g. 6.8). Assume he will work
more than 5 hours. Calculate his gross income, tax to be paid, and net income. See the example output for the values you need to display. Use as
many constant values as possible.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in the Is it an input/intermediate /
variable output variable or a constant

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

Contractor fees (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 27) (class name ContractorFees)

A contractor lays floor tiles at a tariff of R65.45 per square meter (m2). Calculate the total cost to tile a room of a certain
length and widthin meter (as specified by the user). The contractor requires a deposit of 10% of the cost prior to
commencing, and the balance on completion of the work. Calculate the deposit as well as the balance. Display the area,
cost, deposit and the balance. Use constant values where relevant.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in Is it an input/intermediate / output variable or a
thevariable constant

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

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 Food cost (class name EatALot)
(This activity was adapted from (Pretorius & Erasmus, 2021, p. 45)
At the Eat-a-Lot restaurant, customers dish up their ownfood and have the plate weighed (in kg). The total weight of the plate with the food in it
must be entered. The plate weighs 1.05 kg, which must be subtracted from the total weight to determine the weight of the food only. The customer
has to pay R7.35 per 100g of food, and 15% VAT must be added to the total amount.
Plan and write a Java program to determine the amount of money the customer should pay. The program should display the weight of the food, as
well as the amount due.
Use the following constant values:
final double PLATE = 1.05; //plate weighs 1.05 kg
final double FOOD_UNIT = 100.0; //cost is calculated per 100g food
final double COST_PER_UNIT = 7.35; //R7.35 per 100 g
final double VAT_PERC = 0.15; //VAT % in South Africa in 2021

These are examples of output:

Because of the way decial values are stored internally, many decimal numbers are displayed. Later in this unit you will learn
how to use methods from the Math class to to round values to a certain number of decimal digits.

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 Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/? ✓/?
Assign Intermediate variable
Assignment operator Intermediate variable

Assignment statement Literals

Binary operator Numeric operators
Constant value Operands
Convention Precision
Data type Primitive data type
Declare Range
Double Real
Floating-point Scientific notation
Identifiers Significant digit
Initialize Unicode

Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:

✓/?
Determine/choose the best data type for a variable
Name variables
Name classes

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 Declare variables
Assign values to variables
Initialize variables
Use an IPO table to plan a program
Write mathematical solutions using actual values, then translate it to an algorithm / pseudo code

More about coding calculations

Programmers often have to write code to do arithmetic calculations. In the examples and activities you did so far, the calculations were relatively simple,
for example:
rPercentage = rScore/iTestTotal * 100;
rCost = iNumTickets * 200;

iAge = iThisYear – iBirthYear;

rFine = iNumBooks * iNumDays * 0.5;

You noticed that all calculations should be typed on one line. Therefore, a mathematical calculation such as

had to be written as

The following are examples of mathematical equations converted to Java assignment statements. Note that mathematical equations use
single letters for variables, where in programming we usually use descriptive variable names that follow certain rules.
Note:
• We know ab in algebra means a * b. However, when we write programming code, we must supply all operators.
• Calculations in parentheses are processed first.

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 Java does not have an integer division operator.(In Computational Mathematics we used the symbol \ or ⌊ ⌋).
Java has only one division operator /
If both operands are integer, then Java does integer division. For example, 5/9 is interpreted as 5\9. Therefore, 5/9 = 0.
However, 5.0⁄9 = 0. 5555555556
Similarly, 1⁄2 = 0, but 1.0⁄2 = 0.5

Mathematical equation Java assignment statement

𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) iResult = iA * (iB + iC);
5 rCelcius = 5.0/9 * (rFahr-32);
𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32)
9
1 rAreaTriang = 1.0/2 * rBase * rHeight;
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2 rAreaTriang = 0.5 * rBase * rHeight;
ℎ rAreaTrapez = rHeight/2 * (rSide1 + rSide2);
𝐴= (𝑠1 + 𝑠2)
2
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 rYCoord= rGradient * rXvalue + rConstant;
𝑎+𝑏 rX = (rA + rB)/(rC + rD) – 2 * rA * rB;
𝑥= − 2𝑎𝑏
𝑐+𝑑 Note: you must add the parentheses in the Java code.
Remember: Whenever you see a division with more than one term as numerator and/or more than one term as denominator, it actually means the terms
above the division line are in brackets. Therefore, you can write the previous equation as follows:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝑥= − 2𝑎𝑏
(𝑐 + 𝑑)
Then it is easier to realize how to write the Java statement

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 Translate Math to Java and vice versa

Mathematical equation Java assignment statement

new−old
a) perIncrease = × 100
old

b) rResult = 2*(rX + 3*rY) / (2*rX – 3*rY);

ab b
c) result = 2a − a+ b ÷ b−1

d) ageA = 3(AgeB − 10)

e) weeklyWage = dailyWage × noDays

f) rZ = 2*rA * (rA * rB – rA / (rB – 2));

g) rZ = rX / (2 * rX – 3 * rY) + 6 * rY;

xy
h) z = 3xy + − 2y
y−2y

Problem with the nextLine() method

Most of the input values we read in activities and examples so far were numeric values (integer and floating-point). When we did read a String value – such
as the user's name – it was the first input value we read. However, when you use the nextLine() method after having read number values, you will experience
a problem. Look at the following code:

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 package calcaveragenl;
import java.util.Scanner;
public class CalcAverageNL {
public static void main(String[] args){
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
int iTest1, iTest2;
double rAvg;
String sNameSurn;
System.out.print("Score for test 1: "); This is the output you would expect.
iTest1 = keyboard.nextInt();
System.out.print("Score for test 2: ");
iTest2 = keyboard.nextInt();
System.out.print("What is your name and surname? ");
sNameSurn = keyboard.nextLine();
rAvg = (iTest1 + iTest2) / 2.0;
System.out.println(sNameSurn + " your average score is: " + rAvg);
} //end main method
} //end class

This is the output you get.

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 What happened? Why did the program not give the user the opportunity to enter a name?
Here is the explanation:
When a user pushes the <Enter> key, a new-line character is stored in an area of the computer's memory called the keyboard buffer.
When the value for iTest1 was entered by the user, the value 85 as well as a new-line character was stored in the keyboard buffer.
85 <new-line>

The nextInt() method copies the value 85 from the keyboard buffer to the variable iTest1, but the new-line character was left behind in the buffer.
<new-line>

The next input was the value 72. The keyboard buffer now looked like this:
<new-line> 72 <new-line>

The nextInt() method knows it should ignore the new-line character, it only accepts characters that can be part of an integer. So it ignores the first
new-line character, and copies the value 72 from the buffer to the variable iTest2. The new-line character following the 72 stays in the buffer.
<new-line>

When the nextLine() method is called, it checks the keyboard buffer and finds a new-line character. The nextLine() method
has been programmed to copy all the characters in front of the new-line character in the buffer and transfer it to a variable
(in this case sName). However, there are no characters in front of the new-line character, so an empty string is transferred to
the variable sName, and the user does not get the opportunity to enter a name and surname.

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 Here is the solution:
You need to add a statement after the second integer value was read to remove the additional new-line character. The code should therefore
look like this:

Call an additional nextLine() method after the last nextInt() method to

remove the <new-line> character.

The division operator in Java

The division binary operator in Java works as follows:

Operator Name Description Example

Division • Divides the right operand into the left int iResult = 12 / 6; //iResult = 2
/ operand.
• If both operands are integer, the result will be int iResult = 12 / 5; // iResult = 2
integer. double rResult = 12.0 / 6; // rResult = 2.0
• If one or both operands are a floating-point double rResult = 12 / 5.0; // rResult = 2.4
value, the result will be a floating-point int iResult = 10.0 / 2; //Error message
value.

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 Terminology
Lossy conversion is simply the loss of information while handling data.
In the paragraph Converting data types
In Java, it corresponds to the possibility of losing the value or precision of a variable you will learn how to prevent these
while converting one type to another. types of errors.
When we try to assign a variable of large-sized type to a smaller sized type, Java will
generate an error, incompatible types: possible lossy conversion, while compiling the
code. (Baeldung, 2019)

Doing integer division in Java

Mathematics notation: Integer division
When you want to indicate that an integer value is required as answer
when doing division, the following notation can be used: 12\5 = 2
12 ⌊12⁄5⌋ = 2
12 \ 5 or ⌊ 5 ⌋

Calculating the answer of integer division

To determine the result of integer division, first do the calculation 12/5 on your pocket calculator. The result of the division will be
2.4.
The result of integer division is the number before the decimal point. Ignore the fraction.
Pseudo code notation: Integer division
When planning a program, you can use the following notation to indicate that integer division is required:
iAnswer = rValue1 \ iValue2
or
rValue1
iAnswer = ⌊ ⌋
iValue2

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 Java code: Integer division when both operands are integer values
When both operands are integer, a Java division operator will provide an integer answer, disregarding any decimal value. For example:
int iAnswer = iValue1 / iValue2;
if iValue1 = 12 and iValue2 = 5, iAnswer will contain the value 2 after the division operation.
Java code: Integer division when one or both operands are floating-point values
Additional Java code is needed to remove the decimal part or to obtain an integer answer after division with floating-point values.
Method 1: Disregard the decimal part of the result after division Method 2: Obtain an integer value after division
Use the floor() method from the Math class Use explicit casting to indicate that an integer value should be provided.
double rAnswer; int iAnswer;
double rValue1 = 12.5, rValue2 = 4.3; double rValue1 = 12.5, rValue2 = 4.3;
rAnswer = Math.floor(rValue1 / rValue2); rAnswer = 2.0 iAnswer = (int) (rValue1 / rValue2); iAnswer = 2

Note
Methods from the Math class as well as explicit casting will be discussed in more detail later in this unit.

