GPS Solut

DOI 10.1007/s10291-014-0370-z

GPS TOOLBOX

An open source GPS multipath simulator in Matlab/Octave

Felipe G. Nievinski • Kristine M. Larson

Received: 30 September 2013 / Accepted: 17 February 2014

Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract Multipath is detrimental for both GPS posi- in Matlab/Octave and is made available as open source
tioning and timing applications. However, the benefits of code. It can produce signal-to-noise ratio, carrier phase,
GPS multipath for reflectometry have become increasingly and code pseudorange observables, based on L1 and L2
clear for monitoring soil moisture, snow depth, and vege- carrier frequencies and C/A, P(Y), and L2C modulations. It
tation growth. In positioning applications, a simulator can couples different surface and antenna types with due con-
support multipath mitigation efforts in terms of, e.g., site sideration for polarization and coherence. In addition to
selection, antenna design, receiver performance assess- offering predefined material types (water, concrete, soil,
ment, and in relating different observations to a common etc.), it allows certain dimensional properties to be varied,
parameterization. For reflectometry, in order to convert such as soil moisture and snow density.
observed multipath parameters into useable environmental
products, it is important to be able to explicitly link the Keywords GPS  GNSS  Multipath  Reflectometry 
GPS observables to known characteristics of the GPS Coherent  Simulator  Simulation
receiver/antenna and the reflecting environment. Existing
GPS multipath software simulators are generally not
readily available for the general scientific community to Introduction
use and/or modify. Here, a simulator has been implemented
Nievinski and Larson (2014a) presented a forward mul-
tipath model for near-surface reflectometry and position-
ing applications. While that research paper formulated
The GPS Tool Box is a column dedicated to highlighting algorithms and illustrated the model, the present short companion
and source code utilized by GPS engineers and scientists. If you have
an interesting program or software package you would like to share
paper focuses on the simulation software. It has been
with our readers, please pass it along; e-mail it to us at implemented in Matlab/Octave and is made available as
gpstoolbox@ngs.noaa.gov. To comment on any of the source code open source code. It can produce signal-to-noise ratio
discussed here, or to download source code, visit our website at http:// (SNR), carrier phase, and code pseudorange observables,
www.ngs.noaa.gov/gps-toolbox. This column is edited by Stephen
Hilla, National Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver Spring, Maryland,
based on L1 and L2 carrier frequencies and C/A, P(Y),
and Mike Craymer, Geodetic Survey Division, Natural Resources and L2C modulations. It couples different surface and
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. antenna types with due consideration for polarization and
coherence. In addition to offering predefined material
F. G. Nievinski (&)
types (water, concrete, soil, etc.), it allows certain
Departamento de Cartografia, Faculdade de Ciências e
Tecnologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita dimensional properties to be varied, such as soil moisture
Filho, Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil and snow density. The source code is available at the
e-mail: fgnievinski@gmail.com GPS Toolbox Web site (http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/gps-
toolbox); it includes both the simulator software library
K. M. Larson
Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences, as well as driver scripts to generate all figures in both
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA papers.

