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Biology:

Unit 1: Characteristics of living organisms

Movement: Organisms change in place or position

Reproduction: Organisms can make more of themselves

Sensitivity: Organisms can sense stimuli in the internal or external environment, detect changes in environment

Growth: Organisms can permanent increase in size or dry mass

Respiration: Organisms convert chemical energy in food into kinetic energy, energy released for metabolism

Excretion: Organisms dispose of excess waste, toxic substances

Nutrition: Organisms ingest and digest nutritional substance

MRS. GREN

Unit 2: Cells and movement in and out of cells

2.1 : Cells and cell structure

Cells:

- Smallest functional and structural unit of an organism

- The building blocks of life
- Found in every living organism (just a matter of quantity)
- Always have a nucleus; a cell membrane and a cytoplasm

Cell structure:

- Nucleus (Both): Contain DNA which instructs the cell how to divide
- Cytoplasm (Both): Contain mostly dissolved substances and water; a place for chemical reactions to
occur
- Cell membrane (Both): a thin partially permeable membrane that separates the cytoplasm from the
outside; controls what goes in and out of the cell
- Cell wall (Plant): Has thick cellulose that protects the cell
- Vacuole (Plant): Stores cell sap made up of water; hold the shape of the cell
- Mitochondria (Both): The powerhouse of the cell; site of respiration
- Chloroplast (Plant): Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll
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2.2: Movement in and out of cells

Osmosis: The passive net movement of water molecules down the concentration gradient through a semi-
permeable membrane from a high to low water potential

1. Water potential
- Proportion of water to solute
- More solute = less water (and vice versa)
- Concentrated solution: has more solute, has less water in total
- REMEMBER: water potential is opposite of the concentration of solute
2. Cells vs osmosis
- Animal cells vs osmosis:

+ Animal cells will become cytolyzed (burst) when being low water potential (due to water entering the
cell and it fills up)

+ Animal cells will become flaccid when being high water potential (due to water leaving the cell and it
shrinks)

- Plant cell vs osmosis:

+ Plant cells will become turgid (firm up) when being low water potential but can’t burst because the
cell wall prevents that

+ Plant cells will become plasmolyzed (cell membrane tears away from cell wall) when being high water
potential

- Tonicity:

+ Hypotonic (to smth): Having a higher water potential

+ Hypertonic (to smth): Having a lower water potential

+ Isotonic: Having a similar water potential

- Factors affecting:

+ Temperature: higher temp => higher movement of molecules => more diffusion

+ Surface area: larger surface area => more diffusion

+ Distance: longer distance => slower diffusion

+ Gradient: higher/steeper gradient => more diffusion

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Diffusion: the net movement of gas particles down the concentration gradient from a high concentration to a
low concentration

Active transport: The net movement of particles up a concentration gradient from a low concentration to a
high concentration that requires energy

Condition\Concept Diffusion Osmosis Active transport

Transport substance Mostly gas Mostly WATER Mostly small solids
Requires energy? No No Yes
Concentration gradient Down Down Up
Which concentration to which High to Low High to Low Low to high

Unit 3: Biological molecules

3.1: Chemistry of food

Protein Carbohydrates Lipids

Elements C, H, N, O C, H, O C, H, O
Base unit Amino acid (different combinations will give Simple sugars (1 -2 molecules of 3 fatty acid + 1 glycerol
different proteins) sugars)
Purpose Repair cells, build new materials, hormones, Energy (more efficient than fat) Energy, insulation, protective
enzymes, antibodies membranes
Source Meat, beans, fish, egg, cheese milk Bread, rice, potato, pasta Oil, cheese, cream, egg

3.2: Food tests (all of these test for the presence of the substances)

Test for Ingredients Procedure Positive result Negative result

Protein Biuret solution Add biuret Purple Blue
Reducing sugar Benedict solution Add benedict, heat in warm water bath Orange Blue
Starch Iodine solution Add iodine Black Orange
Lipid Ethanol Add ethanol, shake Cloudy emulsion Clear
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3.3: Enzymes

Overview

- Definition: proteins that act as biological catalysts that speeds up the rate of reaction in metabolic
reactions like breakdown large molecules, building large molecules, or change one molecule to another.
- Base unit: protein and amino acids
- Since it’s a catalyst, it is not used up in the reaction
- Can be denatured
- Each enzyme has a certain shape that bonds with a certain substrate
- Purpose: breakdown large molecules, build large molecules or change one molecule to another
- Enzymes often end with ‘ase’ after the substrate

How enzymes work:

- The substance the enzyme bonds to is the substrate

- The location for that is the active site
- Steps:

1) The enzyme bonds to the substrate

2) The enzyme substrate reacts and does its thing

3) The substrate gets releases as a product

Enzyme activity:

Factor Normal range Effect on enzyme

Temperature Normal body temp with variation . Too hot: denatured
. Too cold: freeze
PH 7-8 with variation . Denature
Substrate conc. More substrate, more enzyme
activity
- Denature:

+ Protein structure is changed

+ Enzyme changes shape, no longer bonds to substrate

+ Active site shape changes, no longer fits substrate

Unit 4: Plant nutrition

4.1: Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:

- Process of plants making carbohydrates from raw materials using light energy
- Done in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll

6H2O + 6CO2 => C6H12O6 + 6O2

Use for glucose:

- Stored as starch
- Turn into cellulose to make cell walls
- Used in respiration
- Stored as fructose
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- Turned into proteins with the addition of nitrogen

Plant nutrition:

- Magnesium: Used to make chlorophyll

- Nitrate: Used to make protein
- Magnesium deficiency: yellow leaves
- Nitrate deficiency: stunted plant growth

Factors affecting photosynthesis:

- Light intensity: Plateaus

- Amount of CO2: Plateaus
- Temperature: Same curve as enzyme

4.2: Leaf

Leaf structure:

- Waxy Cuticle: Prevents transpiration/evaporation, loss of water vapor

- Upper Epidermis: Protects the leaf
- Palisade mesophyll: Does most of the photosynthesis, contains chloroplasts
- Spongy mesophyll: Have airspace to transport substances
- Stoma & guard cells: Open and close to conduct gas exchange

Leaf adaptations:

- Thin: allow sunlight to penetrate all through

- Upper Epidermis do not have chloroplast, transparent: Allows palisade mesophyll to have more sunlight
- Leaf has a lot of surface area: Maximize contact with light
- Stomata close in the hottest part of the day: Prevent water loss

Unit 5: Plant Transport

5.1: Vascular bundle

Xylem:

- Unidirectional: Travels from root to leaf

- Transport water & dissolved minerals ions from the ground
- On the inside of the vascular bundle
- Lined with dead cells and lignin: to strengthen the walls
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- Has valves to prevent the backflow of water

Phloem:

- Bidirectional: Goes to all areas of the plants

- Transport sucrose & amino acids (called “translocation”)
- On the outside of the vascular bundle
- Structure:

+ Has companion cells to provide energy for active transport

+ Has sieve plates to channel the substances

Path of water and nutrients

1) Water diffuse into roots via osmosis

2) Diffuse into root cortex cells
3) Travel up the vascular bundle through capillary action
4) Diffuse into mesophyll cells
5) Water gets lost through transpiration through stomata

5.2: Transpiration

Transpiration:

- Loss of water from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of mesophyll cells followed by
diffusion of water through the stomata
- Water as an excess of photosynthesis diffuses out of the stomata
- Use of capillary action and water potential gradient
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Translocation:

- The transport of substances between the phloem

- Source: the place where the substances are produced (mostly the leaf)
- Sink: the place where the substances end up

Factors affecting transpiration:

- Temperature: Positive slope

- Humidity: Negative slope
- Wind speed: Plateaus
- Light intensity: Plateaus

Unit 6: Animal nutrition

6.1: Diet

Main nutrients:

Nutrient Source Function Deficiency disease

Water Everything Transport, lubrication Dehydration
Protein Meat, egg, dairy, beans Growth and repair, enzymes, hormones Kwashiorkor
Carbohydrate Grains, bread, noodles Energy Tiredness
s
Lipids Oils, fatty foods Energy, insulation, protective membrane Skin inflammation
Fiber Vegetables Stimulate alimentary canal Constipation
Vitamin C Fresh citric fruit Repair and healing Scurvy
Vitamin D Dairy, sunlight Bones growth Rickets, osteoporosis
Iron Fish, red meat, liver Keeps your blood healthy Anemia
Calcium Dairy products, cheese Bone growth Hypocalcemia
Deficiency disease:

- Malnutrition: lack of nutrients from consuming too little food

- Starvation: lack of food, hunger => weight loss
- Constipation: can’t defecate (poop)
- CHD: blocking of the arteries via excess cholesterol
- Obesity: too much food consumed
- Scurvy: less red blood cells, thin hair, bleeding
- Rickets: soft bones and bones deformation
- Anemia: fatigue, swelling tongue, decrease immune function
- Kwashiorkor: swollen body parts
- Marasmus: dehydration and weight loss(protein deficiency)

Enzymes:

Enzyme Source Breaks down Products

Pepsin Stomach lining Protein block Protein chains (polypeptide)
Trypsin Pancreas Protein chains (polypeptide) Amino acids
Lipase Pancreas Lipids Glycerol & fatty acids
Sucrase Pancreas Sucrose Fructose
Maltase Pancreas Maltose(simpler sugars) Glucose
Amylase Small intestine & mouth Starch Maltose
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- Bile: not an enzyme; emulsify fats to increase surface area; neutralizes acid when entering duodenum

