Journal of Asian Concrete Federation

Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 24-37, June. 2021

ISSN 2465-7964 / eISSN 2465-7972
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.18702/acf.2021.06.7.1.24
Assessment of a fire damaged reinforced concrete building
Arup Ghatak, P N Ojha, Brijesh Singh*, Abhishek Singh, TVG Reddy, B N Mohapatra

(Received Feburary 19, 2021; Accepted May 24, 2021; Published online June 30, 2021)

Abstract: A proper condition assessment of reinforced concrete structure after a fire event involves field and la-
boratory work to determine the extent of fire in order to design an appropriate and cost effective repair scheme. The
present paper presents a case study where an attempt has been made to carry out a condition assessment of a fire
damaged building in a systematic manner. The approach adopted broadly consisted of questioning of on-site per-
sonnel, a detailed visual survey, on-site non-destructive / partially-destructive tests, collection of in-situ samples
from site along with some laboratory based investigations on samples collected from site. Differential Thermal
Analysis (DTA), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Imaging were con-
ducted for microstructural characterization and analysis of concrete to correlate, corroborate and validate the results
obtained through on-site assessment. Since the building was an old structure, carbonation depth in structural mem-
bers was also evaluated. Finally, based on the visual inspections indicating the condition of surface and structural
elements such as spalling, exposure and condition of reinforcement, cracks, honeycombing etc. along with Non-
Destructive Test / Laboratory test results, the repair methodology of structural members are presented.

Keywords: Fire, Reinforced Concrete, Condition Assessment, Repair

1. Introduction and physical properties that may result in undesirable

structural failures. The effect of fire on concrete is
Damage to buildings due to fire can potentially significantly influenced by coarse aggregate types.
be a significant detriment to the structural safety and Siliceous aggregate concrete retains approximately
serviceability of the building. Some catastrophic fail- half its capacity at 650oC, whereas carbonate and
ures have occurred in recent times on account of light weight aggregate concrete exhibit near full ca-
damage caused due to breakout and the spread of fire. pacity at 650oC [1,2]. The thermal protection of re-
With the future trend in building construction being inforcing steel is critical; testing indicates that bars
more inclined towards high rise buildings, the possi- heated beyond 500ºC lose significant amounts of
bility of damage due to fires is likely to increase. In yield strength and ultimate strength [1,2]. Reinforced
a large number of cases, concrete buildings are capa- concrete (RC) structures damaged due to fire require
ble of being repaired rather than demolished even af- damage assessment, evaluation and repair. There are
ter exposure to a severe fire which can lead to signif- several techniques and tools available for the struc-
icant cost savings as compared to going in for dem- tural health assessment of structures. This process in-
olition and reconstruction. This is because concrete cludes a comprehensive evaluation consisting of vis-
generally performs well under exposure to fire and is ual inspection, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) and
a poor conductor of heat. Due to heterogeneous na- laboratory testing to evaluate the extent of damage
ture of concrete, each material present in it interacts and the level of temperature to which the structural
differently at elevated temperature; hence the prop- elements have been exposed. The objective of the
erties of concrete as a whole may change radically evaluation shall be to identify the type and extent of
when exposed to fire. There are changes in chemical fire damage along with evaluating any changes in the
physical or material properties in the reinforcing
*Corresponding author Brijesh Singh is a Group Manager steel and concrete. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
at National Council for Cement and Building Materials, India
Arup Ghatak is a Manager at National Council for Cement
test, a NDT method, is widely used for the evaluation
and Building Materials, India of the quality of a concrete structure. The UPV meas-
P N Ojha is a Joint director & Head-CDR at National Council urements made on a structure will provide a qualita-
for Cement and Building Materials, India tive estimation of the damaged members with the un-
Abhishek Singh is a Project Engineer at National Council for damaged ones [3, 4]. Cioni et al. [5] used thermo-
Cement and Building Materials, India
T V G Reddy is Ex. General Manager at National Council for mechanical and microstructural analysis of RC ele-
Cement and Building Materials, India ments along with UPV Method for assessment of fire
B N Mohapatra is Director General at National Council for damaged RC structural elements. From the identified
Cement and Building Materials, India

