PART I

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING Non-destructive test

Materials testing - It is a kind of testing and analysis technique used to

evaluate the properties of materials, components, structure
❖ Refers to measurement of the characteristics and or system for characteristic differences or welding defects and
behavior of materials to be used in specifying the discontinuities without causing damage to the original part.
suitability of materials to various applications.

❖ Examination of materials properties with respect to

Construction material
design and use of product.
❖ An item, material or supply consumed or used in a
construction project and incorporated in the
constructed building or structure.
Categories of materials testing
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
1. Mechanical Testing
• BRICKS AND BRICKWORKS
2. Testing for thermal properties
• FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METAL
3. Testing for electrical properties
• AGGREGATES
4. Testing for resistance to corrosion, radiation, and
biological deterioration • BITUMENS
5. Non-destructive Testing • CEMENT
Mechanical testing • CONCRETE
- aims to find out properties of the materials such as the yield BRICKS AND BRICKWORKS
strength or hardness, toughness where the materials are
physically tested to destruction. - Originally, bricks were hand-mounded from moist clay and
then sunbaked, as is still the practice in certain arid climates.
Ductility –ability to be stretched into a wire. The firing of clay bricks dates back well over 5000 years and is
Toughness -ability to absorb energy and now a sophisticated and highly controlled manufacturing
plastically deform without fracturing. process.
Brittleness -break easily or suddenly without any plastic
deformation first. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METAL
Hardness -measure of how easily a material can be FERROUS METAL- any metal that contains iron, such as
scratched or indented. stainless steel. They are known for their tensile strength,
Plasticity -the quality of being easily shaped or molded which makes them ideal for architectural and structural uses
Elasticity -ability of a material to return to its original such as the tallest skyscrapers, as well as bridges, railways and
form. more.
Strength-Compressive and tensile strength.
Ex. alloy steel, carbon steel, cast iron and wrought iron.
Testing for thermal properties
NON-FERROUS - every metal and alloy that does not contain
- It is a method of testing a material’s ability to operate safely iron.
at different temperatures.
Ex. aluminum, copper, lead, nickel, tin, titanium, and zinc
Testing for thermal properties
- refer to a material's ability to conduct electric current.
AGGREGATES
Testing for resistance to corrosion, radiation, and
biological deterioration - is broad category coarse- to medium-grained particulate
material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed
- Testing for breakdown or deterioration of materials under stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.
exposure to a particular type of environment. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world.

BITUMEN'S

-refers to a substance produced through the distillation of

crude oil. Bitumen is known for its waterproofing and
MGSD
 PART I
adhesive properties and is commonly used in the construction Test of Hardened Concrete
industry, notably for roads and highways.
• Compression Strength Test
• Flexural Strength Test
• Rebound Hammer Test
CEMENT
• Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
- refers to materials which act as adhesives.

- is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that

STEEL REINFORCEMENT
sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them
together. • Tensile Strength Test
CONCRETE • Bend Test
• Re-bend Test
- is a composite material composed of fine and coarse • Shear Test
aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement (cement • Brinell Hardness Test
paste) that hardens cures over time. • Impact Test
• Torsion Test

STANDARD-SETTING AGENCIES
TESTS CARRIED OUT ON DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS ASTM standards are formal, technical requirements that
establish quality specifications for a wide range of materials,
AGGREGATES
products, systems, and services; they serve as the basis for
a) Sieve Analysis manufacturing, procurement, and regulatory activities
b) Water Absorption worldwide. ASTM stands for American Society for Testing and
c) Aggregate Impact Value Materials.
d) Aggregate Abrasion Value
Example.

ASTM C150 for Portland cement, used in making

BITUMEN concrete-are found throughout building codes and
construction specifications, where they are used as a
a) Determining bitumen content precise shorthand for describing the quality of
b) Determining flash and fire point of bitumen materials or the requirements of their installation.
c) Determining penetration of bitumen
d) Determining softening point of bitumen
e) Determining specific gravity of bitumen
American Association of Highway and Transportation
f) Determining ductility of bitumen
Officials (AASHTO) is a nonprofit association that represents
highway and transportation departments across the nation.
AASHTO works to educate the public and key decision makers
CEMENT about the critical role that transportation plays in securing a
good quality of life and sound economy for our nation.
a) Fineness Test
b) Soundness Test
c) Consistency Test
d) Setting Time Test