The remainder operator in Java

Operator Name Description Example
Remainder Returns the value that is left over after dividing int iResult = 13 % 5; // iResult = 3
% (MOD) the right operand into the left operand. double rResult = 13 % 5.0; // result = 3.0
int iResult = 5 % 7; // iResult = 5
The % operator is also called the modulus or MOD operator. int iResult = 14 % 2; // iResult = 0
double rResult = 8 % 2.5; // rResult = 0.5
double rResult = 2 % 5.5; // rResult = 2.0
double rResult = 10 % 2.5; // rResult = 0.0

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 Mathematics notation: Remainder (MOD)
When you want to indicate that the modulus (remainder after a division operation) should be calculated, the following notation can be
used:
12 MOD 7 or 12 % 7 In these notes the symbol % will be used
For example: in pseudo code and planning, since it is

12 MOD 7 = 5 the symbol used in Java.

12 % 7 = 5
Pseudo code notation: MOD
When planning a program, you can use the following notation to indicate that the remainder after a division operation should be
calculated:
remainder = value1 % value2
Calculating the answer when using the remainder (MOD) operator
Example: Calculate 12 % 7 (the answer is 5)
Step 1: Start with integer division
12 \ 7 = 1

Then write the value 12 as follows: If you multiply 1 by 7, you need to add 5 to get a total of 12, so 5 is the
Method 1
12 = 1 * 7 + 5 remainder.

In primary school you learned to do write the result

Method 2 of division as follows: If you write the division operation in this way, it is clear that 5 is the
12 ÷ 7 = 1 𝑟𝑒𝑚 5 remainder.
You say:
• 12 mod 7 is 5.
Looking at the values, you can also calculate the remainder as follows:
Method 3 • 12 divided by 7 is 1 remaining 5.
remainder = 12 – 1 * 7
• 7 goes into 12 once, and 5 remains.

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 Now you can write an algorithm to calculate the answer to the % operator. Let us say you need to calculate the following:
firstValue % secondValue
Algorithm
iIntDivAns = firstValue \ secondValue
in pseudo
remainder = firstValue - iIntDivAns * secondValue
code
Using the algorithm you just developed, you can calculate the remainder after division for any values. The values can be any
combination of floating-point numbers, integer values, positive or negative.
34 % 6
iIntDivAns = 34 \ 6 = 5
remainder = 34 – 5 * 6 = 34 – 30 = 4
4 % 9
iIntDivAns = 4 \ 9 = 0
remainder = 4 – 0 * 9 = 4 – 0 = 4
12 % 4
iIntDivAns = 12 \ 4 = 3
remainder = 12 – 3 * 4 = 12 – 12 = 0
19 % (-5)
iIntDivAns = 19 \ (-5) = -3
remainder = 19 – (-3) * (-5) = 19 – 15 = 4
8 % 2.5
iIntDivAns = 8 \ 2.5 = 3
remainder = 8 – 3 * 2.5 = 8 – 7.5 = 0.5
15.8 % 3.3
iIntDivAns = 15.8 \ 3.3 = 4
remainder = 15.8 – 4 * 3.3 = 15.8 – 13.2 = 2.6
0 % 5
iIntDivAns = 0 \ 5 = 0
remainder = 0 – 0 * 5 = 0 – 0 = 0

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 Java code: MOD
Here are examples of Java code to determine the remainder after division:
double rRem = rVal1 % rVal2;
int iRem = iVal1 % iVal2;

Predict results of \ and MOD operators

1. Fill in the blanks:

int result = 10 / 3; // result will be int iNumSweets = 35;

int iNumChildren = 4;
int result = 10 % 3; // result will be int iNumEach = iNumSweets / iNumchildren;
iNumEach =
int iNumLeft = iNumSweets % iNumchildren;
int result = -10 / 3; // result will be
iNumLeft =

int result = 3 % 10; // result will be

int result = 11 % 3 % 2; // result will be

int iMinutes = 112;
double result = 10.0 / 5 / 4; // result will be
int iHours = iMinutes / 60; iHours =
int iRemMinutes = iMinutes % 60;
double result = 1.5 / 0.5; // result will be iRemMinutes =

double result = 12 % 2.5; // result will be

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 2. Predict the exact output of the following program:
public class CapeToCairo { //start class
public static void main(String[] args) { //start main method
int iTime = 588224; // time in seconds, to drive from Cape Town to Cairo
int iSeconds = iTime % 60; // iSeconds will be ______________seconds
iTime = iTime / 60; // iTime will be ________minutes
int iMinutes = iTime % 60; // iMinutes will be minutes
iTime = iTime / 60; // iTime will be ______hours
int iHours = iTime % 60; // iHours will be hours
int iDays = iTime / 24; // iDays will be__________ days

System.out.println("Driving from Cape Town to Cairo would take " + iDays + "days " + iHours + "hours " +
iMinutes + "min and " + iSeconds + "sec.");
} //end main method
} //end class
The following two activities use integer division and the remainder (mod) operator.

Chairs in student centre (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 32) (class ChairsStudentCentre)

TUT has a certain number of chairs available to place in the student centre for a concert. Write an
algorithm to calculate the maximumnumber of rows of 54 chairs each that can be filled with chairs.
Calculate how many chairs will be left. (The number of available chairs must be read from the keyboard.)
Use constant values where possible.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in the Is it an input/intermediate /
variable output variable or a constant

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.
Unit 3 – Basic programs in Java
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 Tablets in bottles (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 31) (class name TabletsInBottle)
A medicine factory has a certain number of tablets (read the number of tablets from the
keyboard). They have two types of bottles. The one can hold 250 tablets, and the other 15
tablets. They want to fill all the bottles that can contain 250 tablets first, and then place the
remaining tablets in the bottles that can hold 15 tablets. Calculate and display how many
bottles of each size can be packed, and how many tablets will remain. Use constant values
where possible.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in the Is it an input/intermediate /
variable output variable or a constant

Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/?
Lossy conversion
Incompatible types
Remainder

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 Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:

✓/?
Predict results of division calculations with integer operands
Predict results of MOD calculations for integer and real values
Design programming solutions that require floating-point division, MOD and integer division.
Translate / convert mathematical equations to Java assignment statements and vice versa
Correctly read values using the nextLine() method after having read numerical values
Declare and initialize a constant according to acceptable convention

The char data type

Storing characters – ASCII and Unicode
Devices such as smartphones, tablets, and computers store data in digital formats that can be handled by electronic circuitry. Everything on a computer is
represented as streams of binary numbers, 1s and 0s. Audio, images, and characters are all translated into machine code (simple binary codes that hardware
understands).
Characters – such as the letters 'A', 'B', and special characters such as '*', '?' -
When 8 bits are grouped together it is called a byte.
are internally represented as numbers in computers. Several different
• A byte can represent any number between 0 (represented in bits as
encoding schemes have been invented to associate printable as well as many
00000000) and 255 (represented in bits as 11111111).
non-printable characters with numbers.
• Therefore, there are 256 different values that can be stored in a byte.
One such encoding scheme is called ASCII (American Standard Code for (The number of different values can be calculated by using the
Information Interchange) – it is pronounced "AS-kee". ASCII code makes formula 2N, where N is the number of bits, and N = 8 gives 28 = 256.)
provision for 256 different characters to be stored.

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 Most ASCII characters are printable characters of the alphabet such as abc, ABC, 123, ?&!, etc. The others are control characters such as carriage return,
escape, tab, etc., as shown in the ASCII table below.
Since 256 characters is not enough to provide for the needs of the wide variety of Character encoding means the conversion of a symbol into a
languages spoken by humans. Therefore, the ASCII coding system (that uses 8 bits to binary number and using a “character map” to read the binary
numberas a type of letter. (Ishida, 2015)
store a character), has been extended to make provision for more characters.
This extended standard for encoding characters is called Unicode (Universal Code
Character Set). It is a single standard that provides a unique number for every character, no matter what platform, device, application, or language.
Unicode was created to unify all the encoding schemes so that confusion between computers could be limited as much as possible. Unicode uses a variable bit
encoding program called Unicode Transformation (UTF), where you can choose between UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32-bit encodings. This means it can
accommodate a huge number of characters, and currently contains most written languages and still has room for even more. This includes even right-to-left
scripts like Arabic, Chinese, Egyptian-hieroglyphics, Emoji and the many other variants are also represented within Unicode. To maintain compatibility with
ASCII, Unicode was designed in such a way that the first seven bits matched that of the ASCII chart. The Unicode standard was initially designed using 16 bits to
encode characters, but writing sixteen 1s and 0s can be tedious, so hexadecimal was used. Therefore lowercase ‘h’ character with decimal value of 104, is
written as U+0068 (or 0x0068). Java provides support for Unicode, hence the size of the character data type (char) in Java is 2 bytes (= 16 bits), and its range is 0
to 65535 (216).
This is important to know
• Java stores characters internally as 16-bit integers.
• The encoding scheme called Unicode determines which integer value represents each character.
• ASCII can be seen as a subset of Unicode. You should be able to look up the ASCII value for a specific character in the ASCII table.