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 24

damaged zones, cores can be drilled for further in- structures. The condition assessment broadly in-
vestigation in the laboratory. Wei–Ming Lin studied volved the following stages:
the microstructure of fire damaged concrete samples
using Scanning Electron Microscope and a stereo Collection of data and records
microscope to estimate the temperature [6]. Short in-
vestigated concrete core samples to estimate the tem- All data available regarding the building was
perature and also the depth of damage using color collected. Visual inspection and questioning of on-
image analysis [7]. Optical microscopy has been site staff was done to gather data as neither structural
used to determine the depth of damage based on the drawings, structural/design details nor were any rec-
crack density measurements by Georgali et al. [8] ords available about the materials used for construc-
The investigation using methods mentioned above tion.
are conducted in the laboratory on samples collected
from the fire damaged structure. Visual survey
The evaluation determines the nature and extent
of the fire damage and whether repairs are required. A detailed visual survey of the building was car-
This process involves (1) determining when to ob- ried out. This involved recording details of visual in-
serve the fire damaged structure (both before and af- spection and distress mapping is done on: (a) non-
ter cleaning), (2) how to evaluate the post fire condi- structural parts and other elements, not part of the
tions (visually, non-destructively, or destructively), moment resisting frame, (b) RC member elements of
and (3) assessing the structure to determine what, if the moment resisting frame. (c) Change in colour of
any, repairs are required [9, 10]. The three stages of concrete due to exposure to elevated temperature.
evaluation are visual assessment, NDT and partially- Observations on the non-structural components were
destructive testing. These evaluations, combined important from the point of view of getting an idea
with engineering analysis, allow effective and eco- about the level of temperature the surroundings of
nomical repair details to be developed and executed the RC members were exposed to.
as needed [11, 12]. RC structure which is damaged
due to fire can be rehabilitated and strengthened by Field tests
using various retrofitting methods. Different struc-
tural and non-structural members of fire damaged Non-destructive test such as UPV measure-
structure are subjected to different repair mecha- ments on concrete for a comparative assessment,
nisms depending upon extent of damages. For exam- concrete cover measurement using electromagnetic
ple, strengthening of fire damaged RC beams and cover meter, measurement of depth of carbonation
columns with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets front using phenolphthalein indicator solution were
[13, 14] and the use of near-surface mounted carbon conducted. In-situ samples of concrete and reinforce-
FRP rods [15] for the repair of damaged slabs are ment were also collected for visual inspection and
some of the most popular retrofitting methods now- further laboratory investigation. Locations of the
adays. They are sufficiently effective to restore the building undamaged by fire and samples collected
structural functions of the damaged structural com- from such locations were treated as control loca-
ponents. In this study, post fire assessment of a RC tions/samples in this investigation.
multi-storey building was conducted through visual
survey, different field investigations and several la- Laboratory investigations
boratory investigations on samples collected from
the fire damaged structure. This involved carrying out laboratory tests on
the samples collected from site. Equivalent cube
2. Experimental program adopted for post compressive strength of concrete was evaluated by
fire assessment extracting concrete core samples from various loca-
tions. Concrete cores of 60 mm diameter were ex-
Condition assessment of an existing building ir- tracted for evaluation of compressive strength, as the
respective of the cause of damage broadly involves maximum size of coarse aggregates as observed vis-
collection of data and records, a detailed visual sur- ually was found to be about 20 mm. The cores ex-
vey, on-site non-destructive/partially-destructive tracted were of sufficient length ranging from 180
tests, some laboratory based investigations on sam- mm to 200 mm so as to divide them into two parts.
ples collected from site, etc. In the present case, the After the core preparation for the compressive
post fire assessment of the fire damaged portion of strength test, the length of the concrete core was kept
an RC building was carried out in a detailed manner in such a manner that L/D (aspect ratio) was between
similar to past studies done on fire damaged concrete 1 & 2 and cores were tested as per procedure given

25 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

in Indian Standard IS: 516. The outer part represent- housing the service pipelines. The fire lasted for
ing the portion where the effect of exposure to ele- around 2 hours on the 2nd floor level till the times it
vated temperature due to fire was likely to be more was doused. The fire on the 3rd and 4th floor levels
significant as compared to the inner part. The two was controlled well within time due to which the ef-
parts were tested separately for evaluation of com- fect of fire on these floors was negligible. Due to dif-
pressive strength. Supplementary laboratory investi- ficulty in accessing the 5th floor, the fire in this floor
gations such as Differential Thermal Analysis could not be doused before significant damage was
(DTA), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis and caused by the spread of fire to this floor. The total
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Imaging were duration of exposure to fire in the affected floors was
conducted for microstructural characterization & around 2 hours.
analysis of concrete to support, correlate and validate
the results obtained through on-site assessment. Visual survey
Samples of reinforcement steel were also taken from
locations affected and unaffected by fire to do a com- 3.2.1 Non-structural parts and elements
parative study and assess the deterioration in me- not part of the moment resisting rein-
chanical properties of steel, if any.
forced concrete frame
Classification of damages and recom- Charring of the wooden door frames, furniture
mendations for repair and rehabilitation and deposition of soot was found in almost all the
rooms of the fire affected portion of the building. De-
Best on the results of the investigations done, formation of glass in doors and windows at locations
conclusions regarding the feasibility of repair were close to the point where fire was first detected and
arrived at. The damages to concrete were designated where duration of exposure to fire was relatively
into various damage classes. A detailed location wise more in comparison to other locations (Fig. 1). Soda
survey of the fire damaged portion of building was lime-silica glass, material with which the window
done to categorize each location into the designated glasses are usually made of, is known to start de-
damage classes and accordingly for each class of forming at a temperature ~ 580 ℃ which indicates
damage, recommendations on measures to be taken that the ambient temperature in these areas had prob-
for repair and rehabilitation were given. ably breached that mark. Localized softening and
partial melting of aluminum in door frames in the vi-
3. Post fire condition assessment cinity of room where the fire was first detected was
Collection of data related to the building noticed (Fig. 2). The melting point of aluminum is
known to be about 660.3 oC, which indicates that the
No documents or drawings other than a basic external temperature had probably breached this
plan view of the arrangement of rooms on the floors mark at some locations. Rubber hose pipe of fire hy-
was available. No details regarding the structural de- drant at 5th floor level near the staircase entrance
sign or mix design of concrete were available. Fol- (opposite to the end where fire was first detected)
lowing information was obtained through visual in- had completely melted (Fig. 3). Rubber is known to
spection and questioning of on-site personnel: The melt at a temperature of around 180 oC, indicating
building under investigation was a RC moment re- that temperature in this region had breached this
sisting frame system having basement with 6 floors level. The foam concrete blocks of the internal walls
above it (B+G+5). The non-structural internal walls in the corridor and the partition walls of the rooms
of corridor and internal partition walls between the showed excessive cracking and damage (Fig. 4),
rooms were made of foam concrete blocks. The ceil- some of which had become loose. Spalling of the
ing slab consisted of alternating rows of hollow con- ceiling plaster, the plaster on the beams and columns
crete blocks and RC cross beam with the main floor as well as plaster on the walls was noticed at many
slab being above these. False ceilings were also pre- locations in 2nd and 5th floors (Fig. 5). The hollow
sent in each of the floors and the floors were centrally concrete blocks of the ceiling were damaged at some
air conditioned. The year of construction of the locations and some of these had become dislodged
building was around late 1950s. The fire took place and loose due to disruption of the bond between the
at the second floor of the building and was first de- blocks and the adjoining concrete of the RC portion
tected in room no.2104. It had caused charring of fur- (i.e., the cross beams) at the joints between the two
niture and services. The fire spread to the floors (Fig. 6).
above through shaft provided inside the rooms for