CONCRETE

Test of Fresh Concrete

• Slump Test
• Compacting Factor Test
• VeBe Test
• K-Slump Test

MGSD
 Part II
COMMON EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS IN MATERIAL LOS ANGELES ABRASION
TESTING MACHINE
- Tests for resistance
to abrasion in
SIEVE crashed rock, slag,
crushed and
- An instrument with
uncrushed gravel.
a mesh or
perforated bottom VCAT APPARATUS
used to separate
coarse from fine - A device for
materials of a loose determining the
matter. normal consistency
and time of setting
of Portland
cements that
consists of a rod
weighing 300
grams, having a
needle in each end, and supported in a frame with a
graduated scale to measure the distance to which the
needle penetrates the cement.

CONCRETE MIXER
Note: Clay = <0.002, Silt = 0.002-0.0075, Sand: Fine = 0.075 -
- A concrete mixer is
0.42, Medium = 0.42-2.0, Coarse = 2.0-4.75, Gravel = 4.75-75.
a device that
SIEVE SHAKER homogeneously
combines cement,
- Sieve shakers are used aggregate such as
for separation and size sand or gravel, and
determination of water to form
particles. A particle by concrete.
passing them through
a series of chambers Types of Mixers.
with mesh filters and Batch Mixers.
agitating the sample to Drum Mixers.
obtain complete Pan-Type Mixers.
separation. Tilting Drum Mixers.
Non-Tilting Drum Mixers.
CBR (CALIFORNIA BEARING Reversing Drum Mixers.
Continuous Mixers.
RATIO) TEST MACHINE
- CBR test machines are
used to measure SLUMP TESTING SETS
California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) test is a - A set of instruments used in slump test. The concrete
measure of the slump value determined in this test is used to find the
strength of subgrade water-cement ratio in mixes. By measuring the
soil and highway difference between the mold height and the height of
subbase and subgrade the specimen, researchers can evaluate the concrete
via a penetration test. consistency.
 Part II
Tape Measures UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE (UTM)

Tamping Rod - A universal testing machine (UTM) also known as a

universal tester, materials testing machine or
Slump Test Bases
materials test frame, is used to test the tensile
Slump Cone Filling Funnel strength and compressive strength of materials.

Slump Cones

Sample Scoop

Scrub Brushes

STANDARD SLUMP CONE

- Cone shaped mold that can be made of steel or plastic
and should measure 8” (203mm) dia. At base, 4’
(102mm) dia. at top and 12” (305mm) high.

SLUMP BASE PLATE

- The slump cone will sit on the base during the test,
and it should include bolt-on clamps to hold the cone
steady during testing. A base plate with a handle will
make it easier to remove and can also be used as a
guide to measure the slump.

CONCRETE MOLDS
- Used to form specimens for testing compressive
strength or serve as sample containers for set-time
testing.

REBOUND HAMMER
- The rebound
hammer is a non-
destructive testing
apparatus, whereby
the rebound of the
spring driven mass is
measured after its
impact with concrete
surface. The output of
the rebound hammer is referred to as rebound
number and are correlated with surface hardness of
concrete.
 Construction Materials and Testing
Aggregates rocks generally have a crystalline structure, with grain sizes
ranging from fine to coarse.
- There are three main uses of aggregates in civil
engineering: as an underlying material for All three classes of rock are used successfully in civil
foundations and pavements, as riprap for erosion engineering applications. The suitability of aggregates from a
protection, and as ingredients in Portland cement and given source must be evaluated by a combination of tests to
asphalt concretes. check physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, and must
- aggregates are a combination of distinct parts be supplemented by mineralogical examination.
gathered into a mass or a whole.
Evaluation of Aggregate Sources
Due to the differences in the size of the aggregate particles,
Civil engineers select aggregates for their ability to meet
four terms are defined to facilitate the discussion of the
specific project requirements, rather than their geologic
general size characteristics of aggregates:
history. The physical and chemical properties of the rocks
Coarse aggregates: aggregate particles that are retained on a determine the acceptability of an aggregate source for a
4.75 mm sieve. A 4.75 mm sieve has openings equal to 4.75 construction project. These characteristics vary within a quarry
mm between the sieve wires. or gravel pit, making it necessary to sample and test the
materials continually as the aggregates are being produced.
Fine aggregates: aggregate particles that pass a 4.75 mm sieve.
Due to the quantity of aggregates required for a typical civil
Maximum aggregate size: The smallest sieve through which engineering application, the cost and availability of the
100% of the aggregates pass. aggregates are important when selecting an aggregate source.
Nominal maximum aggregate size: The largest sieve that Potential aggregate sources are usually evaluated for quality of
retains any of the aggregate, but generally not more than 10%. the larger pieces, the nature and amount of fine material, and
the gradation of the aggregate.
Aggregate Sources
Natural sources for aggregates include gravel pits, river run Aggregate Properties
deposits, and rock quarries. Generally, gravel comes from pits Aggregates’ properties are defined by the characteristics of
and river deposits, whereas crushed stones are the result of both the individual particles and the characteristics of the
processing rocks from quarries. combined material. These properties can be further described
Manufactured aggregates can use slag waste from iron and by their physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics, as
steel mills and expanded shale and clays to produce lightweight shown:
aggregates. Heavyweight concrete, used for radiation shields,
can use steel slag and bearings for the aggregate. Styrofoam
beads can be used as an aggregate in lightweight concrete used
for insulation. Natural lightweight aggregates include pumice,
scoria, volcanic cinders, tuff, and diatomite.