ASCII characters and associated decimal value (ASCII-Table, 2020)

Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol
0 NUL Null 32 space Space 64 @ At sign 96 ` Grave / accent
1 SOH Start of Header 33 ! Exclamation mark 65 A Capital A 97 a Small a
2 STX Start of Text 34 " Double quote 66 B Capital B 98 b Small b
3 ETX End of Text 35 # Number 67 C Capital C 99 c Small c
4 EOT End of Transmission 36 $ Dollar sign 68 D Capital D 100 d Small d

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 Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol
5 ENQ Enquiry 37 % Percent 69 E Capital E 101 e Small e
6 ACK Acknowledge 38 & Ampersand 70 F Capital F 102 f Small f
7 BEL Bell 39 ' Single quote 71 G Capital G 103 g Small g
8 BS Backspace 40 ( Left parenthesis 72 H Capital H 104 h Small h
9 HT Horizontal Tab 41 ) Right parenthesis 73 I Capital I 105 i Small i
10 LF Line Feed 42 * Asterisk 74 J Capital J 106 j Small j
11 VT Vertical Tab 43 + Plus 75 K Capital K 107 k Small k
12 FF Form Feed 44 , Comma 76 L Capital L 108 l Small l
13 CR Carriage Return 45 - Minus 77 M Capital M 109 m Small m
14 SO Shift Out 46 . Period 78 N Capital N 110 n Small n
15 SI Shift In 47 / Slash 79 O Capital O 111 o Small o
16 DLE Data Link Escape 48 0 Zero 80 P Capital P 112 p Small p
17 DC1 Device Control 1 49 1 One 81 Q Capital Q 113 q Small q
18 DC2 Device Control 2 50 2 Two 82 R Capital R 114 r Small r
19 DC3 Device Control 3 51 3 Three 83 S Capital S 115 s Small s
20 DC4 Device Control 4 52 4 Four 84 T Capital T 116 t Small t
21 NAK Negative Acknowledge 53 5 Five 85 U Capital U 117 u Small u
22 SYN Synchronize 54 6 Six 86 V Capital V 118 v Small v
23 ETB End of Transmission Block 55 7 Seven 87 W Capital W 119 w Small w
24 CAN Cancel 56 8 Eight 88 X Capital X 120 x Small x
25 EM End of Medium 57 9 Nine 89 Y Capital Y 121 y Small y
26 SUB Substitute 58 : Colon 90 Z Capital Z 122 z Small z
27 ESC Escape 59 ; Semicolon 91 [ Left square bracket 123 { Left curly bracket
28 FS File Separator 60 < Less than 92 \ Backslash 124 | Vertical bar
29 GS Group Separator 61 = Equality sign 93 ] Right square bracket 125 } Right curly bracket
30 RS Record Separator 62 > Greater than 94 ^ Caret / circumflex 126 ~ Tilde

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 Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol Decimal Symbol
31 US Unit Separator 63 ? Question mark 95 _ Underscore 127 DEL Delete

ASCII Decoder
Use the ASCII table to decode the message below. Write down the character below the corresponding decimal value.

84 104 105 115 32 105 115 32 97 32 115 101 99 114 101 116 32 109 101 115 115 97 103 101 33

Coconut puzzle
You are working for a GIS (Geographic Information System) company and while reviewing recent satellite images of an island, you noticed a pattern. A closer
look shows coconuts arranged in a way that looks like a binary representation of the ASCII code. What was the message? [Hint: Convert binary to decimal]

Images copied from: (Teachers Pay Teachers, n.d.)

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 Working with character values
Programs using variables of data type character (char) will be written from Unit 4 onwards. In this section we will just explain how a character value can be read
from the keyboard, and what the relationship between a character value and a String value is.
The char data type is used to store single characters, such as a class group 'C' or an answer – 'Y' or 'N'.

Declare a variable of datatype char. char cClassGroup;

Assign a character value (a literal value) to a cClassGroup = 'C'; Note:

character variable. Single quotes are used when a character value is assigned.

What is the relationship between a character and a String value?

String values are lists of characters. Each character in a string value is numbered by the programming language to indicate the character's
position in the string. It can be illustrated by a diagram – the string value stored in the variable sName, containing the name "Katlego" is
interpreted as follows:

sName
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

K a t l e g o
The character 'K' is stored in the first position of the string value sName – Java numbers the characters starting at 0 (zero). We say "the index of
the first letter is 0".
Therefore – sName[0] has the value 'K'.
sName[1] has the value 'a'.

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 The Scanner class does not have a method to read a character from the keyboard.
Read a character value from the keyboard. To obtain a character from the keyboard, you need to read a String value, then use the charAt() method of
the String class to obtain the first character (with index 0) from the string that was read.

System.out.print("Enter class group: "); Read a string from the keyboard, use the charAt(0) method to obtain
String sClassGroup = kb.next(); the first character.
cClassGroup = sClassGroup.charAt(0);

OR

System.out.print("Enter class group: "); Use the charAt() method on the string returned by the next()
method.
cClassGroup = kb.next().charAt(0);

Display initials (class DispInit)

Write a Java program that will read a student's first name, then the surname, as well as the student's class
group. The program should then display the initials and the class group of the student.
Data compatibility
As discussed before, different data types use a different number of bytes to store values. This influences
the range and the precision of the value that can be stored in a variable. As a result, a data value of one data type can not just be assigned to a variable of
another data type in a program. For example, the following assignment statements are valid:

short shortValue; A short data type stores values in 2 bytes with a range of -32 768 to 32767.
byte byteValue = 2; A byte data type stores values in 1 byte with a range of -128 to 127
shortValue = byteValue;
Therefore a short data type and a byte data type are compatible.

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 The following assignment statements are not valid, the data types are not compatible:
int intValue; An int data type stores values in 4 bytes with a range of -2 147 483 648 to 2 147 483 647.
double dblValue = 12.5; A double data type stores values in 8 bytes with a range from -1.7E308 to 1.7E308 with up to 16 significant
intValue = dblValue;
digits.
Such an assignment statement will not be allowed, and the Java compiler will display an error message:

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.

RuntimeException: Uncompilable source code - incompatible types: possible lossy conversion from double to int

It is clear that a data type that can contain fractional values and values much larger than an int, cannot be stored in an int datat type.

Data type conversion

Java does allow certain data types to be converted to others. The rules driving these conversions are based on the data types being ranked. Rank is based
on the minimum and maximum sizes (the range) of values that can be stored in a data type. The ranks are as follows:
Data type # bytes
Highest rank
double 8 (bigger / wider data types)
float 4

long 8
int 4
char 2
short 2 Lowest rank

byte 1 (smaller / narrower data types)

Some data conversions are allowed by Java, and happens automatically. Other conversions have to be done by the programmer by adding additional
instructions (code). In the following paragraphs the different options in converting data types will be explained.

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 Widening conversion
Data type of a lower rank is automatically converted to a data type of a higher rank when a program is compiled. This is called widening conversion because
lower ranked data types are smaller (narrower) and they can be converted to higher ranked types (bigger / wider).
The following are examples of widening conversions:
double rValue; long longValue;
int iValue = 36764324; short shortValue = -32700;
rValue = iValue; longValue = shortValue;

The variable intValue will contain the ASCII

value of the character 'c', that is 99.

Widening conversion is also called: implicit type conversion / implicit casting / automatic conversion / promotion.

Some widening conversions are allowed by Java, but as a programmer you need to know that it can cause problems. One such example is when you cast a
variable of data type long to a variable of data type float or double. According to the ranking of the data types it is allowed. A variable of type float or
double can store values of a much wider range than a variable of data type long, the data types are compatible.

However, data type float can only store 7 significant digits, and double 16 significant digits. Look at the result of the code on the next page:

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 long iLong = 9223372036854775807L; //The biggest possible long value
float rFloat;
double rDouble; iLong has 19 significant digits.
rFloat = iLong;
rFloat has 7 significant digits
rDouble = iLong;
System.out.println("iLong = " + iLong); rDouble has 16 significant digits
System.out.println("rFloat = " + rFloat);
System.out.println("rDouble = " + rDouble);

In this example the value changed for example, from iLong = 9 223 372 036 854 775 807 to rFloat = 9 223 372 000 000 000 000 – quite a different value with
loss of precision.
Therefore, as a programmer you need to know that even though Java permits some castings, you may not get the results required or expected since some of
the digits will not be available any longer.
The problems relating to precision can be solved by rather using methods from the BigDecimal class to do calculations on larger numbers and numbers that
need a large number of significant digits. However, using methods from the BigDecimal class does not form part of the scope of this module.
Another exception in widening conversion is converting data types short and byte to char. Even though byte and short are lower ranks than char, a data
type of short or byte can not automatically be converted to a char. The reason is because short and byte can contain negative values, and char values are
represented by positive values.

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 The following diagram can be used to determine if widening conversion is allowed. A value with a data type in the left column, can be promoted to the
various data types displayed in the last column.
Diagram obtained by making a screenshot from presentation: (Posch, 2013)

In the following diagram, the green arrows (thicker) represent valid promotions, and the grey (thinner) arrows represent promotions
that may go along with loss of precision. For example:
• int can be promoted to long.
• int can be promoted to float – but with loss of precision.
• char can be promoted to int, and to long.
• long cannot be promoted to int (no arrow connecting long to int)

Diagram obtained by making a screenshot from presentation: (Posch, 2013)

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 Widening conversion
Specify the output and/or data type and/or whether the casting is valid or not.

Operation Casting valid? Y/N Data type of output Output displayed

int x=7;
float y = x/2;
System.out.println(y);
float x = 9.2/3;
System.out.println(x);
byte x = 27;
x = x+1;
System.out.println(x);
long x = 21L;
double y = x/3.0;
System.out.println(y);
long x = 25L;
double y = x/5;
System.out.println(y);
long x = 200L;
System.out.println(x/2.0);
double x = 200;
int y = x/2;
System.out.println(y);

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 Operation Casting valid? Y/N Data type of output Output displayed
double x = 200.0;
int y = 2;
Long z = x/y;
System.out.println(z);
long x = 10/5L;
byte y = x;
System.out.println(x);
double x = 10.0;
float y = x/2.0;
System.out.println(x);

Narrowing conversion using a cast operator

Java does not allow programming code where data from a more precise data type (higher rank) is assigned to a value of a less precise data type (lower rank).
When a data value from a high rank is assigned to a data type of lower rank, some data may be lost, therefore Java will not allow it.
However, for some programs there may be valid reasons to want to 'lose' some data. Look at the following example:
display "How may litres of sanitizer is in a container? : " We need to do integer division. The decimal part of the answer must be
enter rLitresContainer disregarded.
display "How many litres in a small container?: "
For example, if a container has 12.5 litre sanitizer, and a small bottle can
enter rSmallContainer
contain 150 ml (0.15 litre), we can fill
iNumSmallBottles = rLitresContainer \ rSmallContainer
12.5\0.15 = 83 small bottles.
display "You can fill " + iNumSmallBottles + " small bottles."
Remember : 12.5/0.15 = 83.3333 , but we want to 'loose' the decimal values.