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 26

 Fig. 1 – Deformation of glass in Fig. 2 – Localized softening and Fig. 3 – Melting of Rubber hose
doors and windows partial melting of Alumi- pipe of fire hydrant
num

Fig. 4 – Excessive cracking and Fig. 5 – Spalling of ceiling plas- Fig. 6 – Damaged hollow con-
damage in foam concrete ter crete blocks of the ceil-
blocks ing

3.2.2 Damage to concrete of the reinforced where cover to bottom steel was found to be very less
concrete members i.e. in the range of 5 to 10 mm as observed visually.
Reduction in diameter of the rebar due to corrosion
Spalling of concrete in the bottom edges of the in the range of about 40-50% along the length of the
main longitudinal ceiling beams was observed at reinforcement bars was observed. Overall, the dam-
some locations close to the room where fire was first age visible on concrete of the columns was found to
spotted (Fig. 7). Delamination of cover concrete in be less that that observed on the ceiling beams. No
the cross beams (where cover was less) was observed noticeable residual deflections at the member level
mostly in locations close to the room where fire was or deformations in the exposed reinforcement bars
first detected (Fig. 8). Spalling of concrete due to (other than reduction in diameter at few locations
corrosion (Fig. 9) was also observed in some of the due to corrosion damage) of the RC members were
cross beams of the ceiling near the expansion joints observed anywhere.

Fig.7 – Spalling of concrete in Fig.8 – Delamination of cover Fig.9 – Spalling of concrete due
bottom edges of the main concrete in the cross to corrosion
longitudinal ceiling beams
beams

27 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

3.2.3 Observations on change in colour of was found in some of the beams and columns close
concrete to the room where fire was first detected (Fig. 11).
The depth up to which change in colour of concrete
When concrete gets heated to elevated temper- had occurred was also noted on the extracted con-
atures, a gradual change in colour of the concrete oc- crete cores. At locations close to the room where fire
curs depending on the temperature range it is ex- was first detected and duration to exposure to fire
posed to Fib Bulletin 46 (July 2008) [16] gives guid- was more, the maximum depth up to which change
ance regarding the probable colour change in con- in colour of concrete had occurred was found to be
crete depending on the exposure to elevated temper- about 30-40 mm (Fig. 12). At other locations the col-
atures (Fig. 10). Change in colour of concrete to pink our change was visible only up to about 20 mm depth.

Fig.10 – Colour changes in heated Fig.11 – Change in colour of con- Fig.12 – Change in colour of con-
concrete (fib 2008) crete to pink crete at locations close to
the room where fire was
first detected