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 GPS Solut

Background Table 1 Classification of GPS multipath simulators reported in the

literature
Although simulations are rarely sufficiently accurate to be Observable
used as measurement corrections for multipath mitigation Pseudorange E89, R92, V92, A94, L96, B96, E96, B97, B98, M98,
in GPS positioning applications, their error envelopes are A99, M98, C00, R01, B01, B02, K04, E05, F05,
I05, K06, R06, W07, G08, L08, C09, S09, Z09,
often useful as bounds on the expected uncertainty, for use C10, I10, N14a
in performance integrity in navigation augmentation (Cox Carrier phase G88, R92, A94 , E95, G95, L96, B96, B97, M98,
et al. 2000; Macabiau et al. 1999) and stochastic weighting A99, M98, B01, R01, B01, B03, F06, K06, L07,
B08, K10, B11, L11, O11, S13, B13, N14a
in geodesy (Luo et al. 2008). Furthermore, by offering
SNR E89, R92, A94 , B98, H98, K98, A99, A00, B01,
repeatable conditions, a simulator can serve as a neutral R01, T01, B01, B08, J08, C09, Z10, B11, R11,
criterion in the comparison of competing architectures M12, S13, B13, N14a
(Irsigler et al. 2005) and in the impact assessment of Waveform T01, S08, S09, C12
positioning solutions (King and Watson 2010). Finally, in Geometry
principle, measurements could be used to estimate Horizontal G88, E89, R92, A94 , E95, G95, B98, K98, A99,
M98, A00, B01, K04, F05, L07, B08, J08,
improved values for the underlying parameters driving the L08, Z09, K10, Z10, L11, O11, R11, C12, M12,
simulation, leading to potentially more accurate corrections S13, N14a
for multipath errors (Bilich et al. 2008). Multipath simu- Tilted R01
lators have also been used for the assessment of proposed Plates E89, E96?, B01, B03, F05, L07, C09
site installations (Weiss et al. 2007). Facets E89, L96, M98, B01, K04, E05, F06, R06, W07, C09,
C10, I10
In parallel to efforts to mitigate multipath by the posi-
Irregular R11
tioning community, the reflectometry community has
Undulated –
developed ways to exploit GPS reflections (GPS-R) for Spherical B01, T01, B11
remote sensing of the environment. We concentrate on the Current E89, A94, H98, G08, S08, C09, C10, I10
single-antenna single-replica GPS-R mode, which we call Material
GPS multipath reflectometry (GPS-MR). A multipath PEC G95, L96, B98, M98, B01, W07, G08, S08, L11
simulator supports GPS-MR in allowing the explicit link- Dielectric E89, R92, E96, H98, K98, A99, M98, A00, T01, K04,
ing of GPS observables to the equipment and environment E05, F05, F06, R06, L07, J08, C09, C10, I10, K10,
Z10, R11, C12, M2, B13, S13, N14a
characteristics. More specifically, simulators have been
Antenna
used in evaluating the theoretical performance of retrieval
Isotropic R92, H98, K98, A99, M98, A00, T01, E05, F05, S08,
algorithms (Chew et al. 2013), the design of new instru- F06, J08, L08, L11, R11, C12, M12
ments, site selection, and in quantifying the observation/ Far-field E89, G95, L96, E96, B98, M98, B01, K04, R06, L07,
parameter sensitivities for data inversion (Nievinski and pattern W07, L08, C09, C10, I10, K10, Z10, B13, S13, 14a
Larson 2014b). Coupled G08
Antenna/material—empirical: G88, E95, B01, R01, B03, B08, Z09,
B11, O11
Other simulators Antenna/material/geometry—arbitrary: V92, B96, B97, B98, C00,
I05, K06
We identify three main types of GPS multipath simula- Code modulation
tions in the literature. Tracking simulators focus on the None G88, E95, G95, K98, A00, B01, B03, E05, F06, B08,
measurement/replica signal matching, often adopting J08, L08, S08?, K10, Z10, L11, O11, R11, C12,
M12, B13, N14a
arbitrary values for the reflection power, delay, phase, and Auto- E89, R92, V92, B96, E96, L96, K06, B97, B98,
Doppler. Geometrical simulators calculate the reflection correlation H98?, M98, A99, R01, T01, B01, K04, F05, I05,
delay based on a given surface geometry, receiver position, K06, R06, L07, W07, C09 , C10, I10, B11, S13,
N14a
and satellite direction, but the reflection power often
Transfer S08, G08, C09
remains empirically defined. Polarimetric simulators function
account for the polarization matching between surface and SDR M98, K06, S09, Z09
antenna responses, yielding physically based complex Hardware C00, K06, Z09
reflection coefficients. Extra
Table 1 summarizes and cites these contributions. Troposphere A00, B01, T01, B11
Abbreviations are in the format ‘‘XYYz,’’ which consists Roughness E89, K10, R11, N14a
of first-author single-character surname initial followed by Layering J08, Z10, R11, C12
two-digit publication year and an optional disambiguation Statistical V92, B96, B97, B98, K06, S08, S09, C10, B13
suffix; e.g., N14a stands for Nievinski and Nievinski and Doppler E89, V92, A94, E96, B98, M98, B01, K06, C09, S08,
S09, Z09, C10, B11, L13
Larson (2014a). When more than one related article is