In this case the programmer needs to use a casting operator to manually convert the data type of a higher rank (double), to a data type of a lower rank (int).

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 This is what the Java code will look like:
package sanitizer;
import java.util.Scanner; A cast operator (int) was used.
public class Sanitizer {
A cast operator is a unary operator that appears as a
public static void main(String[] args) {
data type name enclosed in a set of parentheses.
Scanner keyboard = new Scanner(System.in);
double rLitresContainer, rSmallContainer; The (int) operator must be placed before the value
int iNumSmallBottles; being converted.
System.out.print("How may litres of sanitizer is in a container? : "); In this example, the operation
rLitresContainer = keyboard.nextDouble(); rLitresContainer / rSmallContainer must be done
System.out.print("How many litres in a small container?: "); first, and then the decimal part of the result must be
rSmallContainer = keyboard.nextDouble();
removed, therefore the calculation itself must be
iNumSmallBottles = (int) (rLitresContainer / rSmallContainer);
placed in parentheses.
System.out.println("You can fill " + iNumSmallBottles + " small bottles.");
}
}

Narrowing conversion is also called explicit casting / explicit type conversion.

The + operator is a binary operator, it requires two operands: iValue1 + iValue2.

Unary operators require only one operand. For example: iAnswer = (int) rAnswer;

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 Narrowing casting

Operation Casting valid? Y/N Data type of output Output displayed

double x = 11.9;
int y = (int)x;
System.out.println(y);
double x = 11.9;
float y = (int)x;
System.out.println(y);
double x = 11.0;
float y = (int)x/2;
System.out.println(y);
int x = 11;
double y = (float)x/2;
System.out.println(y);
int x = 10;
float y= (long)(x/5L);
System.out.println(y);

Casting integer division to a floating-point answer

Remember that Java always returns an integer answer when division is done with both integer operands. For example:
int iTest1 = 88, iTest2 = 75;
double rAvg = (iTest1 + iTest2)/2;
System.out.println("Average = " + rAvg);

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 In this case, (88 + 75) / 2 = 81.5, and you may want to round the value up, so you want to keep the decimal part. In this case you can use casting to ensure a
floating-point answer. All the following code segments will provide correct results for this scenario:
double rAvg = (double) (iTest1 + iTest2) / 2;
double rAvg = ( (double) iTest1 + iTest2) / 2;
double rAvg = (iTest1 + (double) iTest2)/ 2;

If one of the operands in the calculation is a floating-point, all the other operands will be casted as a floating-point number. As the programmer, you need to
explicitly cast one operand, Java will implicitly cast the other operands.

Important The following calculation is not casting, but it will also give the
Look out for the following problem that may occur in programs if you forget about the required result.
way Java handles integer division. The following code is provided, with the resulting double rAvg = (iTest1 + iTest2) / 2.0;
output:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class DiscountError {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner kb = new Scanner(System.in);
double rCost, rAmtToPay, rDiscAmt;
final int DISC_PERC = 10;
System.out.print("Enter cost of item: ");
rCost = kb.nextDouble();
rDiscAmt = DISC_PERC/100 * rCost;
rAmtToPay = rCost - rDiscAmt;
System.out.println("Cost R" + rCost );
System.out.println("Discount amount R" + rDiscAmt ); The output you expected was that the
System.out.println("Amount to pay R" + rAmtToPay ); discount amount should be R35!
}
}

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 The error occurred because of the way Java handles integer division. The Solutions:
constant value was declared as an integer. Declare the constant value as a double.
final int DISC_PERC = 10; final double DISC_PERC = 10.0;
Therefore, the calculation or
rDiscAmt = DISC_PERC/100 * rCost; rDiscAmt = DISC_PERC/100.0 * rCost;
is interpreted as: 10/100 * rCost. or
The value 10/100 = 0 since both operands are integer values. rDiscAmt = (double) DISC_PERC/100 * rCost;

Number of 85 g packets (Refer to Unit 2 Activity 34) (class NumSmallPackets)

A school receives two containers of sweets, each containing a certain kilogram of sweets (read the mass of each from the keyboard).How many small
packets of sweets of 85g each can be packed using the sweets from both containers?
Use constant values where possible. Note: A container can weigh, for example, 5.5 kg – a double value.
Write pseudo code to solve this problem. Complete the following table while you write the pseudo code:

Data type of variable Variable name What value will be stored in the Is it an input/intermediate / output variable or a
variable constant

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 Write a Java program to implement the pseudo code. Use the numbers in the example output as test data.

Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/?
ASCII character
Bits
Bytes
Casting
Compatible
Higher rank
Loss of precision
Lower rank
Narrowing conversion (explicit casting / explicit type conversion)
Precision
Range
Valid promotion
Widening conversion (implicit casting / implicit type conversion / automatic conversion / promotion)

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 Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you are able to do the following:

✓/?

Predict whether a casting operation is valid or not.

Predict the resulting value of a variable when a casting operation was performed.
Choose the appropriate type of casting (implicit or explicit) when writing Java code.
Identify possible problems with implicit casting and suggest a solution to the problem.
Write Java programs where widening and/or narrowing casting should be implemented to obtain the required results.
Indicate when promotion may result in loss of precision.

Mathematical calculations
Methods from the Math class
The Math class provides several standard mathematical methods. The class is located in the package java.lang.Math, but it is provided automatically
and does not require an import statement. All the methods are static – therefore, you do not have to create an object based on the Math class, you use the
class name to call a method. For example: Math.round().
Most of the methods in the Match class return values. In some programming languages methods that return values are called functions. Each of these
methods needs certain arguments (data they receive that they use to calculate a return value). They return a value of a certain data type.
A summary of the methods you are most likely to use in writing programs for this module follows:

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 Rounding methods Return data type Description
Math.floor() double rNumSmallBottles = Math.floor(rLitresContainer / rSmallContainer);
The argument is rounded down to its nearest integer, returned as a double value.
Remember that in Java the same result can be obtained by using casting.
iNumSmallBottles = (int) (rLitresContainer / rSmallContainer);
Math.ceil() double int iNumTins = (int) Math.ceil(rLitrePaint/iLitreInTin);
The argument is rounded up to its nearest integer.
In the example above, the (int) cast operator must be used to cast the double value that
will be returned by the Math.floor method to an int value.
Math.round() int if argument is float int iValue1 = Math.round(3.6f); //returns the value 4
long if argument is double long iValue2 = Math.round(12.5); //returns the value 13

Exponent methods Return data type Description

Math.sqrt() double double rRoot = Math.sqrt(25); //returns the value 5.0
Returns the square root of the argument.
Math.pow() double double rExp = Math.pow(4.2, 2); //returns the value 17.64 = (4.2)2
double rExp = Math.pow(3, 4); //returns the value 81.0 = 3 4
Returns the value of the 1st argument raised to the power of the 2nd argument.
MIN Max and abs Return data type Description
methods
Math.min() Math.min(2, 3) returns 2
Math.min(2, 3.5) returns 2.0
Can return an int, long, float or
Math.max() Math.max(2, 3) returns 3
double, depending on the data
Math.max(2.5, 3) returns 3.0
type of the argument(s). Math.abs(-2.5) returns 2.5
Math.abs() The abs() method returns a non-negative
Math.abs(-6) returns 6 value. It disregards the sign of a value.

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 Trigonometric methods Return data type Description
Math.cos() double Returns the trigonometric cosine of an angle in radians. The function has one
compulsory parameter – an angle (in radians).
Math.sin() double Returns the trigonometric sine of an angle in radians. The function has one
compulsory parameter – an angle (in radians).
Math.tan() double Returns the trigonometric tangent of an angle in radians. The function has one
compulsory parameter – an angle (in radians).
The random() method Return data type Description
Math.random() double Returns a pseudorandom number of data type double within a range that has the
following limit: 0 ≤ x < 1.0
double x = Math.random(); // 0 ≤ x < 1.0
double x = Math.random() * 25; //0 ≤ x < 25.0
double x = 7 + Math.random() * 58; // 7 ≤ x < 65.0
The nextInt() method of the Random class can also be called to generate a random number.
The nextInt() method Return data type Description
import java.util.Random; int The nextInt() method from the Random class will return a
Random randomizer = new Random(); pseudorandom integer value. The return value is an
//create an object based on the Random class integer between 0 (inclusive) and the value supplied as an
randomizer.nextInt() argument (exclusive).
int iRandValue = randomizer.nextInt(15);
0 ≤ iRandValue < 15

Math.PI is a predefined named constant value in the Math class. The constant has the value 3.14159265358979323846 which
approximates the mathematical value ∏. It can be called in mathematical calculations, for example:
double rArea = Math.PI * Math.pow(rRadius,2);

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 Rounding a value to a specific number of decimal places
As you already noticed, the Math.round() method only rounds the number to the nearest integer. There are cases where you need to round your value to
specific number of places, for example, a monetary value (currency) is normally rounded to 2 decimal places. Below is a technique you can use for such
exceptional cases. Given the following value:
double x = 61.356345296325;
To round to 1 decimal place
You multiply the value you want to be rounded by 10 (take note of parentheses), then divide by 10.0 (outside of parentheses). Take note - if you leave out the
".0" your result will be an integer.
x = Math.round(x*10)/10.0; You will notice that the number of zeros used in the multiplication and
System.out.println(x); //output will be 61.4 division, determines the number of decimal places. So, to round to 3 decimal
places you will multiply by 1000 and divide by 1000.0 and so on.
Round to 2 decimal places
x = Math.round(x*100)/100.0;
System.out.println(x); //output will be 61.36

Doing mathematical calculations

a) class RoomCost
You are a first-year student at University and are looking for a place to stay. Write a program that calculates the amount you must pay for your
room, provided that the landlord charges R50.00 per m2 . Provide the answer displayed as currency (rounded to two decimals).
b) class ConvertPounds
Leo is a visitor from the UK and wants to know how much his money is worth in South Africa. Write a program that asks the amount Leo has in
pounds and converts it to Rands. (1 pound = R22). Provide the answer displayed as currency (rounded to two decimals).
c) class HighestMark
Write a program that reads your two test marks and display your highest mark.
d) class AvgThree
Write a program that calculates an average of your 3 test marks, then rounds up your average to the nearest integer.