Field Tests occupied and operational during the process of field

investigation, hence UPV measurements could only
3.3.1 UPV Test be taken by surface probing on these floors. The dis-
tribution of UPV values obtained by surface probing
IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1): 2018 [17] gives guide- is shown in Table 2. As most of the UPV values in-
lines for characterizing the quality of concrete in dicated ‘Doubtful’ concrete quality grading, UPV
structures in terms of UPV (Table 1). Out of the nine measurements were also taken by cross probing tech-
locations tested by cross probing technique in the fire nique using 150 kHz transducers on some of the ex-
damaged floors, the quality grading of concrete was tracted concrete cores taken from the fire damaged
found to be doubtful in eight locations and poor in floors. The results indicated that the UPV values near
one isolated case (Table 2). It was also seen that the the surface region of concrete, where colour change
average UPV values for beams obtained by cross was visible and the effect of exposure to elevated
probing in the fire damaged floors were somewhat temperatures was likely to be more, typically had
lower than that obtained on the corresponding col- lower UPV values as compared to the concrete in the
umns at the same location. The floors where effect of inner regions (Table 3).
fire was negligible (3rd & 4th floors) were already
Table 1 – Guidelines for characterizing quality of concrete in terms of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Average Value of Pulse Velocity by Cross Probing
S. No Concrete Quality Grading
(km/s)
1 >4.40 Excellent
2 3.75-4.40 Good
3 3.00-3.75 Doubtful*
4 <3.0 Poor
* In case of ‘Doubtful’ Quality, it may be necessary to carry out further tests

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 28

Table 2 – Distribution of UPV values of concrete
Average Value of By cross probing on the By surface probing in By surface probing in floors where
Pulse Velocity Fire damaged floors Fire Damaged Floors effect of fire was negligible
< 3 Km/s 1 5 2
3 - 3.75 Km/s 8 1 1
> 3.75 Km/s - 1 1

Table 3 – UPV values on extracted concrete cores

Depth UPV values by cross probing on concrete core extracted UPV value by cross probing on concrete
from ceiling beam of 5th floor core extracted from column of 5th floor
20 3.30 3.39
40 3.49 3.41
60 4.20 3.70
80 4.55 3.70
100 4.35 3.97
120 4.51 4.73

3.3.2 Concrete cover study Phenolphthalein indicator solution was sprayed

onto the concrete cores immediately after extraction
Measurement of thickness of concrete cover to measure the depth of carbonation front. The phe-
was done using an electromagnetic cover meter. The nolphthalein indicator solution used for measuring
measured values of concrete cover were compared the depth of carbonation front detects reduction in
with specified values given in IS 456: 2000 [18] pH (which happens due to consumption of Ca(OH)2.
(Plain and Reinforced Concrete – Code of Practice) As Ca(OH)2 also dissociates at elevated temperatures,
which gives the requirement of nominal cover re- absence of colour on spraying the freshly cut con-
quired to meet the specified period of fire resistance. crete cores with phenolphthalein does not neces-
Cover to the outermost bar was found to be less than sarily indicate consumption of Ca(OH)2 due to the
the requirement of nominal cover required for fire normal carbonation reaction. Overall, the depth of
resistance period of 2 hours in 8 out of the 15 loca- ‘carbonation front’ was found to exceed the concrete
tions (Table 4). cover in 4 out of 17 locations tested (Table 4). In 3rd
and 4th floor levels (which were more or less unaf-
3.3.3 Measurement of Depth of carbona- fected by fire), the depth of carbonation front was
tion front found to vary from 7 to 9 mm.

Table 4 – Average cover and carbonation depth at various locations

Sl. Location Avg. Cover to outermost bar Meeting nominal cover Carbonation Depth
No. (mm) for fire resistance as per (mm) Measured on
Table 16A of IS 456: cores of front/side face
2000
1 5th Floor Column 51 Yes 9
2 5th Floor Corridor ceiling beam Bottom face: 30, Side face: 15 No 15
3 5th Floor Ceiling Beam Bottom Face: 25，Side face: 29 No 30
4 5th Floor Column 25 No 7
5 5th Floor column Front Face: 40, Side face: 24 No 15
6 5th floor ceiling beam Side Face:17 No 30
7 2nd floor column 52 Yes 8
8 2nd Floor Column 35 No 8
9 2nd Floor Ceiling Beam 39 Yes 18
10 2nd Floor Column 44 Yes 9
11 2nd Floor Ceiling beam 34 Yes 20
12 2nd Floor Ceiling beam 46 Yes 12
13 3rd Floor corridor column 68 Yes 8
14 3rd Floor Corridor Column 34 No 7
15 4th Floor corridor column 38 No 9

29 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

3.3.4 Concrete core extraction and testing of the core. Higher strength of outer part at some lo-
cations may be on account of formation of calcium
In order to ascertain the effect of fire damage, if carbonate due to carbonation of concrete and in some
any, on the strength of concrete, cores which were of measure due to densification at microscopic level as
sufficient length were divided into two halves and a result melting of certain components which then
the outer half (which represents the portion likely to subsequently fill the pores. Strength of the cores ex-
be affected by exposure to elevated temperatures due tracted from the vicinity of the room where fire was
to fire) and the inner half (which represents the core first detected is found to be relatively lower com-
concrete of the concerned structural members, on pared to other locations. However, it cannot be con-
which the effect of exposure of the concrete member clusively said that this reduced strength is due the ef-
to elevated temperatures due to fire is likely to be fect of fire as no significant reduction in strength of
much less) were tested separately. outer part of core as compared to the inner part is
All the cores were found to meet the require- seen.
ment of concrete with minimum compressive Laboratory investigations
strength of 15 MPa. Most of the cores were also
found to meet the requirement of concrete with min- 3.4.1 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
imum compressive strength of 20 MPa (few cores
taken from 2nd floor columns and one core taken The most widely used thermal method of anal-
from 5th floor ceiling beams did not meet the re- ysis is DTA. In DTA, the temperature of a sample is
quirement of 20 MPa compressive strength). It was compared with that of an inert reference material
seen that at most of the locations, the strength of the during a programmed change of temperature. The
outer part of the concrete cores extracted from the temperature should be the same until thermal event
RC members of the floors affected by fire is not occurs, such as melting, decomposition or change in
found to be lower than the strength of the inner part the crystal structure.