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GPS Solut

available from the same author group, we list a single delays considering horizontally varying surface height. An
representative one, normally the latest or most compre- undulated model accounts additionally for changes in
hensive one. We have not included articles dealing pri- reflection phase and power dependent on the surface tan-
marily with measurement instead of simulation. We have gent and curvature, with effects such as cross-polarization,
excluded GPS-R simulators developed primarily for inco- ray focusing and spreading, caustics, etc.; an undulated
herent targets, even though they could in principle be model may account for multiple distinct yet simultaneous
modified for GPS-MR. We have also excluded coherent- reflections. Finally, a more specialized surface geometry is
target dual-replica GPS-R modes (either single- or dual- that of a spherical Earth, necessary for reflectometry from
antenna), in which code matching is done in a master/slave high-altitude platforms.
channel configuration, i.e., separately for each direct and A departure from such ray-based methods are, e.g.,
reflected signals (instead of a single matching against the parabolic equation and physical optics. These current-
composite direct-plus-reflection signal as in GPS-MR); based methods replace individual rays in favor of a con-
likewise, replica-free direct-against-reflection GPS-R has tinuous charge distribution which is integrated throughout
been excluded. We did include GPS-MR employing cor- the surface—instead of traced at reflection and diffraction
relation versus delay waveforms as observable, beyond just points—whereby every element produces a scattering field
SNR, carrier phase, and pseudorange at peak correlation. in all directions, albeit with varying weights based on its
We excluded studies of multipath properties that are not size and orientation.
commonly or directly measured by a GPS receiver, such as Often a total polarization reversal upon reflection is
line-of-sight visibility, interferometric Doppler or fading assumed for simplicity, although this is strictly valid only
rates, and interferometric power distribution, etc. In terms for a perfectly electrically conducting surface—as if
of scattering source, we excluded atmospheric multipath reflections could be suppressed by ensuring that the
(neutral or ionized layers and ducts) as well as electronic antenna will respond to RHCP only. A polarimetric simu-
components (loading mismatch) and kept in the scope lator supports dielectric materials as well, for which the
antenna installation (satellite body or ground monument) in actual reflection polarization ellipticity can be calculated
addition to the built environment, not only natural surfaces from first principles. The far-field antenna radiation pat-
(land, water, vegetation, etc.). As for the receiving platform terns can then be matched with each co- and cross-polar-
altitude, we considered from near-surface (few-meter tall) ized reflection component. There are two alternatives to
to elevated (towers, cliffs) all the way up to low-Earth this standard approach. A simpler one is the use of
orbit. empirical reflection damping factors along with the
Each type of simulator admits subtypes. For example, assumption of an isotropic antenna. A more rigorous for-
tracking simulators can neglect the code modulation; mulation accounts for the near-field coupling between an
account for the code autocorrelation function, implement- antenna and its supporting structure.
ing a time-domain discriminator function (valid for well- The applicability of each type of simulator depends on
defined discrete rays); utilize a spectral-domain transfer the scenario. For example, a geometrical simulation may be
function (more appropriate for ill-defined diffuse scatter- adequate when the propagation delay represents the dom-
ing); sample the digital intermediate-frequency signal, IF inating interferometric phase component, as is typically the
(to be input to a software-defined receiver, SDR); generate case in altimetry applications. A metal surface simulation
the analog radio frequency signal, RF (to be hardware-fed is often adequate for positioning of satellites, airplanes,
directly to a conventional receiver, bypassing the antenna); ships, cars, etc. On the other hand, a more complete
or synthesize the wave field (which then excites an actual polarimetric model becomes mandatory in interpreting the
antenna). retrieval of material composition properties, such as soil
Geometrical simulators can support different surface moisture. A polarimetric simulator is also more realistic for
shapes. Horizontal surfaces are the simplest to model. the design of antennas for positioning applications, pre-
Tilted surfaces offer more degrees of freedom to represent venting an otherwise overly optimistic performance
different orientations, though they are still infinite and assessment under the assumption of polarization reversal
planar. Finite plates offer great flexibility in modeling (Chen et al. 2012a, b).
complex surfaces, such as those found in the built envi- Sometimes one is not interested in the deterministic
ronment; in this case, the individual reflections are deter- simulation for a specific scenario, but in the central ten-
mined via ray tracing, based on hit-or-miss conditions for dency and statistical dispersion of an ensemble over
specular reflection. A faceted model is more rigorous, in varying conditions; the domain of evaluation can be any of,
that diffraction rays are accounted for in addition to e.g., reflection phase, surface height, satellite direction,
reflected ones. An irregular model extends the horizontal receiver position, etc. This integration can be derived
model piecewise, allowing the calculation of propagation analytically for simplified cases, generated synthetically