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 e) class FlashDrives
Your lecturer has 48 USB Flash Drives that needs to be distributed equally to all students in class, write a program that will read the number of
students and calculate how many USB Flash Drives each student should get. (Hint: do not worry about the remaining ones).
f) class StudentNumber
Write a program that will generate a 9-digit student number starting with 22. The other 7 digits must be chosen randomly.
g) class CircleMeasurements
The formula to calculate the circumference of a circle is: C=2πr; and the formula to calculate the area is: A=πr2. Write a program that will calculate
the Area and Circumference of a circle after the user has entered the diameter.
h) class BoxesTiles
Company X is busy with renovations. They need to put in new floor tiles in one of their offices. They have tasked you to calculate how many boxes
of tiles they should buy if 1 box of tiles can cover 2m2. (Remember you cannot buy 2.3 or 2.8 boxes of tiles.) Your program needs to read the length
and the width of the office they want to tile.
i) class Change50cents
A shop always wants to give change to customers with as many 50c coins
as possible. Write a program that will read the amount of change from
the keyboard. The program should calculate and display the number of
50c coins that should be handed to the customer, as well as the remaining change.

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 Coding more advanced calculations
Programmers are often asked to debug or make changes to an existing program. Therefore, they need to be able to interpret calculations written in
programming code and translate it 'back' to mathematical formulas and vice versa.
In Computational Mathematics, you learned the order of operations (operator
precedence): Note: Exponents and square roots are done through method
calls in Java. Therefore, if you have a calculation such as
• Parentheses () 3
√4 = 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ. 𝑝𝑜𝑤(𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ. 𝑠𝑞𝑟𝑡(4), 3)
• Exponents ^
the calculation will be done from left to right. So the square root
• Multiply Divide MOD (* / \ %) (from left to right) will be calculated first, then the exponent to the power 3.
• Add Subtract (+ -) (from left to right) Therefore, in the Java code, you will use nested methods, with
theMath.sqrt() method as an argument for the Math.Pow()
The same rules apply in Java (and all other programming languages and applications
method.
such as Excel), but since there are so many methods available in Java to do
calculations, we must expand the rules for order of operations for Java.
• Parentheses
• Method calls (Note: Exponents in Java is done through a call to the Math.pow() method.)
• Multiply Divide MOD (* / \ %) (from left to right)
• Add Subtract (+ -) (from left to right
The following are examples of mathematical equations and the equivalent pseudo code as well as Java assignment statements.

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 Mathematical equation Pseudo code Java assignment statement
int A = (4 + 7) % 2 - 1 ;
A = (4 + 7) MOD 2-1 A = (4 + 7) MOD 2 -1
double A = (4 + 7) % 2 - 1 ;
int B = 4 * (3 + 4);
B = 4(3 + 4) B = 4 * (3 + 4)
double B = 4 * (3 + 4);

C = 25 ^ (1/2)
𝐶 = √25 double C = Math.sqrt(25);
𝐶 = √25

3
D = 64 ^ (1/3)
𝐷 = √64 3
double D = Math.pow (64, (1/3.0));
𝐷 = √64

E = K MOD 3 + A + B / C double E = K % 3 + A + (double) B / C;

E = K MOD 3 + A + B / C
E=K%3+A+B/C //if B and C are integer values, you will have to cast one of them to a double

F = 32 + 4 F = (3 ^ 2) + 4 double F = Math.pow (3,2) + 4;

G=4+7\2
G=4+7\2 int F = 4 + 7 / 2 ;
𝐺 = ⌊7⁄2⌋
double H = Math.pow(X,2) + C/A + Math.pow(C/(2*A),2);
𝐶 𝐶 2
𝐻 = 𝑋2 + + ( ) H = (X^2) + (C/A) + (C/(2*A)) ^ 2 double H = Math.pow(X,2) + (double) C/A + Math.pow(C/(2*A),2);
𝐴 2𝐴
// if C and A are integer values, you will have to cast one of them to a double

𝐼 = 𝐴 + √𝐴𝐵 − 1 + 4 √𝐵3 𝐼 = 𝐴 + √𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 − 1 + 4 ∗ √𝐵3 I = A + Math.sqrt(A * B) – 1 + 4 * Math.sqrt(Math.pow(B,3));

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 Convert Math  Pseudo code  Java code
Complete the following table by writing a formula in the formats left out.
Mathematical equation Pseudo code Java assignment statement
𝐵−𝐴 𝐶 (𝐵+2) A= A=
𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 + +
3𝐵 𝐴 − 2𝐵
B= B= B = 175 % 54 % 5 / 2.0;
C= C = 3 + 20 MOD 7 * (12 * 9/4) C=
D= D=
3 52
𝐷 = 2 + 72 ( √69 − )\2
5 𝑚𝑜𝑑 10

E= E = 167 MOD 12 MOD 2 * 3 * 2 ^ 2 – (5/3) E=

F= F= F = Math.round(Math.pow (3,5) / 4 % 8 /3) ;
G= G = 15 / 5 * 2 + 30 / 6 + 3 G=
H= 𝐻 = 2 ∗ √56 ^ 3 mod 17 H=
I = I= I = Math.sqrt(7* Math.pow (3,2) + 1) % 3;

Predicting output of a program

Part of removing all errors from a program is to work through the code and determine what the output of the current code will be. When you
work through the logic and syntax of code, you can determine whether changes should be made to the code.
Substituting values into assignment statements
You need to be able to translate calculations from mathematics to pseudo code applying the rules of the order of operations and determine the
answer of a calculation when specific values are substituted.

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 Example 1
Calculate the value of S where K = 50, A = 7, B = 6 and C = 3. Show all the calculations.
S = K mod 3 + A + B / C
Substitute values:
The frame indicates which operation will be done next.
S = 50 mod 3 + 7 + 6 / 3
The underlined value is the result of the operation in the previous step.
= 2 + 7 + 6 / 3
= 2 + 7 + 2
= 9 + 2
= 11
Example 2
Calculate the value of R where X = 3, C = 4 and A = 2. Show all the calculations.
R = X^2 + (C/A) + (C/2*A) ^ 2
Substitute values:
R = 3 ^ 2 + (4 / 2) + (4 / 2 * 2) ^ 2
= 3 ^ 2 + ( 4 / 2 ) + (4 / 2 * 2) ^ 2
= 3 ^ 2 + 2 + ( 4 / 2 * 2) ^ 2
= 3 ^ 2 + 2 + (2 * 2) ^ 2
= 3 ^ 2 + 2 + 4 ^ 2
= 9 + 2 + 4 ^ 2
= 9 + 2 + 16
= 11 + 16
= 27

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 Example 3
Calculate the value of M where A = 4, B = 16 and C = 256. Show all the calculations.

Example 4
Calculate the value of D where W = 34, X = 4, Y = 9 and Z = 5. Show all the calculations.
D = Z + W \ (X + 2 * Y) – X ^ 2 + Y mod W
= 5 + 34\ (4 + 2 * 9 ) – 4 ^ 2 + 9 mod 34
= 5 + 34 \ (4 + 18 ) – 4 ^ 2 + 9 mod 34
= 5 + 34 \ 22 – 4 ^ 2 + 9 mod 34
= 5 + 34 \ 22 – 16 + 9 mod 34
= 5 + 1 – 16 + 9 mod 34
= 5 + 1 – 16 + 9
= 6 – 16 + 9
= -10 + 9
= -1
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 Pseudo code format and substitution
a) Calculate the value of g where m = 5, n = 7 and t = 2. Show all the calculations in the correct order. Underline all changes.
g = n * (m ^ t – 40)
b) Calculate the value of W where A = 5, B = 14, C = 23 and D = 2. Show all the calculations in the correct order. Underline all changes.
W = B – (B – A * D) ^ D + A mod C + C \ B
c) Calculate the value of k where a = 10, b = 8, c = 4 and d = 30. Show all the calculations in the correct order. Underline all changes.
k = a * (b – c) – a mod c ^ 2 * 2 + d \ c
d) Calculate the value of m where a = 5, b = 12, c = 6 and d = 3. Show all the calculations in the correct order. Underline all changes.
m = a – (b – c) ^ 2 – a mod c * 2 + d \ a
e) Rewrite the following equation in pseudo code format and then calculate the value of w if k = 5; y = 17; z = 10 and s = 24. Round the answer to 2
decimals.
Mathematical formula Pseudo code Answer (result)
𝑘𝑧 − 𝑦 32 + 𝑠
𝑤= +
𝑦−6 𝑧+4
𝑤 = (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑘−3