Fig.13 – Extraction of concrete core from column Fig.14 – Demarcation of concrete core into two
of fire damaged floor parts (A & B) for separate testing of outer
and inner part

If an endothermic event takes place within the components will be absent on the DTA curve. Peaks
sample, the temperature of the sample will lag be- corresponding to decomposition of carbonates were
hind that of the reference and a minimum will be ob- observed in all of the DTA curves. This indicates that
served on the curve. On the contrary, if an exother- the exposure temperature of concrete did not breach
mal event takes place, then the temperature of the the 7000C mark in any portion of the RC members.
sample will exceed that of the reference and a maxi- For 3rd floor, where effect of fire was negligible, peak
mum will be observed on the curve. The area under due to dissociation of Ca(OH)2 was absent in the
the endotherm or exotherm is related to the enthalpy DTA curve at 0-5 mm depth whereas it was present
of the thermal event, ΔH. Peaks can be observed in in the DTA curves at greater depths. This indicates
the DTA curve whenever an exothermic or endother- that at 0-5 mm depth, the peak was absent because of
mic event takes place. In order to carry out DTA, carbonation of concrete (measured depth of carbon-
concrete powder samples were obtained at various ation front was found to be about 7 mm) and not due
ranges of depths from the outer concrete surface. to exposure to elevated temperatures due to fire (Fig.
Ca(OH)2 is known to dissociate at around 4500C- 15 & 16). As carbonation had not progressed beyond
5500C whereas carbonates decompose at tempera- this depth, the peaks corresponding to dissociation of
ture range of about 7000C-9000C. In concrete already Ca(OH)2 were present in the DTA curves at greater
exposed to such elevated temperatures, the endother- depths. For 2nd floor column, peak corresponding to
mic peaks corresponding to disassociation of these dissociation of Ca(OH)2 were absent in the DTA

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 30

curves up to 19 mm depth whereas the peaks were some of the ceiling beams, peak corresponding to
present in the DTA curves at greater depths (Fig. 17 dissociation of Ca(OH)2 were absent up to 30-40 mm
& 18). This indicates that the absence of Ca(OH)2 depth whereas they were present at greater depths.
dissociation peak up to 19 mm depth is due to expo- Depth of colour change to pink was also observed up
sure to elevated temperature due to fire whereas at to 30-40 mm depth on the extracted concrete cores.
greater depths the peaks are present as the exposure This again indicates that the peaks were absent due
temperature was at a much lower level. Same was to exposure to elevated temperatures due to fire
also seen from the depth of the colour change to pink whereas at greater depths the peaks were present as
as observed on the extracted concrete cores. For the exposure temperature was at a much lower level.

Fig. 15 – DTA curve for 3rd floor corridor column Fig.16 – DTA curve for 3rd floor corridor column
(unaffected by fire) at 0-5 mm depth (unaffected by fire) at 7-12 mm depth
wherein peak due to decomposition of wherein peak due to decomposition of
Ca(OH)2 is absent – due to carbonation Ca(OH)2 is present

Fig.17 – DTA curve for 2nd floor column outside Fig.18 – DTA curve for 2nd floor column outside
room where fire was first spotted at 14-19 room where fire was first spotted at 21-26
mm depth mm depth

3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy solid specimens. The signals that derive from elec-
(SEM) imaging tron-sample interactions reveal information about
the sample including external morphology (texture),
Scanning electron microscopy is a technique for chemical composition, and crystalline structure and
achieving high resolution images of surfaces. It in- orientation of materials making up the sample. In
volves scanning a fine beam of electrons over a spec- most applications, data are collected over a selected
imen and detecting the signals which are emitted. area of the surface of the sample, and a 2-dimen-
The SEM uses a focused beam of high-energy elec- sional image is generated that displays spatial varia-
trons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of tions in these properties. Areas ranging from approx-
imately 1 cm to 5 microns in width can be imaged in