Geological Classification
All natural aggregates result from the breakdown of large rock
masses. Geologists classify rocks into three basic types:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Volcanic action produces igneous rocks by hardening or

crystallizing molten material, magma. The magma cools either
at the Earth’s surface, when it is exposed to air or water, or
within the crust of the earth.

Sedimentary rocks coalesce from deposits of disintegrated

existing rocks or inorganic remains of marine animals.

Metamorphic rocks form from igneous or sedimentary rocks

that are drawn back into the Earth’s crust and exposed to heat
and pressure, reforming the grain structure. Metamorphic
MGSD
 Construction Materials and Testing
Particle Shape and Surface Texture magnesium sulfate solution. These sulfates cause crystals to
grow in the aggregates, simulating the effect of freezing.
The shape and surface texture of the individual aggregate
particles determine how the material will pack into a dense
configuration and determines the mobility of the stones within
a mix.

Toughness, Hardness, and Abrasion Resistance

The ability of aggregates to resist the damaging effect of loads
is related to the hardness of the aggregate particles and is
described as the toughness or abrasion resistance. The
aggregate must resist crushing, degradation, and disintegration
when stockpiled, mixed as either Portland cement or asphalt
concrete, placed and compacted, and exposed to loads.

Particle Shape of Coarse Aggregates Figures 5.3 and 5.4 show

the different shapes of coarse aggregates: angular, rounded,
flaky, elongated, and flaky and elongated.

Texture of Coarse Aggregates The roughness of the aggregate

surface plays an important role in the way the aggregate
compacts and bonds with the binder material. Aggregates with
a rough texture are more difficult to compact into a dense
configuration than smooth aggregates.

Particle Shape and Texture of Fine Aggregates The angularity

and texture of fine aggregates have a very strong influence on
the stability of asphalt concrete mixes.

Soundness and Durability

The Los Angeles abrasion test (ASTM C131, C535) evaluates the
The ability of aggregate to withstand weathering is defined as
aggregates’ toughness and abrasion resistance. In this test,
soundness or durability. Aggregates used in various civil
aggregates blended to a fixed size distribution are placed in a
engineering applications must be sound and durable,
large steel drum with standard sized steel balls that act as an
particularly if the structure is subjected to severe climatic
abrasive charge (see Figure 5.8). The drum is rotated, typically
conditions. Water freezing in the voids of aggregates generates
for 500 revolutions. The material is recovered from the
stresses that can fracture the stones.
machine and passed through a sieve that retains all the original
The soundness test (ASTM C88) simulates weathering by material.
soaking the aggregates in either a sodium sulfate or a
MGSD
 Construction Materials and Testing
Absorption attribute of the aggregates. Large aggregates are economically
advantageous in Portland cement and asphalt concrete, as
Although aggregates are inert, they can capture water and they have less surface area and, therefore, require less binder.
asphalt binder in surface voids. The amount of water the
aggregates absorb is important in the design of Portland Sieve Analysis - Gradation is evaluated by passing the
cement concrete, since moisture captured in the aggregate aggregates through a series of sieves (ASTM C136, E11). The
voids is not available to react with the cement or to improve sieve retains particles larger than the opening, while smaller
the workability of the plastic concrete. ones pass through. Metric sieve descriptions are based on the
size of the square openings measured between the wires in
millimeters.