𝑤 = 𝑠 − 𝑧 − 3𝑘2

𝑧
𝑤 = √𝑘 4 +
𝑧−𝑘
10
𝑤 = 𝑘2 + −𝑠
√𝑧 2
𝑤 = 4𝑧2 − 𝑠𝑦 + 𝑘

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 Mathematical formula Pseudo code Answer (result)

𝑘𝑠 √100
𝑤= − (𝑠)
𝑧 𝑘
𝑠 𝑠𝑧
𝑤 = − 𝑘𝑧 +
3 8

Rewrite the following pseudo code statements as mathematical equations:

Pseudo code Mathematical formula
a) answer = a + b ^ 2 - 5
b) answer = k – (w + 7) / p + s
c) answer = a * b – c + a + (c – k) / s ^ m

d) answer = 5 mod a ∗ 3⁄√c ∗ b

e) answer = k mod 3 + a + b / c
f) result = p + r – s * g * 5 ^ a

g) answer = √a ^ (3 + b) + c ^ 2 mod d

h) answer = 6√a ∗ b^2 − 2 ∗ c\d

i) answer = a \ b mod 5 * d ^ 2
j) 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (2 ∗ 𝑎⁄𝑐) ∗ ((𝑏3⁄𝑑) / 5) ∗ 𝑒

Creating a trace table

A trace table is a very useful tool to use to predict output of a code segment. It helps you to keep track of the output of eachstatement, thereby testing
programs or algorithms for logical errors. It simulates a step-by-step execution of statements.

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 Example 1
Consider the following Java code:
int a,b,c,d,e;
1 a = 20;
2 b = 5;
3 c = a * b;
4 d = a + b;
5 e = a - b;
6 System.out.print(c); // prints then put the cursor on the same line
7 System.out.println(d); // prints then put the cursor on a new line
8 System.out.println(e); // prints then put the cursor on a new line

A trace table contains several columns.

These comments have been added to help you, it is not
   Each variable used in the code gets a column.  
part of an official trace table.
Step Type of a b c d e Display/ Comments / Statement
statement Output
1 assign 20 a = 20, The value 20 is assigned to a
2 assign 5 b = 5, the value 5 is assigned to b
3 calculation 20 * 5 = 100 c = a * b, the results of the product (a * b) is assigned
to c
4 calculation 20 + 5 = 25 d = a + b, the results of the sum (a + b) is assigned to d
5 calculation 20 – 5 = 15 e = a – b, the results of the difference (a - b) is assigned
to e
6 output 100 The value of c (100) will be displayed.
7 output 10025 The value of d (25) will be displayed on the same line,
because the 1st output statement is print and NOT
println().

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 8 output 15 The 2nd output statement was println(), so 3rd output
will be on a new line.
10025
      Exact output
15
The value of each variable can be seen in the column belonging to the variable.
Example 2.
Replace the last 3 statements on the above code with the following:
6 System.out.println(c); // prints then put the cursor on the new line
7 System.out.print(d); // prints then put the cursor on the same line
8 System.out.println(e); // prints then put the cursor on the same line

Step Type of a b c d e Display Comments / Statement

statement
100 25 20
6 output 100 println() used.
7 output 25 The value of d (25) is displayed on the next line.
8 output 2520 The last output will be displayed on the same line,
because the 2nd output statement is print() and NOT
println().

100
2520  Exact output

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 Example 3
Consider the following pseudo code. Create a trace table to determine the final output of the algorithm. Use a value of 5 as input for variable iNumItems.
1. final int iOneItem = 10
Note: You can create a trace table for Java code or for pseudo code.
int iNumItems
2. display "How many items do you want to buy?"
3. enter iNumItems
4. double rCost = iOneItem * iNumItems
5. rcost = rcost * 0.9 //give 10% discount
6. display "You bought " + iNumItems + " at R" + iOneItem + " each."
7. display "After discount you need to pay R" + rCost //on a new line

Step Type of iOneItem iNumItems rCost Display Comments / Statement

statement
1 assign 10
2 display How many items do you want to buy?
3 enter 5 In the problem statement it was
specified that a value of 5 should
be used as test value.
4 calculation 10*5=50
5 calculation 50*0.9=45 The value of rCost was 50. Now it
is re-calculated, so the previous
value will be over-written.
6 display You bought 5 items at R10 each
7 display After discount you need to pay R45
Note that the last value in the column is the correct How many items do you want to buy?
value of rCost. The value of 50 will not be available You bought 5 items at R10 each
  Exact output
any longer, it has been replaced by 45. After discount you need to pay R45

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 Predict the output using trace tables
Create trace tables to predict the exact output of each algorithm.
a) ShowOutputA
A = 5
B = 7
C = A * 2 – 1
B = B + 2
display "The value of B = " + B
display "The value of C = " + C //on a new line
end
b) ShowOutputB
a = 7
b = a ^ (a - 5)c = b + a * 3
d = a \ b + (b – a) mod 3
a = c – b * d mod 14
display a + d
display (a + d) //on a new line
end
c) ShowOutputC
display "Show results: "
a = 5
b = 2
c = a + b * 2
b = a * 3 + b ^ 2
display b // on a new line
b = c mod 3
a = a \ 3 + 2
display "a is " + a // on same line as previous output
display "b = " + b // on a new line
end

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 d) ShowOutputD
w = 12
y = 17
x = w + y mod 5
z = y – w / 3 + x
display "x = " + x + " z = " + z
end

e) ShowOutputE
X = 15
Y = 23
Z = 2
Y = X * Z \ 7
W = X mod 8
display "The value of Y is " + Y
display "The value of W is " + W //on a new line
end

Skills checklist

Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:

✓/?
Create solutions where methods from the Math class should be called as part of the solution.
Create random number calling the nextInt() method of the Random class.
Round a number to a specific number of decimal places.
Convert mathematical equations into Java code.

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 Substitute values into an expression supplied in pseudo code and apply order of precedence principles to determine the value of the
expression.
Create a trace table to determine the output of an algorithm.

Unary operators
Previously we worked with binary operators such as +; - ; *; / and MOD. A binary operator works with two operands, for example:

int iTotal = iCost + 10;

operand operator operand Java has several operators that work with one operand and are
therefore called unary operators.
The unary minus operator – (negation)
The negative sign applies the minus operator to an operand; therefore, it changes the sign. For example:
double rResult = -5.5; //The value of iResult is -5.5
int iResult = -(10 – 20); //The value of iResult is 10
The unary minus operator is called the negation sign.
Negation is the act of setting a value to its negative equivalent (Mueller, n.d.).

The unary plus operator

When you have a variable with data type char, the unary plus operator can be used to emphasize that the data type of the variable will be converted from char
to int.
This is called unary numeric promotion. This is an example of the code that you can write:
char c = 'c';
int i = +c; //The variable i will have the value 99
Please note: The unary plus operator is not really necessary in this case. The following code will have the same result:
char c = 'c';
int i = c; //The variable i will have the value 99
However, some programmers prefer to make the promotion more ‘visible’ in their code.
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 The increment operator ++
Typically, the ++ operator is used to increase the operand by 1. The increment operator can be placed before a variable name (prefix), or after a variable name
(postfix).
Use of increment operator Equivalent code without increment operator
Post increment example with one variable
iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
Unary post Provides same result as
iNum ++; //iNum = 11 iNum = iNum + 1; //iNum = 11
increment
Post increment example with two variables
Assign then
iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
increment
iResult = iNum++; Provides same result as iResult = iNum; //1. Assign iResult = 10
//iResult = 10; iNum = 11 iNum = iNum + 1; //2. Increment iNum = 11

Assignment has precedence over the postfix increment operator. (Use the variable, then change it.)

Use of increment operator Equivalent code without increment operator

Pre increment example with one variable
iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
Provides same result as
Unary pre ++iNum; //iNum = 11 iNum = iNum + 1; //iNum = 11
increment //It is the same as iNum ++;

Increment
Pre increment example with two variables
then assign iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
Provides same result as
iResult = ++iNum; iNum = iNum + 1; //1. Increment iNum = 11
//iNum = 11; iResult = 11 iResult = iNum; //2. Assign iResult = 11

The prefix increment operator has precedence over assignment. (Change the variable, then use it.)

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 The decrement operator --
Typically, the -- operator is used to decrease the operand by 1. (Subtract one from the value of a variable.) The decrement operator can be placed before a
variable name (prefix), or after a variable name (postfix).
Use of decrement operator Equivalent code without decrement operator
Post decrement example with one variable

iNum = 10; Provides same result as iNum = 10;

Unary post
iNum --; //iNum = 9 iNum = iNum - 1; //iNum = 9
decrement
Post decrement example with two variables
Assign then
decrement iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
iResult = iNum--; Provides same result as iResult = iNum; //1. Assign iResult = 10
//iResult = 10; iNum = 9 iNum = iNum - 1; //2. Decrement iNum = 9

Assignment has precedence over the postfix decrement operator. (Use the variable, then change it.)

Use of decrement operator Equivalent code without decrement operator

Pre decrement example with one variable
iNum = 10; Provides same result as iNum = 10;
Unary pre --iNum; //iNum = 9 iNum = iNum - 1; //iNum = 9
decrement //It is the same as iNum --;

Pre decrement example with two variables

Decrement
then assign iNum = 10; iNum = 10;
Provides same result as
iResult = -- iNum; iNum = iNum - 1; //1. Decrement iNum = 9
//iResult = 9; iNum = 9 iResult = iNum; //2. Assign iResult = 9

The prefix decrement operator has precedence over assignment. (Change the variable, then use it.)