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 GPS Solut

through Monte Carlo sampling, or measured experimen- phasor_antenna_rhcp

tally through special data collection equipment. In their phasor_antenna_lhcp
turn, such statistical distributions can be fit to parametric phasor_fresnelcoeff_same
models for convenient reuse in later simulations. phasor_fresnelcoeff_cross
Whereas simulators employed for positioning purposes phasor_delay
normally assume an upright antenna, simulators for GPS- phasor_roughness
MR are typically specialized for tipped or upside-down phasor_divergence
antennas. This latter special case makes it safer to neglect phasor_nongeom
complementary polarizations, and even the detailed phasor_rhcp
antenna pattern under certain symmetry conditions. On the phasor_lhcp
other hand, many reflectometry experiments necessitate
These are generally polarization- and direction-dependent
more elaborate surface composition simulations, account-
complex-valued arrays describing the antenna radiation
ing for layering, as well as tropospheric refraction.
pattern, the surface Fresnel reflection coefficients, the
surface roughness effect, etc. at each viewing direction; for
example,
General design and usage
get_power(result.reflected.phasor_
fresnelcoeff_cross))
The software was designed following the principles
get_phase(result.reflected.phasor_
described in Kernighan and Plauger (1982). Matlab was
fresnelcoeff_same))
chosen for its outstanding plotting capabilities, adequate
decibel_phasor
programming language constructs, and widespread adop-
(result.direct.phasor_antenna_rhcp)
tion in the science and engineering fields in North America.
Support for Octave was later added, as a free/libre/open- give, respectively, the cross-polarization power reflectivity,
source alternative. the same-polarization reflection phase, and the antenna
The installation is accomplished by simply updating the RHCP gain at the satellite line of sight (in decibels).
search path to ensure the routines can be found: The simulator can be customized without modifying its
addpath(genpath(lib_dir)) source code by changing the default settings, then
where the library directory must be set as appropriate for employing these to set up the model, and finally running
the location where the simulator has been unpacked on the forward simulation:
your computer, e.g., lib_dir = 0 c:\work\m\0 for a sett = snr_settings();
Windows PC or lib_dir = 0 */m/0 for a computer setup = snr_setup (sett);
with a UNIX-like operating system; other than that, the rest result = snr_fwd (setup);
of the usage is platform-independent.
The default forward simulation (settings described Routines snr_settings() and snr_setup()
below) can be run immediately by issuing the command output matching data structures, each containing fields
snr_fwd(). It displays graphically the final multipath (namely, ant, opt, ref, sat, and sfc) about,
observables along with a textual display of the intermediate respectively, the receiving antenna, general options, refer-
results (e.g., antenna and surface responses) on the com- ence system, satellite direction, and reflecting surface. The
mand prompt. The graphical display can be suppressed, setup variable is produced automatically based on the
and the results captured by assigning the output to a return sett one.
variable, as in result = snr_fwd(); Here are some examples of this pairing. The antenna/
The code is vectorized so that multiple satellite direc- radome model is specified in sett.ant.model and
tions, as observed from the same receiving station, are sett.ant.radome (in terms of IGS rcvr_ant.tab codes,
processed in batch mode rather than sequentially; this e.g., TRM29659.00 and NONE), while the respective gain
permits automatic parallel execution in computers with pattern is provided in setup.ant.gain. The electro-
multiple processors or cores. Among the results, there are, magnetic carrier is specified in field sett.opt.
e.g., delay_interf for the interferometric delay, freq_name (in terms of GPS bands, e.g., L2), whereas
sat.elev for the satellite elevation angle, etc. For con- the respective frequency and wavelength values (in hertz
sistency, unless otherwise specified, angles are always and meters, respectively) are provided in setup.opt.
expressed in degrees and lengths/ranges/heights/delays in frequency and setup.opt.wavelength. The
meters. Subfields provide further details, such as the fol- height of the antenna above the surface is specified in
lowing ones contained in the variable reflected: sett.ref.height_ant (a scalar in meters), while

