B.
Tech 4th Semester MMC403
Materials Characterization By Dr. Bijay Kumar Show
Lecture-01
Date: 18-01-2021
Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Topics to be covered
X-ray basics: Production of X-ray; The continuous and characteristic spectrum;
Absorption; Filters.
Elementary Crystallography: Overview the basics of crystallography; real and reciprocal
lattice.
X-ray diffraction: Bragg’s Law; Ewald sphere construction; Diffraction methods–Laue
method, rotating crystal methods, powder methods; Diffractometers; diffraction under
non ideal condition;
Intensity of diffracted beams: Structure factor calculations and other factors; Extinction
rules;
Application of X-ray diffraction: Crystal structure determination; Precise lattice
parameter measurements; Phase diagram determination, Chemical analysis by
diffraction, residual stress determination, particle size determination.
LECTURE-01
Basics of X-ray
Continuous spectrum and Characteristic Spectrum
Required Textbook
1. “Elements of X-Ray Diffraction”, by B.D. Cullity, Addision Wesley Publishing Co., Massachusetts, 1968.
2. “X-ray diffraction-a practical approach”, by C. Suryanarayana and M. Grant Norton, Springer, 1998.
3. “X-ray Diffraction: Its Theory and Applications”, by S. K. Chatterjee, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Limited, 2004.
X-Ray
• X-rays were discovered in 1895
by the German physicist
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and
were so named because their
nature was unknown at the
time.
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
(1845-1923)
Unlike ordinary light, these rays were invisible, but they traveled in straight lines and
affected photographic film in the same way as light.
On the other hand, they were much more penetrating than light and could easily pass through
the human body, wood, quite thick pieces of metal, and other "opaque" objects.
Radiography
By placing a source of x-rays on one side of the object and photographic film on the other, a
shadow picture, or radiograph, could be made,
The less dense portions of the object allowing a greater proportion of the x-radiation to pass
through than the more dense.
In this way the point of fracture in a broken bone or the position of a crack in a metal
casting could be located
Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Wavelength of X-rays for diffraction studies is in the range of 0.5-2.5 Angstrom
Wavelength of visible light is in the range of 4000-7000 Angstrom
Electromagnetic radiation, such as a beam of x-rays, carries energy, and the rate of flow of
this energy through unit area perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave is
called the intensity I. The average value of the intensity is proportional to the square of
the amplitude of the wave, i.e., proportional to A2.
According to the quantum theory, however, electromagnetic radiation can also be
considered as a stream of particles called quanta or photons.
Each photon has associated with it an amount of energy hv, where h is Planck's constant
(6.62 X 10-27 erg-sec)
A link is thus provided between the two viewpoints, because we can use the frequency of
the wave motion to calculate the energy of the photon.
Radiation thus has a dual wave-particle character, and we will use sometimes one
concept, sometimes the other, to explain various phenomena, giving preference in
general to the classical wave theory when ever it is applicable.
The continuous spectrum
X-rays are produced when any electrically charged particle of sufficient kinetic energy
is rapidly decelerated.
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Most of the kinetic energy of the electrons striking the target is converted into heat, less
than 1 percent being transformed into x-rays.
The radiation represented by smooth curves is called heterochromatic, continuous, or
white radiation, since it is made up, like white light, of rays of many wavelengths.
The continuous spectrum is due to the rapid deceleration of the electrons hitting the
target since, any decelerated charge emits energy.
Not every electron is decelerated in the same way, however; some are stopped in one
impact and give up all their energy at once.
while others are deviated this way and that by the atoms of the target, successively
losing fractions of their total kinetic energy until it is all spent.
Those electrons which are stopped in one impact will give rise to photons of maximum
energy, i.e., to x-rays of minimum wavelength. Such electrons transfer all their energy eV
into photon energy and we may write