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 Examples of unary post and pre operations
int a = 10; a++ is a post increment operator. 1. Use variable a: x = 5 * a = 5 * 10 = 50
int x = 5 * a++; Therefore, use the variable, then change it. 2. Change variable a: a = a + 1 = 10 + 1 = 11
a = 11 x = 50

int x = 6; --x is a pre decrement operator. 1. Change variable x: x = x -1 = 6 – 1 = 5

int y = 10 / --x; Therefore, change the variable, then use it. 2. Use the variable: y = 10 / 5 = 2
x = 5 y = 2
Watch this video on YouTube: https://bit.ly/2Vdj6Ju
Unary increment and decrement operators can be used with floating point
values. For example, the following are valid operations:
double x = 12.5;
x++;
y = 35.6 * --x;

Unary operators
What is the value of each variable after the calculation is executed? Assume that the initial value of each variable in each statement is the integer value 10.
Statements y x
a) y = y * ++x;
b) y = y * x++;
c) y = y / ++x;
d) y = y / x++;

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 e) y = -(y + x--);
f) y = -(y + --x);
g) y = -(y + x++);
h) y = -(-y + (x+1)*++x);
i) y = -(y % x) * (--x / y);
j) y = -(++y % x) * (x-- / y);
k) y = -(++y % x) * (++x / y);

Compound (augmented) assignment operators

It is often necessary in coding to change the value of a variable, for example:
iNum = iNum + 1;
rTotal = rTotal – rDiscount;
rPrice = rPrice * 1.05;
When the same variable is involved on both sides of the assignment operator, Java provides five compound assignment operators that enables a
programmer to write shorter code.
Compound operator 'Ordinary' code Code using compound assignment operator
+= iNum = iNum + 1; iNum += 1;
The value on the right-hand side of the
-= rTotal = rTotal – rDiscount; rTotal -= rDiscount;
compound operator can be:
*= rPrice = rPrice * 1.05; rPrice *= 1.05;
• a literal (for example, 1 or 5) or
/= rFinal = rFinal / 5; rFinal /= 5;
• a variable (for example rDiscount).
%= iSecLeft = iSecLeft % 60; iSecLeft %= 60;

Watch this video on YouTube: https://bit.ly/3hWZCS5

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 Compound (augmented) operators
Change ordinary code to code using a compound assignment operator and vice versa.
Ordinary Code Code using Compound operator
a) iSum = iSum + iX++;

b) iProduct *=--iX;

c) rPrice = rPrice – rPrice * 0.05;

d) iNum %= iNum / 5;

e) Write 4 different Java statements that increase the value of the variable x by 1.

f) Write 4 different Java statements that decrease the value of the variable x by 1.

g) Use only one statement to assign the product of the current value of integer variables of a and b to x, and then increment the value of
the variable a.

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 Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/?
Decrement
Equivalent
Increment
Negation
Post-
Pre-
Precedence
Unary operator

Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:
✓/?
Use unary sign and unary numeric promotion in code
Predict output of statement using the prefix increment and postfix increment operators
Predict output of statement using the prefix decrement and postfix decrement operators
Change ordinary code to code using compound(augmented) operators

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 Formatting output
Using escape sequences
All our programs so far displayed output on the console in plain text, only using spaces to make text more readable. A number of special characters can be
added to an output line (System.out.println() or System.out.print() ) to add formatting to the output. These special characters are called escape sequences. An
escape sequence always starts with a backslash (\) to indicate that a 'command' will follow, and then another character to indicate what should be done. The
following table contains examples of escape sequences and the resulting output.
Sequence 'Command' character Result of escape sequence
\n New line The cursor moves to a new line.
\t Tab A tab space is entered.
\r Return Cursor moves to the beginning of the line.
\" Double quote A double quote is printed in the output
\' Single quote A single quote is printed in the output
\\ Backslash A backslash is printed in the output
Example code Output
String sName = "James";
Do not leave any spaces
String sSurname = "Sediela"; between the words that will
System.out.println("Name\tSurname"); act as headings.
System.out.println(sName + "\t" + sSurname);
System.out.println("Name\tSurname\n" + sName + "\t" + sSurname); Same output, but only one println()
statement was used.
System.out.println("Push the \"escape\" character");

double rAmount = 350;

System.out.println("The dog\'s kennels fees are R" + rAmount);

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 System.out.println("The correct path name is C:\\Documents\\MyJava:");

Predict output when escape sequences are used

Predict the output of the following statements:
Statements Output
int iValue = 22, iCount = 10; String sName = "Sofia";
System.out.println ("Hi" + "\n"+ sName);

System.out.println ("Calculate: answer \t\"times\" \t count is:");

System.out.println ("\t"+iCount*iValue);

System.out.println("Sonia said \"Hello! \" to me.");

Write code to format output using escape sequences

Write Java programs for each of the following tasks:
a) Complete the statements so that your output looks like the following screenshot using a single println() to display the output.
Output screenshot Statements
int iPrice=12;

……………………………………………..

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 b) Use a single println() with escape sequences to change the output statement to produce the formatted output.
Original code and output Formatted output
System.out.println("Print the backslash on the next line");

System.out.println("Add double quotes to the text");

Using the DecimalFormat class

Until now we have displayed floating-point numbers as they are – displaying all decimal values, even when we displayed monetary values. However, this does
not always look professional, so all programming languages have techniques to display output in a specific format.

Example of unformatted Examples of formatted output

There are various ways to format floating-point values. We are going to use output
an object (instance) of the DecimalFormat class to do the formatting.

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 To display a floating-point number in a specific format, you need to do the following:
1. Import the DecimalFormat class from the
import java.text.DecimalFormat;
java.text package.

2. Call the constructor method called

DecimalFormat to create an object based on DecimalFormat formatter = new DecimalFormat ("0.00");
the DecimalFormat class. Pass an argument (a
string) that contains a formatting pattern to
the object.
3. Call the format method from the object to
display a floating-point value applying the double rNumber = 754786.26758;
formatting as specified in the formatting System.out.println(formatter.format(rNumber));
pattern.
This will be the formatted output.

In the formatting pattern, each character corresponds to a position in a number. Let us look at the pattern "0.00".

0 . 00

Refers to one digit before the decimal point  the position of the decimal point refers to the 2 digits after the decimal point.

754786 . 27
There are many digits in front of the decimal Because there were only 2 zeroes in the formatting pattern,
point. So, the single 0 did not have any only two digits are displayed (the value is rounded to two
influence in the decimals).
formatting pattern.

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 Several characters can be used in the formatting pattern.

Character Description/action
# A digit should be displayed in this position if it is present. If there is no digit present, nothing should be displayed.
, Represents the grouping separator. The grouping separator may be a space on some devices.
. Represents the decimal separator. The decimal separator may be a comma on some devices.
0 A 0 (zero) should be displayed in this position if there is no digit present in this position.
% A % sign can be added as the last character in the formatting pattern. This causes the number to be multiplied by 100,
and the % sign is added at the end of the displayed value.

Here are some examples of unformatted values, the formatting patterns that were applied, and resulting formatted output.

Value Formatting Result Comments

pattern
754786.26758 "0.00" 754786.27 The value is rounded to 2 decimals.
0.26758 "000.00" 000.27 The value is rounded to 2 decimals. The 3 zeros before the decimal point indicates that 3
digits must be displayed, and since there are no non-zero digits in this number, three
zeros will be displayed.
0.26758 "##.###" 0.268 The 2 hashes before the decimal point indicates that 2 values should be displayed if
there are two. But there is only one value (the zero), so only one digit is displayed
before the decimal point.
23754786.4 "###,###.##" 23,754,786.4 On some computers this may be displayed as 23 754 786,4

723754786.4 ###,###.00 723,754,786.40 On some computers this may be displayed as 723 754 786,40
0.6 "0.00%" 60,00%
4563.765 "R#,###.00" R4,563.77 On some computers this may be displayed as R4 563,77
834431620 "'0'000000000" 0834431620 This can be used to format cell phone numbers.

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 Use the following code to experiment with different values and formatting patterns.
import java.text.DecimalFormat;
public class DecimalFormatExamples { //start class
You can call the constructor method without an
public static void main(String[] args) {
argument. Then you can send the formatting pattern to
DecimalFormat formatter = new DecimalFormat();
the object using the applyPattern() method.
double rValue = 754786.26758;
String sPattern = "0.00";
formatter.applyPattern(sPattern);
System.out.println(rValue + "\t\"" + sPattern + "\"\t" + formatter.format(rValue));
}
} //end class

Note
The DecimalFormat class' methods just make the value display in a certain way. The actual value of the variable is still the same. For example, look at the
following values:

The value of variable rValue Formatting pattern Value displayed

754786.26758 "0.00" 754786,27
If another calculation is done, for example:
rValue 754786.26758
double rFinal = rValue * 100000; //multiply by 105
rFinal 75478626758
System.out.println(rFinal);
The value 75478626758 will be displayed. All the decimal values are still stored in the variable in the memory of the computer. The value displayed on the
screen is just formatted to look different, it does not actually change.

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 Predict the format of a number when DecimalFormat class is used
Complete the following table.
How will the values be displayed after they have been formatted with the following formatting patterns?

Values Formatting patterns Formatted values

123456.789 "R###,###.##"
0.045 "0.00%"
4561237.3 "###,###.00"
4561237.3 "###,###.##"
5486523 "0120000000"

Format output using methods from the DecimalFormat class

What formatting pattern should be used to change (modify) the unformatted output to the formatted one.