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GPS Solut

the resulting antenna phase center and antenna reference 60

point—both three-dimensional position vectors—can
be found in setup.ref.pos_apc and setup.ref. 55
pos_arp. The satellite elevation angle limits (mini-
mum and maximum values) are found in sett.sat. 50

elev_lim, while the resulting domain of individual

SNR (dB)
45
elevation angle values is given in setup.sat.elev.
Lastly, the surface properties can be specified as in, e.g., 40
sett.sfc.material (normally simply a name such
as water, copper, etc.), which translates into setup. Tipped
35 ant. aspect = 0
sfc.permittivity (a complex scalar). sat. azim. ∈ [−90, +90]
More than one hundred such settings are available for 30 Tipped
ant. aspect = sat. azim.
customization, although their default values (or empty Upright
input) are often appropriate. Routine snr_demo.m pro- 25
0 5 10 15 20 30 45 60 90
vides a 20-page tutorial, in which the program logic is Elevation angle (degrees)
explained in plain language with snippets of source code
interspersed. The principal functions—snr_settings, Fig. 2 Results for different antenna orientations and satellite align-
snr_setup, and snr_fwd—have documentation ment (coinciding with the antenna boresight or varying ±90° in
azimuth)
available via the help command, providing a list of input
and output arguments as well as a list of accepted values
(e.g., valid frequency designations). Examples

Now, we illustrate three examples in more detail. All

generating scripts are made available, so that the reader
may reproduce results in the present simulation paper as
well as in the formulation paper (Nievinski and Larson
APC 2014a).
(3):
ARP Surface materials

(2) Routine get_permittivity() is utilized internally by

Pivot snr_setup(); calling it directly with no input will
output a list of known materials, some of which allows
variable dimensional properties. For example, the variation
in real and imaginary permittivity with respect to soil
volumetric moisture can be obtained as follows:
moist_min = 0.25;
(1) moist_max = 0.75;
moist = linspace(moist_min,
moist_max)0 ;
material = struct(0 name0 ,0 soil0 ,
0
moisture0 ,moist);
perm = get_permittivity(material);

Antenna orientation

Whereas for positioning applications, the antenna is

Fig. 1 The reflector height sett.ref.height_ant, (1) in the installed upright (i.e., with boresight facing zenith), for
diagram, refers to a pivot point, the topmost position on the antenna reflectometry often it is intentionally tipped (boresight
mount that remains unchanged to rotations. There is a lever arm in
facing the horizon); see Fig. 1 for the definition of rotation-
between the pivot and the antenna itself; its length, sett.ref.-
dist_arp_pivot (2) is rotated along with the ARP-APC vector invariant points. The antenna orientation can be specified
offset (3) as per antenna orientation angles (slope, aspect, axial) with sett.ant.slope, whose value can be textual