Density and Uniformity of Aggregates

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3
factors:

Degree of compaction

Grading of aggregates
Bone dry means that the aggregate contains no moisture; this
Shape of aggregate particles
requires drying the aggregate in an oven to a constant mass.

In an air dry, condition, the aggregate may have some

Handling Aggregates
moisture, but the saturation state is not quantified. Aggregates must be handled and stockpiled in such a way as to
In a saturated surface–dry (SSD) condition, the aggregate’s minimize segregation, degradation, and contamination. If
voids are filled with moisture, but the main surface area of the aggregates roll down the slope of the stockpile, the different
aggregate particles is dry. sizes will segregate, with large stones at the bottom and small
ones at the top.
Moist aggregates have moisture content more than the SSD
condition.

The percent moisture content (MC) in the aggregate can be

calculated as

Specific Weight
-Also known as Unit Weight.

-The bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate is the mass or

weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of a
specified unit volume. The volume referred to here is that
occupied by both aggregates and the voids between
aggregates particles.

Gradation
Gradation describes the particle size distribution of the
aggregate. The particle size distribution is an important

MGSD
 Construction Materials and Testing Part IV
PORTLAND CEMENT guarantee the quality of the concrete made with
the cement. Mix design, quality control, and the
Learning Outcomes: characteristics of the mixing water and
1. Determine what is cement. aggregates also influence the quality of the
2. Different Types and Properties of Cement. concrete. Properties of the hydrated cement are
3. Determine the setting time of cement. evaluated with either cement paste (water and
- Portland Cement is made from silica (sand), cement) or mortar (paste and sand).
alumina (aluminum oxide), lime, iron oxide and Water–Cement Ratio
magnesia (magnesium oxide).
- The term cement refers to materials which act as - In 1918, Abrams found that the ratio of the
adhesives. weight of water to the weight of cement, water–
- There are many types of concrete, based on cement ratio, influences all the desirable
different cements. However, Portland cement qualities of concrete.
concrete is so prevalent that, unless otherwise
Types of Portland Cement
identified, the term concrete is always assumed
to mean Portland cement concrete. Portland - Different concrete applications require cements
cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 with different properties. Some applications
and was named after the limestone cliffs on the require rapid strength gain to expedite
Isle of Portland in England (Kosmatka et al., 2011). construction. Other applications require a low
heat of hydration to control volume change and
Portland Cement Production
associated shrinkage cracking.
- Production of Portland cement starts with two
basic raw ingredients: a calcareous material and
an argillaceous material. The calcareous material
is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk, or
oyster shells. The argillaceous material is a
combination of silica and alumina that can be
obtained from clay, shale, and blast furnace slag.

Fineness of Portland Cement

- Fineness of cement particles are an important

property that must be carefully controlled. Since
hydration starts at the surface of cement
particles, the finer the cement particles, the
larger the surface area and the faster the
hydration. Therefore, finer material results in
faster strength development and a greater initial
heat of hydration. Increasing fineness beyond the
requirements for a type of cement increases Other Cement Types
production costs and can be detrimental to the
Other than the five standard types of Portland cement,
quality of the concrete.
several hydraulic cements are manufactured in the
Properties of Hydrated Cement United States, including:
White Portland cement
- The proper hydration of Portland cement is a
Blended hydraulic cements.
fundamental quality control issue for cement
producers. While specifications control the Type IS (Portland blast furnace slag cement)
quality of the Portland cement, they do not Type IP (Portland-pozzolan cement)
MGSD
 Construction Materials and Testing Part IV
Hydraulic cements

Type GU (General use)

Type HE (High early strength)
Type MS (Moderate sulfate resistance)
Type HS (High sulfate resistance)
Type MH (Moderate heat of hydration)
Type LH (Low heat of hydration)

Masonry and mortar cements

Plastic cements
Finely-ground cements (ultrafine cements)
Expansive cements
Specialty cements

In general, these cements have limited applications. Civil

and construction engineers should be aware of their
existence but should study them further before using
them.

Mixing Water

- Any potable water is suitable for making

concrete. However, some non-potable water
may also be suitable. Sometimes, concrete
suppliers will use unprocessed surface or well
water if it can be obtained at a lower cost than
processed water. However, impurities in the
mixing water can affect concrete set time,
strength, and long-term durability.

Portland Cement Setting Time

Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of

items including: cement fineness, water-cement
ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and
admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a
particular cement paste sets. For construction purposes,
the initial set must not be too soon, and the final set must
not be too late.

1. Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to

stiffen considerably.
2. Final set. Occurs when the cement has hardened
to the point at which it can sustain some load.

MGSD
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING; THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
PROCESS; STRUCTURAL FORMS, NATURE OF LOADS; BUILDINGS

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. Structural Engineer - A registered Civil Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
Structural Engineering as recognized by the following:

b. Structural Engineering - A discipline of civil engineering dealing

with the analysis and design of structures that support or resists
loads insuring the safety of the structures against natural forces.

c. Structural Failure - is the reduction of capability of a structural

system or component to such a degree that it cannot safely serve its
intended purpose

d. Structural Inspection - is the visual observation by a structural inspector of a particular type of

construction work or cooperation for the purpose of ensuring its general compliance to the
approved plans and specifications and the applicable workmanship provisions of this code as well
as overall construction safety at various stages of construction. Detailed Examination of all the
construction work in progress relative to the design concept shown on the contract documents. The
inspection usually includes a written report, or another form of communication, that is used by the
contractor to correct defects.
Reinforcing Steel Placement (verification of the size, spacing, and placement of all bars)
Common Inspection items:
i. Welding

ii. Applying Shotcrete

iii. High-strength bolting

iv. Prestressing Steel Tendons

e. Structural Observation - is the visual observation of the structural system by the structural
observer as provided for in Section 107.9.2, for its general conformance to the approved plans and
specifications, at significant construction stages and at completion of the structural system.
Structural observation does not include or waive the responsibility for the structural inspections
required by section 107.1 or other sections of this code.

Design Drawings VS. As built Construction

A general review of the project at appropriate intervals during construction. The

objective is to become generally familiar with progress and quality of the contractor’s work and
to determine if the work is proceeding in general accordance with the contract documents.
f. Structures -refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

f.1 Classification of Structures

i. Tension Structures
- Structures which are subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads.
- Composed of flexible cables which are frequently employed to support bridges and long span
roofs.
- Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can develop only
tension.

ii. Compression Structures

- develop mainly compressive stress under the action of external loads
- Examples: Columns and arches
- Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads.
-Beam-column – when a straight member is subjected to lateral loads or
moments in addition to axial loads.
- Arch, a curved structures, with
a shape similar to that of inverted
cable.

iii. Trusses
-composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connection to form stable
configuration.
-when the loads are applied to the truss only at joints, its member either elongate or shorten.
- Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform
compression.
iv. Shear Structures
- e.g. reinforced concrete shear wall which are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral
movement due to wind load and earthquake excitations.
-structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action
of external loads.

v. Bending Structures
- structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external
loads.
- In some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in
bending moments may also be significant and should be considered in their
designs.
-Some of the most commonly used structures: beams, rigid frames, slabs
and plates
g. Loads are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all the building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained
dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over time are rar of
small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
g. 1 Kinds of Loadings
g.2 Types of Loads

i. Dead Loads
- are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on the structure.
- e.g. weights of the structures itself and other material and equipment permanently attached to the
structural system.
- weights of frames, framing, and bracing system floors, roofs, walls, stairway heating and air
conditioning system, plumbing, and electrical system
ii. Live Loads
- are loads varying magnitudes and or positions caused by the used of the structure.
-refer to all the loads except dead loads, such as snow or wind loads.
iii. Impact
- When live loads are applied rapidly to a
structure, they cause larger stress than those that
would be produced if the same loads would have
been applied gradually.
-The dynamic effect of the load that causes this
increase in stress in the structure.

iv. Wind Loads

- produced by the flow of wind around the structure.
- The magnitudes of wind load that may act on the structure depend on the geographical location
of the structure, obstruction in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and geometry and
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

v. Snow Loads
-considered in designing structures in many parts of United States and the world.
 vi. Earthquake Loads
- horizontal components of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs structures located in earthquake prone areas.
vii. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
- structure used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures partially of
fully submerged in water
-Hydrostatic pressure- acts normal to submerged surface of the structures, with its magnitude
varying linearly with height.
-Lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually considerably smaller than vertical
pressure.
-For the portions of structure below the ground table, the combined effect of hydrostatic pressure
and soil pressure should be considered.
viii. Thermal and other effects
-Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to temperature
changes, shrinkage of materials, fabrication errors, and differential settlements of supports

ix. Load Combinations

- all loads that might act simultaneously on a structure at a given time.
- It is important to realize that the structure must be designed to have adequate strength to
resist the most unfavorable of all the load combinations.
 05/10/2023

Building Materials Steel

Course Aggregate
Fine Aggregates

Timber
Concrete

1
 05/10/2023

Rebar
Elements of Structures
1. Beams/Girders – usually straight horizontal
members used to carry vertical loads (pointed or
horizontal loads).