31 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

a scanning mode using conventional SEM tech- mm depth (Fig. 21) and the microstructure is also
niques (magnification ranging from 20X to approxi- found to be relatively less dense. In 21-26 mm depth,
mately 30,000 X, spatial resolution of 50 to 100 nm). portlandite is found (Fig. 22). No major sized voids
SEM imaging enables one to view the microstructure are found in this depth and the microstructure is
of concrete samples at different depths at very high found to be relatively denser. In SEM micrographs
magnifications levels and also assess the presence or of samples taken from one of the fifth ceiling beams,
absence of portlandite crystals which appear in the the microstructure is found to be less densified up to
form of hexagonal plate like structures in the SEM a depth of 30-40 mm from the surface with presence
micrographs. The effect of exposure to high temper- of micro cracks and clustered micro pores with irreg-
atures on the microstructure can be analyzed by ob- ular shape. Hexagonal morphology is also found to
serving the SEM micrographs at different depth lev- be absent up to this depth in the SEM micrographs.
els. Exposure to high temperature is likely to cause At 40-50 mm depth from the surface, the microstruc-
the microstructure to become relatively loose and re- ture is found to be relatively denser as compared to
sult in the appearance of higher pore sizes and mi- the other samples and number of micro cracks at this
crocracks. In samples taken from third floor column, depth is also found to be fewer in number as com-
the SEM images indicate that in depth range of 0-5 pared to the other samples. The depth up to which
mm (Fig. 19), negligible portlandite is seen in the concrete was found to be affected as indicated by the
SEM micrographs, whereas presence of portlandite DTA results was generally in agreement with the ap-
in the form hexagonal plate like morphology is pearance of microstructure at various depths as indi-
clearly seen in 7-12 mm depth (Fig. 20) which cor- cated by the SEM micrographs.
relates with the DTA results. In samples taken from
2nd floor column, no portlandite is seen up to 14-19

Fig.19 – SEM images of samples from 3rd floor Fig.20 – SEM images of samples from 3rd floor col-
column, from in depth range of 0-5 mm. umn, from in depth range of 7-12 mm Hex-
Hexagonal morphology is absent. Micro- agonal morphology is absent. Microstruc-
structure found to be relatively less densi- ture found to be relatively less densified
fied and porous and porous

3.4.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis concentrate, and directed toward the sample. The in-
teraction of the incident rays with the sample pro-
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid ana- duces constructive interference (and a diffracted ray)
lytical technique primarily used for phase identifica- when conditions satisfy Bragg's Law (nλ=2d sin θ).
tion of a crystalline material and can provide infor- This law relates the wavelength of electromagnetic
mation on unit cell dimensions. The analyzed mate- radiation to the diffraction angle and the lattice spac-
rial is finely ground, homogenized, and average bulk ing in a crystalline sample. These diffracted X-rays
composition is determined. Crystalline substances are then detected, processed and counted. By scan-
act as three-dimensional diffraction gratings for X- ning the sample through a range of 2θ angles, all pos-
ray wavelengths similar to the spacing of planes in a sible diffraction directions of the lattice should be at-
crystal lattice. XRD is now a common technique for tained due to the random orientation of the powdered
the study of crystal structures and atomic spacing. material. Conversion of the diffraction peaks to d-
XRD is based on constructive interference of mono- spacings allows identification of the mineral because
chromatic X-rays and a crystalline sample. These X- each mineral has a set of unique d-spacings. Typi-
rays are generated by a cathode ray tube, filtered to cally, this is achieved by comparison of d-spacings
produce monochromatic radiation, collimated to with standard reference patterns.

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 32

 Fig.21 – SEM images of samples from 2nd floor Fig.22 – SEM images of samples from 2nd floor
column, from depth range of 14-19 mm column, from depth range of 21-26 mm
depth. Presence of hexagonal morphology depth. Hexagonal morphology is absent.
indicating the probable presence of port- Microstructure found to be less densified
landite with presence of micro pores and micro
cracks

In the present study, slices at varying depths tern corresponding to portlandite in minor abun-
from the extracted concrete cores were obtained by dance are seen in sample of C48 where is in samples
sawing. The mortar/paste portion was then ground to of C24 and C4, they are absent. In samples taken
powder form and the evaluation of powdered sam- from 14-19 mm depth (Fig. 25), calcite (CaCO3) is
ples was carried out using XRD technique. In all the found to be in relatively major abundance in sample
samples across various depths, quartz is found to be taken from C24 whereas peak corresponding to port-
in predominant abundance. This is due to presence landite is absent. On the other hand, peaks indicating
of fine aggregate of the mortar portion which is dif- portlandite in minor abundance are seen XRD pat-
ficult to separate. In samples of 0-5 mm depth (Fig. tern of C48 & C4 in this depth. In 21-26 mm depth
23), portlandite is found to be absent in samples (Fig. 26), peaks indicating portlandite in minor abun-
taken from C48 (3rd Floor column), C24 (2nd floor dance are seen in samples taken from C48, C4 as
column) and C4 (5th floor column). In samples taken well as C24. It is seen that the results of XRD analy-
from 7-12 mm depth (Fig. 24), peaks in the XRD pat- sis are in accordance with the results of DTA and
SEM.