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 GPS Solut

(upright, tipped, upside-down) or numerical an upright configuration. Given irregularly spaced gain
(respectively, 0°, 90°, 180° or any other real number). values, we fit a set of spherical harmonics (only zonal and
When the slope angle is nonzero, the azimuth faced by first-order tesseral harmonics, as sectorial ones are ill-
the antenna boresight can be specified in sett.ant. determined from a single PPC). The resulting coefficients
aspect (north, south, etc., or a number, 0, 180, can then be evaluated to tabulate the gain over a regularly
etc.). These scalar value antenna angles can be combined spaced grid for subsequent faster interpolation. This pre-
with the arrays of satellite angles, to simulate a satellite processing can optionally be saved to disk for later reuse.
crossing boresight as it rises or sets (see Fig. 2): We sought to provide patterns for a number of antenna
models used in GPS networks, which allows comparing
sett0 = snr_settings();
their suitability for positioning and reflectometry applica-
sett0.sat.elev_lim = [0 90];
tions. PPCs for new antennas can be incorporated as files
sett1 = sett0;
with names such as LEIAR25__NONE__L1__LHCP__
sett1.ant.slope = ’upright’;
GAIN.DAT; one file for each combination of antenna
sett2 = sett1;
model (LEIAR25, TRM41249.00, etc.), radome
sett2.ant.slope = ’tipped’;
(NONE, SCIT), carrier frequency designation (L1, L2),
sett3 = sett2; sett3.sat.azim_lim = [-
polarization (RHCP, LHCP), and radiation component
90 90];
(gain, phase).
Finally, sett.ant.axial specifies one last rotation,
around the antenna axis; usually it has a less dramatic Code losses
effect, because typical GPS antennas are nearly omnidi-
rectional (axially uniform) albeit close to hemispherical The P(Y) code, in both L1 and L2 frequencies, requires
(large front-to-back ratio). (semi-)codeless tracking of the encrypted Y code when
employing civilian receivers. Woo (2000) reports system-
Antenna gain pattern atic losses, inversely proportional to SNR. These affect
primarily the SNR trend but also its oscillating fringes to
The antenna gain pattern is normally made available as a some extent. We have developed an empirical calibration
principal plane cut (PPC), vertically across the antenna curve based on simultaneously measured L2-P(Y) and L2C
axis. This offers some information about the axial asym- SNR (see Fig. 3); such calibrations are receiver-dependent.
metry in the antenna horizontal plane, e.g., north–south in The C/A is a shorter code, thus it is susceptible to cross-
correlation errors, e.g., a high-power, high-elevation angle
satellite creating spurious correlations when tracking a
55
L2C low-power rising or setting satellite. The issue seems to be
P(Y) exacerbated by small Doppler differences between satel-
50
lites, see Lestarquit and Nouvel (2012) and the references
45 therein. Compared to P(Y), the C/A tracking losses have a
40
more random and less predictable behavior. Although the
SNR (dB)

times of occurrence might be determined by the orbits of

35 the GPS satellites simultaneously in view, the magnitude of
the losses is less certain, e.g., certain specific PRNs are
30
known to be more vulnerable than others. C/A losses are
25 not currently contemplated in the simulator.
20
Extensions
15
0 5 10 15 20 30 45 60 90 The theoretical forward model and its software imple-
Elevation angle (degrees) mentation in Matlab/Octave could be extended in a number
Fig. 3 SNR simulations for the same carrier frequency (L2) and
of ways. As a practical matter, users would benefit from
receiving antenna (TRM29659.00) but different code modulations. gain patterns for additional antennas as well as P(Y) SNR
Inset measured discrepancy between SNR of L2-P(Y) and of L2C, loss calibrations for additional receivers. Technical aspects
versus SNR of L2C; based on observations collected simultaneously would entail the support for additional carrier frequencies
for both codes at 10-s intervals during a full day (24 Mar 2009) at a
fixed station (receiver Trimble NetRS, station P041 of the Plate
(e.g., L5) and modulations (e.g., BOC), for GPS and other
Boundary Observatory, http://pbo.unavco.org) for all block IIR-M GNSS as well; and different formulations for nonidealized
satellites active at the time (PRNs 7, 12, 15, 17, 29, and 31) SNR estimators (Falletti et al. 2011). Polarimetric phase