Nutritional needs

- Pregnancy: protein, vitamin D, calcium, more water for lactating women

- Growth: more protein
- Higher metabolism requires more energy
- People who work hard require more energy
- Male require more energy than females typically
- Adults require more energy than children

6.2: Digestion

Types of digestion:

- Mechanical: Using FORCE to break down food

- Chemical: Using CHEMICALS to break down food

Alimentary canal:

- Mouth: chewing food molecules into bolus, saliva digesting

- Salivary glands: produce saliva, transport by salivary ducts to the mouth
- Esophagus: connect stomach to mouth
- Stomach: mix food with gastric juice
- Liver: filter toxins, stores glycogen, make bile
- Gall bladder: secretes bile through bile duct
- Pancreas: make pancreatic juice and many hormones
- Small intestine: further digestion and assimilation
- Duodenum: first part of the small intestine that connects with stomach and where semi liquid food
mixes with pancreatic juice
- Ileum: Digested food absorbed into blood
- Large intestine: absorb remaining water and, push waste to rectum and anus
- Rectum and anus: egestion of wastes

Alimentary canal processes:

- Ingestion: consuming of food and drinks by the mouth

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- Digestion: breaking down of large, insoluble molecules into water-soluble molecules

- Absorption: moving of digested molecules through the walls of the small intestine into the blood
stream
- Assimilation: transport of digested molecules to cells where they are used
- Egestion: passing out wastes material not digested

Digestion:

1. Food enters the mouth, and gets chewed and turned into bolus; amylase in the saliva breaks down
starch
2. Bolus moves down the esophagus and gets pushed by “peristalsis” through esophagus
3. The bolus of food enters the stomach; gets mixed with gastric juice; pepsin get to work; HCL acid kills
bacteria
4. Food enters the duodenum via the sphincter; water is first absorbed; pancreatic juice and bile gets
introduced
5. Food is further broken down; absorbed by villi; assimilated to cells
6. Waste products like fiber moves to the large intestine; remaining water is absorbed; pushed to the
rectum and out

Function of HCL:

- Kills bacteria by denaturing their protein

- Provides suitable environment for pepsin

Absorption:

- Moving of digested molecules through the walls of the small intestine into the blood
- Done by villi (singular “villus”)

- Villis are finger-like projections with in-folds that increase surface area of small intestine
- Epithelial cell: contains micro villi that further increase surface area
- Goblet cells: produce mucus that protect the villi
- Blood vessels (arteriole, venule, blood capillary): assimilate digested food that diffused into villi,
transport glucose, amino acids and
- Lacteal: branch of lymphatic system, transport lipids and fatty acids
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6.3: Teeth

Teeth types:

- Incisors: chisel shape for cutting food

- Canines: pointed for tearing, holding, and biting
- Premolars and molars: larger, flat surface, chewing and grinding food

Structure:

- Crown: upper visible part of the tooth

- Root: lower non-visible part of the tooth that is connected to the gum
- Enamel: hard outer layer of crown; can be dissolved with acid
- Dentine: bulk bone-like material of the tooth, providing support for the teeth
- Pulp cavity: soft hollow middle inside with blood vessels and nerve
- Cement: bone tissue that covers the root
- Gum: soft tissue that covers the root
- Blood vessels: supply blood to the teeth

Tooth care:

- Brush teeth twice a day with fluoride of toothpaste

- Visit dentist once per 6 months
- Well balance diet (calcium and vitamin C)
- Don’t smoke

Dental decay:

- Bacteria that lives in the tooth consume sugars from food

- Metabolize and produce acid
- Dissolve enamel and produce tooth cavity
- Bacteria go into cavity and irritate mouth and cause toothache

Unit 7: Animal transport

7.1: Blood
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Blood components:

- Plasma: Makes up more than half of blood; mostly water to dissolve nutrients
- Red blood cell: Contain hemoglobin; carries oxygen; has a concave disc and no nucleus to carry more
oxygen
- Platelets: Made in bone marrows; made blood-clots
- Phagocytes: a type of white blood cell; consume pathogens (distorted blob), carries out phacocytosis
- Lymphocytes: a type of white blood cell; produce antibodies (circle)

Blood vessels:

- Vein: carry blood to the heart; have valves; thinner walls

- Artery: carry blood away from the heart; have no valves; thicker walls
- Pulmonary vein/artery: carry blood away from/to the heart to/from the lungs
- Vena Cava: a vein that carry blood to the heart from the body
- Aorta: an artery that carry blood away from the heart to the body
- Coronary arteries: supplies heart with blood
- Capillary: carry to the specific organ; 1 cell thick walls
- Renal vein/artery: blood vessels that carries blood to/from kidneys