Fig. 23 – XRD images of samples from C48 (3rd floor Fig.24 – XRD images of samples from C48 (3rd floor
column), C24 (2nd floor column) and C4 (5th column), C24 (2nd floor column) and C4 (5th
floor column) from in depth range of 0-5 floor column) from in depth range of 7-12
mm mm

33 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

 Fig 25 – XRD images of samples from C48 (3rd floor Fig 26 – XRD images of samples from C48 (3rd Floor
column), C24 (2nd floor column) and C4 (5th column) from depth range of 21-26 mm
floor column) from depth range of 14-19 depth
mm depth

Fig 27 – XRD images of samples from C4 (5th floor Fig 28 – XRD images of samples from C24 (2nd floor
column) from depth range of 21-26 mm column) from depth range of 21-26 mm
depth depth

3.4.4 Optical Microscopy (OM) analysis and at the interface of aggregate and cement mortar
(Fig. 31 and Fig. 32) which may be due to effect of
An optical microscope creates a magnified im- heating. The microscopic investigation of the fire
age of an object specimen with an objective lens and damaged cores indicated that the distribution pattern
magnifies the image further more with an eyepiece of the grains and pores spaces changed drastically.
to allow the user to observe it by the naked eye. An Even the morphology of the grains of the fine aggre-
optical microscope consists of two major basic func- gate component was also changed. Large variation
tions (a) Creating a Magnified Image of a Specimen was noticed in air void distribution pattern from the
(b) Illuminating a specimen. Optical Microscope im- front to inside portion. Bottom portion was directly
ages/micrographs allow the study of mircrostructure exposed to fire, which had caused sealed walled air
of samples prepared at low magnification. voids bigger in size. Size of pores after fire might
The OM micrographs of the undamaged con- have increased but have very stable and firm walls,
crete sample due to fire taken from 3rd floor column which had presently helped to achieve more strength
(Fig. 29) have indicated the presence of closed voids to the concrete. As the tracking of microscopic anal-
with deposited hydrated products with relatively ysis gone inside the core, size of air voids reduced
smooth margins and compactness of mortar and ag- drastically. However, partial melting of fine aggre-
gregate. The OM micrographs of the samples taken gate component was noticed in these areas. The same
from fire damaged floors on the other hand have in- was seen from SEM Study results also when the sam-
dicated presence of greater number microcracks (Fig. ples were compared from fire damaged portion and
30) and formation of micro cracks in cement mortar sample from the concrete portion unaffected by the
fire.

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 34

 Fig. 27 – Third floor column with Compactness of Fig. 28 – Development of micro cracks at the base
mortar with aggregate (30X) of void from fire damaged concrete (15X)

Fig. 29 – Formation of micro cracks in cement mor- Fig. 30 – Formation of micro cracks in cement mor-
tar and at the interface of aggregate and ce- tar and at the interface of aggregate and ce-
ment mortar (45X) ment mortar (90X)

3.4.5 Effect of fire on mechanical proper- physical properties of reinforcement made of mild
ties of reinforcement steel steel as per BIS specifications. Is comparison to the
reference sample (which is unaffected by fire), there
Sample of reinforcement steel was taken from a has been a reduction in the mechanical properties of
landing slab of fire affected 5th floor staircase and the reinforcement steel sample taken from the fire af-
from landing slab of an adjacent block which was fected area. Cover to reinforcement in beams at some
unaffected by fire (which is treated as reference sam- places is found to be less than 30-40 mm (mostly in
ple) to get an idea of the effect of exposure to ele- the case of ceiling beams), and effect of elevated
vated temperature on the mechanical properties of temperature as ascertained through results of DTA
reinforcement steel (Table 5). It may be noted that all and SEM micrographs was found to be up to 40 mm
reinforcement in the structure is of mild steel. Sam- in some cases for the ceiling beams. This points to-
ples from both locations were tested for different wards the need for strengthening, especially for the
flexural members.
Table 5 – Mechanical properties of reinforcement steel
Location of Reinforcement sample Yield stress Tensile strength Young’s Modulus
From landing slab of fire damaged floor 285.17 MPa 460.33 MPa 169.81 GPa
From landing slab of adjacent block unaf-
321.16 MPa 549.25 MPa 226.35 GPa
fected by fire

3.4.6 Repair and rehabilitation methodol- honeycombing etc. along with NDT evaluations / la-
ogy adopted boratory test results, the structural members were re-
Based on the visual inspections indicating the condi- paired using methodology given below:
tion of surface and structural elements such as spall-  Firstly, removal of plaster/paint on the surface of
ing, exposure and condition of reinforcement, cracks, the members and chipping off and removal of all
loose/delaminated concrete. Detection and re-
moval of loose concrete was done by striking the