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GPS Solut

patterns are currently not made available by the antenna Brodin G, Daly P (1997) GNSS code and carrier tracking in the
manufacturing companies; their future inclusion should presence of multipath. Int J Satell Commun 15:25–34. doi:10.
1002/(SICI)1099-1247(199701)15:1\25:AID-SAT565[3.0.
contemplate the effect of antenna orientations: although CO;2-F
circular polarization magnitude components are invariant Byun SH, Hajj GA, Young LE (2002) Development and application
under rotations, phases are not. of GPS signal multipath simulator. Radio Sci 37:1098. doi:10.
Some physical effects that are currently neglected 1029/2001RS002549
Cardellach E, Fabra F, Rius A, Pettinato S, D’Addio S (2012)
deserve more consideration. These include the interfero- Characterization of dry-snow sub-structure using GNSS reflected
metric Doppler accumulated in dynamic scenarios such as signals. Remote Sens Environ 124:122–134. doi:10.1016/j.rse.
in tidal waters (Larson et al. 2013), media layering with 2012.05.012
rough interfaces (not just rough top; Pinel et al. 2010; Chen A, Chabory A, Escher A, Macabiau C (2009) Development of a
GPS deterministic multipath simulator for an efficient compu-
Tabatabaeenejad et al. 2013), coherent volumetric scatter- tation of the positioning errors. In: Proc ION GNSS. Institute of
ing (Cloude 2009), tropospheric refraction (both in angle of Navigation, Savannah, GA, pp 2378–2390
arrival and in the ranging delay), and nonhorizontal surface Chen A, Chabory A, Escher A, Macabiau C (2010) Hybrid
geometry—tilted (though still planar) surfaces as well as deterministic-statistical GPS multipath simulator for airport
navigation. In: Bonefačić D, Bosiljevac M (eds) IECom—20th
large-scale undulations (with potentially multiple simulta- Int. Conf. Appl. Electromagn. Commun, Dubrovnik, Croatia,
neous reflections). pp 3–6
It is hoped that this simulator may foster the cross-fer- Chen C-C, Gao S, Maqsood M (2012a) Antennas for Global
tilization across the positioning and reflectometry fields, Navigation Satellite System Receivers. In: Imbriale WA, Gao
S, Boccia L (eds) Space Antenna Handbook. Wiley, pp 548–595
such that developments in multipath mitigation may be Chen X, Parini CG, Collins B, Yao Y, Ur Rehman M (2012b)
leveraged for multipath exploitation, and vice versa. Antennas for global navigation satellite systems. Wiley, p 232
Chew CC, Small EE, Larson KM, Zavorotny VU (2013) Effects of
Acknowledgments This research was supported by NSF (EAR Near-Surface Soil Moisture on GPS SNR Data: Development of
0948957, AGS 0935725). Mr. Nievinski has been supported by a a Retrieval Algorithm for Soil Moisture. IEEE Trans Geosci
Capes/Fulbright Graduate Student Fellowship (1834/07-0) and a Remote Sens 1–7. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2013.2242332
NASA Earth System Science Research Fellowship (NNX11AL50H). Cloude S (2009) Polarisation: applications in remote sensing. Oxford
Cox DT, Shallberg KW, Manz A (2000) Definition and analysis of
WAAS receiver multipath error envelopes. Navigation
46:271–282
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Felipe G. Nievinski received Kristine M. Larson received

the B.E. degree in geomatics the B.A. degree in engineering
from Universidade Federal do sciences from Harvard Univer-
Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), sity, Cambridge, MA, USA, in
Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2005; 1985 and the Ph.D. degree in
the M.Sc.E. degree in geodesy geophysics from the Scripps
from the University of New Institution of Oceanography,
Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, University of California at San
Canada, in 2009; and the Ph.D. Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA, in
degree in aerospace engineering 1990. She is a professor of
sciences from the University of aerospace engineering sciences
Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, with the University of Colorado
USA, in 2013. He is a Postdoc- Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA.
toral Researcher with Univer- Her current research focuses on
sidade Estadual Paulista ‘‘Júlio GPS reflections.
de Mesquita Filho’’ (UNESP), Presidente Prudente, Brazil, where he
works in the field of GPS multipath reflectometry.

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