Types of Beams

2. Columns – vertical
members of the
structures that resists
axial and
comprehensive loads.

2
 05/10/2023

3. Slabs – are three dimensional flat structural

components usually made of reinforced concrete. 4. Foundation -
connects the
structure to the
ground and
receives the load
of the whole
structure.

Slab Slab
Supports
Slab Slab Supports – is a part of a building or structure
providing the necessary stiffness and strength in
order the necessary stiffness and strength to resist
the internal and external forces or loads
Column
Girder
Beam
Slab

3
 05/10/2023

Types of supports
2. Roller Support –
A. External Supports – The prevent vertical
supports which are usually movement; supply
provided externally without vertical reaction.
disturbing the structural
members.
1. Pinned Support or Hinge
Support – prevent vertical and
horizontal movement to the body;
supply vertical and horizontal
reaction.

3. Fixed Support –
Pinned support Roller support
Translation and
rotation are generally
prevented and always
Simply supported beam have moment.

4
 05/10/2023

Fixed support Fixed support

B. Internal Support – are
provided internally in
the structural member
also divides the full
member into parts.

Fixed-supported girder 1. Internal Hinge – similar

to hinge support that
resists translation in
both directions and
allows only rotation.

Fixed support
Internal Hinge support

Frame Structure
2. Internal Roller Support – are same as roller supports but
Pinned
Pinned they are provided in the middle of structural member.
support
support

Internal Hinge support

Arc

5
 05/10/2023

Internal Roller support

Load Combinations
Pinned Pinned
support support Allowable Stress or Allowable Strength Design
(ASD)
Internal Roller support - Serviceability
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
- Strength Design

6
T
3
%

} 2-10 CHAPTER 2 -- Minimum Design Loads

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS are areas within

yphoon prone regions located at:

t

I. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high ater

w line 203.1 General

where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than

200 k ph, or Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all

portions thereof shall be designed to resist the load

2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or combinations specified in Section 203.3, 203.4 and 203.5.

greater than 250 kph.

The most critical effect can occur when one or more of the

WOOD OF NATURAL RESISTANCE TO DECAY contributing loads are not acting. All applicable loads shall

OR TERMITES is the heartwood of the species set fort h be considered, including both earthquake and wind,

below. C orner s apwood is permitted on 5 percent of the accordance with the specified load combinations.

pieces prov di ed 0 percent or more of the width of each

9

side on which it occurs is heartwood. Recognized species 203.2 Symbols and Notations

are:

D dead load

• Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile. E earthquake load set forth in Section 208.6.I

E, = estimated maximum earthquake force that

• Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.
can be developed in the structure as set forth

in Section 208.6.1
WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL is a structural panel
F load due to fluids with well-defined
product composed primarily of wood and meeting the UBC
pressures and maximum heights
Standard 23-2 and 23-3 or equivalent requirements of
H load due to lateral pressure of soil and water
Philippine National Standards (PNS). Wood structural
in soil
panels include all-veneer plywood, composite panels
L live load, except roof live load, including
containing a combination of veneer and wood-based
any permitted live load reduction
material, and mat-formed panel such as oriented stranded
L, roof Jive load, including any permitted live
board and wafer board.
load reduction

p ponding load
WYTHE is the portion ofa wall which is one masonry unit
R rain load on the undeflected roof
in thickness. A collar joint is not considered a wythe.
T self-straining force and effects arising from

contraction or expansion resulting from

temperature change, shrinkage, moisture 4

change, creep in component materials,

movement due to differential settlement, or

combinations thereof
%

w = load due to wind pressure

.
#

Ass ociation of St ructural ngineers of

E the hilippines,
P Inc. (ASEP)
 CHAPTER 2 -- Minimum Design Loads 2-11

3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or No increase in allowable stresses shall be used with these

Load and Resistance Factor Design load combinations except as specifically permitted by

Section 203.4.2.