35 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021

 concrete surfaces with a 2lb hammer. Sand blast- of surface applied concrete penetrating cor-
ing and water jet was also be used for removal of rosion inhibitor which works by bipolar
loose material where required. mechanism to minimize further de-pas-
 If after chipping work, any honeycombed por- sivation of reinforcement steel was applied.
tions or cracks are visible on the concrete surface,  Fixing of additional reinforcement wherever
injection grouting using low viscosity, high reduction in diameter of rebar due to corro-
strength polymeric resin/monomer based grout sion is found to be more than 10% was done
(which becomes rigid on setting) was carried out as part of repair system prior to building up
after removal/chipping of loose/delaminated the profile of the members by polymer mod-
concrete. ified mortar/prepacked micro concrete. Vis-
 Prior to carrying out grouting for cracks along ible reduction in cross section of the rein-
their length, cutting of V-notches along the forcement steel, particularly the stirrups,
length of the cracks was done. The space around was observed in some of the cross beams of
the grouting notch and the injection nozzle was ceiling at 5th floor level and therefore, addi-
sealed using epoxy mortar/epoxy putty and the tional steel will was recommended at these
same was allowed to cure and harden prior to locations.
starting the grouting process. A curing time of  The additional reinforcement was secured in
around 24 hours is usually sufficient. place to the existing reinforcement with steel
 The injection nozzles for grouting was arranged shear anchors. It was recommended to use
in a staggered fashion at spacing of about 300 steel shear anchors as welding may have an
mm c/c. The grouting proceeded from the lower effect on the thermo-mechanical properties
to the upper nozzles. The injection process pro- of steel.
ceeded from the lowest nozzle and should be in-  Strengthening of severe damaged RCC ceil-
jected from the lower nozzle at required pressure ing beams (both longitudinal and cross) was
(usually between 3.5 to 7 kg/cm2) using a grout done with non-metallic composite fiber
pump and the injection process should continue wrapping system comprising of uni-direc-
till grout is seen oozing out from the upper noz- tional E-glass fiber (900 Grams per Square
zle or till the grout pump receives no further Meter (GSM)) wrap and compatible epoxy
grout and the grouting pressure starts increasing saturant, by wet lay-up system by applying
suddenly. After that, the grouting pressure was compatible primer on prepared substrate.
maintained for about 30 seconds – 1 minute, and FRP wrapping of beams was done after car-
subsequently the nozzle was cut off and the grout rying out all normal repair works as de-
injection point sealed using suitable repair mor- scribed above. Before execution of fiber
tar (epoxy mortar or epoxy putty will suffice). wrapping, the edges of the rectangular
 After execution of chipping and grouting wher- beams should be rounded off (to a minimum
ever required, the replacement of the lost section of 25 mm radius) by chamfering.
of concrete was done using polymer modified
mortar (PMM) system or prepacked micro con- 4. Conclusions
crete. Before replacement of lost section using Based on above mentioned study, following
PMM/prepacked micro concrete, a bond coat conclusions were drawn:
should be applied on the old concrete substrate a) Based on visual inspection and results of field
to ensure proper adhesion of the repair material. and laboratory investigations, the maximum
For bonding the freshly prepared mortar/pre- depth to which concrete was affected by fire was
packed micro concrete to the old concrete sub- found to be about 20 mm for columns and about
strate, epoxy bond coat should be used. Prior to 30-40 mm for ceiling beams. Equivalent cube
building up the lost section using PMM, the fol- compressive strength of concrete was found to
lowing steps need to be completed: meet the requirement of concrete with minimum
 Where rebars are found to be corroded, compressive strength of 15 MPa at all locations
cleaning of reinforcement of rust and loose and 20 MPa compressive strength at most of lo-
scale using alkaline rust remover was done. cations. The maximum temperature to which
This was followed by application of anticor- concrete in the structural members was exposed
rosive coating on reinforcement steel. was generally less than 7000C as de-carbonation
 As pH value has reduced in the surface re- peak was observed in all the DTA curves. Some
gion at some locations as a result of exposure deterioration in the mechanical properties of re-
to elevated temperature due to fire, and total inforcement steel sample taken from fire af-
acid soluble chloride content was also more fected area as compared to that of an area unaf-
than 0.6 kg/m3 at most locations, application fected by fire was observed. Corrosion damage

Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021 36

 to reinforcement steel was observed at some lo- 13. Brancaccio A, Serafini R & Casadei R, “In-situ struc-
cations. Based on the findings, the structural tural assessment and FRP strengthening of a fire dam-
members affected by fire were found to be fit for aged RC structure: A case study”. Proceedings of the
repair. 6th International Conference on FRP Composites in
Civil Engineering, Rome, Italy, June (2012) pp.13 -
b) Based on the visual inspections, field and labor-
15
atory test results, the structural members were 14. Liu M, Fan X H, Zuo Y Z & Song G F, “Strengthen-
repaired by chipping off loose, delaminated and ing and retrofitting of the industries building after
fire damaged portions and subsequent replace- fires” Advanced Material Research (2013), p. 671 -
ment with PMM system or micro concrete de- 674
pending extent of damage. The supplemental re- 15. Thi C N, Pansuk W & Torres L “Flexural behavior of
inforcement was provided where reduction in di- fire-damaged Reinforced Concrete slabs repaired
ameter of reinforcement was found to be more with near-surface mounted CFRP rods”. Journal of
than 10% and treatment of the existing corrosion Advanced Concrete Technology (2015), 13, p. 15 -
damaged reinforcement was done to minimize 29
16. Fib Bulletin 46, State-of-art report on “Fire design of
chances of further corrosion.The strengthening
concrete structures – structural behavior and assess-
of the beams and members where UPV values by ment”, July (2008)
cross probing were found to be less than 3.00 17. IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1): 2018, “Hardened Concrete -
km/s by FRP wrapping was recommended. Methods of Test, Part 5: Non-Destructive Testing of
Concrete, Section 1: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test-
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37 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jun. 2021