Formatting pattern Unformatted output Formatted output

45.0768 R45.08
0.007892 00.8%
4.05 04.050 (not 04.50 as in previous version)
4.05 04.05
974586.2 974,586.20

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 Knowledge checklist
Use the following checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/?
Formatter
DecimalFormat
Escape sequences
Formatting pattern
# character
Instance of a DecimalFormat class

Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:

✓/?
Use escape sequences in Java programs to format output
Predict output when escape sequences are used
Predict the format of a number when DecimalFormat class methods and formatting patterns are used
Format output using DecimalFormat class methods

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 Finding errors in a Java program
Often, after writing an essay, you were advised to read through it once or twice again before submitting it
for evaluation. And often, your final version was always slightly different than the original and better When errors occur, programmers say:
crafted with fewer mistakes. This is because you were ableto identify and correct some spelling mistakes, • An error was thrown,
tense sequencing errors, sometimes going as far as rewriting entire paragraphs or change the sequence of
• An exception was thrown,
your sentences to better convey your ideas. Your final mark was greatly influenced by the number of
mistakes that you could not correct before submitting as well as how logical your reasoning was. • The program bombed out or

Similar principles to find errors apply to programming. However, when writing a program, it is not about • The program crashed.
marks, your program must bewithout errors, otherwise it may not compile, or it will fail to provide correct
output.
There are different types of errors that can occur in a program, for example:
• The programmer disregards the syntax rules of the programming language, for example, when a word is misspelled or notcapitalized, brackets are
not in pairs, or a semi-colon is omitted at the end of a statement – this is a syntax error.
• An illegal operation is performed during run-time, such as dividing a number by zero –this is a run-time error.
• A program does not display correct result, even though the input values are correct – this is a logical error.

No matter how smart or how careful you are, errors are your constant companion. With practice, you will get slightly better at not making errors, and much,
much better at finding and correcting them, which is the mostimportant aspect.

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 Programming errors are generally known as bugs and the process to remove bugs from
program is called debugging.

The term "bug" to describe defects has been a part of engineering jargon since the 1870s,
long before the invention of the electronic computer and computer software. It was used in
hardware engineering to describe mechanical malfunctions. (Magoun & Israel, 2013). Thomas
Edison wrote the following wordsin a letter to an associate in 1878:
"It has been just so in all of my inventions. The first step is an intuition, and comeswith a
burst, then difficulties arise—this thing gives out and [it is] then that "Bugs"—as such little
faults and difficulties are called—show themselves and months of intense watching, study
and labour are requisite before commercial success or failure is certainly reached." (Today in
Science History, n.d.)
The terms bug and debugging as currently used in computer programming was most
probably made popular by Admiral Grace Hopper. In 1947, while she was working on a Mark
II computer at Harvard University, her associates discovered an insect (a moth) stuck in a
relay, thereby impeding operation. In the logbook she recorded 'Firs tactual case of bug
found'. The moth was taped in the logbook.(Computer History Museum, 2020)
Let us now look in more detail at the three types of errors
Syntax or compile-time errors
Errors that are detected by the compiler are called syntax errors or compile-time errors. Syntax errors result from errors in codeconstruction. These
are some common syntax errors (Murach, 2017, p. 183):
• Misspelling keywords.
• Forgetting to declare a data type for a variable.
• Forgetting an opening or closing parenthesis, bracket, brace, or comment character.
• Forgetting to code a semicolon at the end of the statement.
• Forgetting an opening or closing quotation mark.
• Misspelling or incorrectly capitalizing an identifier.
• Using a reserved word as an identifier.
• The class name is not the same as the name of the file the class is stored in.
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 These errors are similar to your general spelling mistakes on your essay paper. Since each programming language has its own syntax and set of rules, syntax
errors are common to both beginners and advanced programmers writing code in an unfamiliar language. Syntax errors are easily detected and thrown by the
compilers and will prevent your program from running. In addition, the compiler will pinpoint where they are and what caused them.

Run-time or semantic errors

Run-time or semantic errors cause a program to terminate abnormally ('bomb out'). When the programming environment detects an operation that is
impossible to carry out while a program is running, a run-time error will occur. Such errors are also called run-time exceptions and programmers say, 'the
program threw an exception'. The exception stops the normal execution of the program.
These are common causes of run-time errors:
• Performing an illegal mathematical operation such as dividing a value by zero or calculating the square root of a negative number.
• The user of the program enters an illegal value, for example, the program code indicated that an integer value should be read from the keyboard, but
the user enters a floating-point number.
• The program needs to read a value from a file, but the file does not exist.
Run-time errors can be prevented by the programmer to a large extent. Later in this module you will learn how to write code to let a program deal with errors,
instead of bombing out. This is called developing robust programs.

Logical errors
Logical errors occur when a program does not perform the way it was intended to. This happens for many different reasons but in most cases, it is because the
programmer did not respect the specifications of the problem when coding.
Logical errors are the hardest of all error types to detect. They do not cause the program to crash or simply not work at all, the program will run perfectly but
will “misbehave” in some way, returning wrong output of some kind. Logical errors are usually very simple mistakes involving missing or wrong “computer
logic.”
These are examples of logical errors:
• A logical mathematical mistake in a formula, for example, calculating the average of three values as follows:
double rAvg = iMark 1 + iMark2 + iMark 3 / 3.0;
• A local variable field is declared but not initialized.
Logical errors “make sense” as to the computer language itself (they are valid program statements), but they simply do not fit into the program correctly thus
fail to achieve the desired goal.
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 Summary of Java errors
• Syntax errors are like “spelling and grammar” problems. They often stem from typing errors where parentheses or single characters are entered
incorrectly. With syntax errors your program will not compile at all.
• Run-time or semantic errors have to do with meaning/context. It is like using a wrong word or in the wrong place in a human language sentence. A
programming language example would be trying to assign a name to a variable of integer data type. Your program will compile, but when the user
enters a string of characters instead of a number, the program crashes.
• Logic errors have to do with program flow. If you use the wrong arithmetic operator or operations in the wrong order, it will resultin a logical error.

Knowledge checklist
Use the checklist and ensure you can correctly define or explain the following concepts:

✓/?
Syntax error
Run-time error
Logical error
Debugging
Compile-time error
Semantic error

Skills checklist
Use the checklist to ensure you can do the following:

✓/?
Interpret compiler error messages and fix syntax errors.
Identify and fix run-time errors.

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 Identify and fix logical errors.
Provide examples of syntax errors.
Provide examples of run-time errors.
Provide examples of logical errors.

The Java environment

Information obtained and adapted from (Farrell, 2015) and (Incusdata, 2019).

The Java Virtual Machine

A programmer can use Java to write programs that can run on any operating system, for example, Windows, Mac OS, Linux) and on many different devices
(PCs, phones, and tablets). We say Java is architecturally neutral. This is possible because Java does not execute instructions on a computer directly. It runs on
a ‘computer’ that is created by software. A computer that consists of software only is called a hypothetical computer. The Java hypothetical computer is called
the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
These steps are followed when a Java program is created and executed:
1. Write programming statements and save them in a file (these statements are called the source code). The code is stored in a file with an extension .java.
• You can use a text editor such as Notepad++ to write the source code, or an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that contains a source
code editor such as NetBeans, Eclipse, jGrasp, BlueJ, Greenfoot (there are many more).
2. The Java compiler converts the source code into a binary program of bytecode. Bytecode is stored in a file with an extension .class. The compiled
bytecode can be distributed to different platforms and run unchanged.
3. Part of the Java Virtual Machine is a program called the Java interpreter. This Java interpreter then executes the bytecode line by line and communicates
with the operating system.
• Java has many built-in class libraries available (such as java.lang, java.io. java.math). When the Java program makes calls to these classes, the
bytecode of the classes will be loaded, linked to the program, and executed. These built-in class libraries are called the Java Application
Programming Interface (API).

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 Note: The JVM is not portable. It must be installed for a specific operating system. Thereafter, the compiled bytecode can be run on any
platform without any changes.

The following diagram illustrates the process of creating and executing a Java program.

Java Source code Source code is stored on a disk in a file with the name ending in .java.

Java Compiler
The compiler creates bytecode that is stored on a disk in a file with a name ending in .class.

Java Virtual Machine

JVM performs security checks and translates bytecode to machine language. Links code
from the API if necessary. The machine language is executed.
Java Interpreter

Java API
Computer Operating A set of standard
Diagram adapted form (Farrell, 2015) and (Incusdata, 2019)
System library classes.

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 Advantages of the Java environment
The following are some of the advantages of the Java environment:
• Java is more secure than other programming languages: Java is insulated by the JVM from the operating system as well as the hardware it is running on.
The JVM provides security against intruders trying to access your computer’s hardware through the operating system.
• When you program in Java, you only need to create one version of the program, and it can run on multiple devices and operating systems. In other
languages, it may be necessary to create separate versions of the same program to run on different devices with different operating systems.
• In Java, the sizes of all primitive data types are the same for all platforms – that contributes to the portability of Java programs.

Java distributions
Java is distributed in two forms – the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) and the Java Development Kit (JDK) (Incusdata, 2019).
• The Java Runtime Environment consist of the JVM and the APIs. ‘The JRE is used by users who only need a JVM to run standalone Java applications, or
who require a plug-in JVM for a browser.’ (Incusdata, 2019).
• ‘The Java Development Kit consists of the JRE and the development tools, such as the compiler, debugger, documentation generator, applet viewer and
disassembler.’ (Incusdata, 2019). The JDK is needed if new Java programs must be developed.

JRE
The JDK Development tools

• Compiler
API • Debugger
• Documentation generator
• Applet viewer
• Disassembler
• ……

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Recommended additional learning resources

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 These URLs links to various training courses.
What is Java? A Beginner's Guide to Java and its Evolution | Edureka
https://www.w3schools.com/java/java_packages.asp
https://www.w3schools.com/java/default.asp
https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/datatypes.html
http://www.cs.umd.edu/~clin/MoreJava/Intro/prim-char.html
https://www.coursera.org/learn/java-programming-design-principles?specialization=java-programming
https://www.coursera.org/learn/java-programming
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=margret+posch+java

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