Basie Load Combinations

203.4.2 Alternate Basic Load Combinations

ere strength design or load and resistance factor design

L

used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Section

host critical effects from the following combinations of 2 0 3 . 4 . 1 , structures and portions thereof shall be permitted

ietored loads: to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from
pg
the following load combinations. When using these

alternate basic load combinations, a one-third increase

(203-1)
shall be permitted in allowable stresses for all

combinations, including W or E.
L . 2 ( D + F + T ) + 1 . 6 L + HD )
(203-2)
+ 0 . 5 ( L , or R)
D ++r+0.75/L + L , ( 0 . 6 w o r ",) ( 0 - 1 3 )
1.4
1.2D + 1 . 6 ( L , or R) + (f,L or 0.5W) (203-3)
0.6D + 0 . 6 W + H (203-14)

t.2D + 1 . 0 W + f , L + 0.5(L, or R) (203-4)

E
0.6D 4 + H (203-15)
1.4
1. 2 D + 1 . 0 E + f , L (203-5)

D +L+(L, or R) (203-16)

(203-6)
D +L+0.6W (203-17)

(203-7)
E
D + L + ­ (203-18)
1.4

Exception:
LO for floors in places of public assembly,

for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for

garage live load, or Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load

0.5 for other live loads or with more than one-half o

f the wind load.

Other Loads 203.4.3 Other Loads

· re P i s to be considered in design, the applicable load Where P i s to be considered in design, each applicable load

shall be added to the combinations specified in Sections

l be added to Section 203.3.1 factored as 1 . 2 P .
203.4.1 and 203.4.2.

Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress or

llowable Strength Design 203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations

For both allowable stress design and strength design for

Basic Load C o m b i n at io n s
concrete, and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

and Allowable Strength Design (ASD) for steel, the

here allowable stress or allowable strength design is
following special load combinations for seismic design
sed, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the most

ritical effects resulting from the following combinations shall be used as specifically required by Section 208, or by

floads: Chapters 3 through 7.

0+r (203-8)
1 . 2 D + f , L + 1.0E, (203-19)

(203-9)
0.9D ±1.0E, (203-20)

+H+F+(L, Or R) (203-10)

+H + F + 0 . 7 5 [ L + T ( L , or R)] (203-11

ii E

D + H + F + ( 0 6 w o r ,) (203-12)
1.4

National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume l, 7th Edition, 2015

2-12 CHAPTER 2 - Minimum Design Loads

where

f 1 . 0 for floors in places of public assembly,

1

for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for

204.1 General
garage live load, or

0.5 for other live loads

Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials o
E, the maximum effect of horizontal and
construction incorporated into the building or othe
vertical forces as set forth in Section 20 8 . 6 . 1
structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs

ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, claddin

and other similarly incorporated architectural an

structural items, and fixed service equipment, including th

weight of cranes.

204.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions

The actual weights of materials and constructions shall

used in determining dead loads for purposes of design. 1

the absence of definite information, it shall be permitted t

use the minimum values in Tables 204-1 and 204-2.

204.3 Partition Loads

Floors in office buildings and other buildings wher

partition locations are subject to change shall be designe

to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniforml

distributed dead load equal to L.0 kPa.

Exception:

Access floor systems shall be designed to support,

addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed de

load not less than 0.5 kPa.

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)

 10/18/2023

TYPES OF FORCES
 Internal Forces
Internal forces are the forces and couples
exerted on a member or portion of the
structure by the rest of the structure.

 External Forces
External forces are the actions of other
bodies on the structure under
consideration. For the purposes of analysis,
it is usually convenient to further classify
these forces as applied forces and reaction
forces.

TYPES OF SUPPORTS 4

STABILITY
 10/18/2023

TYPES OF STABILITY 6

 Internal Stability OVERALL STABILITY

A structure is considered to be internally stable,
or rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a
rigid body when detached from the supports.
Conversely, a structure is termed internally
unstable (or nonrigid) if it cannot maintain its
Overall Stability = Internal Stability +
shape and may undergo large displacements
under small disturbances when not supported
External Stability
externally.
 External Stability
External stability evaluates if there are
enough support reactions to prevent the
structure from moving as a rigid body.

DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURE DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURE

 Statically Determinate
o When the unknown forces can be computed using equilibrium equations

o A structure which has enough connections to be stable

 Statically Indeterminate
o When the number of unknown forces is more than the equilibrium equations

o A structure which has more than enough connections to be stable

 10/18/2023

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
1) Stable / Unstable
A stable structure is one that will not collapse when disturbed. Stability is the
capability for a structure to recover equilibrium.
In general, there are many ways that a structure may become unstable, including
IMPORTANT buckling of compression members, yielding/rupture of members, or nonlinear geometric
effects (like so-called P-Delta effects); however, in linear structural analysis, our

CONCEPTS main concern is instability caused by insufficient reaction points or poor layout of
structural members.
An unstable structure generally cannot be analyzed. Therefore, it is useful to know
if a structure is stable or unstable before you conduct a structural analysis.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

2) Internally Stable 3) External Determinacy
A stable structure is one that will not collapse when disturbed. Stability is the
In an externally statically determinate structure, all of the external reaction force
capability for a structure to recover equilibrium.
components may be calculated using only static equilibrium (i.e. using the three
equilibrium equations in 2D). A structure for which the external reactions
An internally stable structure is one that would maintain its shape if all the component forces cannot be calculated using only equilibrium is called externally
reaction supports were removed. A structure that is internally unstable may still statically indeterminate.
be generally stable if it has sufficient external support reactions.
4) Internal Determinacy

In an internally statically determinate structure, all of the external reaction

component forces and internal forces may be calculated using only static
equilibrium. A structure for which the internal forces cannot be calculated using
only equilibrium is internally statically indeterminate.
 10/18/2023

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS DETERMINACY OF

5) Redundant Forces INTERNALLY STABLE
Indeterminate structures have more unknown forces than you can solve using the
Where;
three equilibrium equations alone (or six equilibrium equations in 3D). These
extra unknown forces are called redundant forces or redundants. r = no. of reactions

6) Degree of Determinacy

The degree of indeterminacy for a structure is equal to the number of redundant

forces. An indeterminate structure with 2 redundants may be said to be statically
indeterminate to the second degree or "2 S.I." For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be
written as

DETERMINACY OF 15 INTERNALLY UNSTABLE 16

INTERNALLY UNSTABLE As this figure indicates, these reactions, which would have been sufficient to
fully constrain an internally stable or rigid structure, are not sufficient for this
Where; structure.
r = no. of reactions
fi = no. of internal forces
nr = no. of rigid members

For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be

written as
 10/18/2023

INTERNALLY UNSTABLE 17

EXAMPLE
In order for the structure to be made externally stable;
Determine whether each of
the beams and frames below
are internally stable or
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
unstable and determinate, STATICALLY UNSTABLE EXTERNALLY
indeterminate, or unstable.

If it is indeterminate, what
degree is it indeterminate?
INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE EXTERNALLY
The roller support at A can be replaced by a hinged support to prevent the AT 2ND DEG
horizontal movement of end A of the structure.

EXAMPLE
Determine whether each of
frames is determinate,
indeterminate, or unstable. INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE

If it is indeterminate, what
EXTERNALLY
DETERMINACY AND
degree is it indeterminate? STABILITY OF TRUSS
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY
 10/18/2023

WHAT IS TRUSS? 21 COMMON BRIDGE TRUSSES 22

 Truss is a structure composed of

slender members joined together at
their end points.

 The members commonly used in

construction consist of wooden struts,
metal bars, angles, or channels.

 The joint connections are usually

formed by bolting or welding the
ends of the members to a common
plate, called a gusset plate.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF 23 INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 24

TRUSSES The term internal used in truss refers to the number and arrangement
 All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges of members contained within the truss.
in plane trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space
trusses. The instability due to insufficient external supports or due to
 All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints. improper arrangement of external supports is referred to as external.

 The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line The triangular truss is called the basic truss element.
connecting the centers of the adjacent joints.
 10/18/2023

INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 25 INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 26

Where;
m = no. of members
j = no. of joints

INTERNALLY STABLE
NOTE: It is very important to realize that although the foregoing
criterion for internal stability is necessary, it is not sufficient to ensure
internal stability. Members must also be properly arranged to ensure
rigidity of the entire truss.
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
If a truss contains a sufficient number of members, but they are not
properly arranged, the truss is said to have critical form.

EXTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 27 DETERMINACY (TRUSS) 28

A structure (or truss) is externally unstable if all of its reactions are concurrent or
parallel.
Where;
r = no. of reactions
m = no. of members
j = no. of joints

For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be

written as
 10/18/2023

EXAMPLE 29

INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY

(1) ANSWER LABORATORY

EXERCISE NO. 2
INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY AT 4TH DEG

(2)