7.2: Heart

Heart:

- Made up of cardiac muscles

- Pumps blood around the body
- Has 4 chambers: left/right atrium; left/right ventricle
- Diastole: cardiac muscles relax
- Systole: cardiac muscles contract
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Heart structure:

- Has 4 chambers: left/right atrium; left/right ventricle

- Left and right are opposite to each other
- Septum: the wall that separates the left and right sides of the heart
- Tricuspid valve: valve with 3 anchor points on the right
- Bicuspid valve: valve with 2 anchor points on the left
- Semi-lunar valve: valves inside the pulmonary artery and aorta
- Wall on the left is thicker than the right because it needs more pressure to pump the entire body

Blood flow:

1. Blood enters the heart via Vena Cava at right atrium

2. Blood moves to the right ventricle and pumped out of the pulmonary artery to the lungs
3. Blood return from the lungs and enters the pulmonary vein at the left atrium
4. Blood moves down the left ventricle and pumped out of the aorta to the rest of the body

Double circulation:

- Blood flows through the heart twice before completing 1 cycle

- Low-pressure circuit (pulmonary circuit): pulmonary veins and arteries path
- High-pressure circuit (systemic circuit): vena cava and aorta path
- Benefit:

+ Higher pressure

+ Separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Heart Diseases:

- Coronary heart disease: cholesterol blocks the coronary arteries

- Part of heart muscle stops contracting, causing heart attacks
- High blood pressure can also accelerate this
- Stents: a metal cage used to unblock the arteries
- Statins: medicines used to control the level of cholesterol
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Unit 8: Gas exchange and Respiration

8.1: Gas exchange

Respiratory system:

- Nasal cavity: area inside the nose where air is entered and exited
- Trachea (wind pipe): tube that connects lungs to nasal cavity; lined with rings of cartilage
- Larynx (voice box): hollow tube right above the trachea; responsible for making sounds
- Bronchus and bronchioles: structures that branch out from the trachea into alveoli; lined with rings of
cartilage
- Diaphragm: muscle that move the lungs
- Pleural cavity: filled with pleural liquid; lubricate the lungs from the thorax walls
- Ribs: bones to protect the lungs
- Intercostal muscles: muscles that move the ribs
- Alveoli: air sacs for gas exchange

Respiratory system adaptations:

- Lots of blood capillaries: easy transport

- Thin alveoli walls: better penetration
- Large surface area: more gas exchange
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- Moist: prevent drying out

Features of gas exchange system:

- Good with ventilation

- Large surface area
- Thin surface
- Good blood supply

Cleaning system:

- Walls of trachea and bronchus are lined with 2 types of cells

+ Goblet cells: cells that produce mucus to trap dust and bacteria

+ Ciliated cells: cells that wafts the mucus up and into esophagus to be swallowed and digested by
stomach acid

Gas exchange:

Inhale Exhale
1) Intercostal muscles contract 1) Intercostal muscles relax
2) Ribs move up and out 2) Ribs move down and in
3) Diaphragm contracts; turns into flat shape 3) Diaphragm relax; turns into dome shape
4) Thorax cavity gets bigger 4) Thorax cavity get smaller
5) Air pressure inside the body is lower than outside 5) Air pressure inside the body is higher than outside
6) Air flows into the lungs 6) Air is forced out
7) Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries
8) CO2 and water vapor diffuses into the alveoli

Air composition

- Inhale/Inspired air:

+ Oxygen: 21%

+ CO2: 0.04%

+ Water vapor: variable

- Exhale/Expired air:

+ Oxygen: 16%

+ CO2: 4%
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+ Water vapor: saturated

Breathing:

- Breathing rate: breath out CO2 faster, create a steeper CO2 gradient, faster diffusion
- Breathing depth: more O2 per breath taken

8.2: Respiration

Uses for energy:

- Muscle contraction
- Protein synthesis
- Cell division
- Growth
- Maintenance of body temperature
- Metabolism

Respiration:

- Produce ATP, molecule that when it is decomposed it releases energy

- Happens in the mitochondria
- 2 types:

+ Aerobic: requires oxygen to break down nutrients and release energy

+ Anaerobic: does not require oxygen to break down nutrients and release energy

Aerobic respiration

- Equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 => 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

Anaerobic respiration:

- Lactic acid

C6H12O6 => C3H6O3 (lactic acid) + 2ATP

- Ethanol

C6H12O6 => C2H5OH (ethanol) + CO2 + 2ATP

Oxygen debt:

- Body cannot supply enough oxygen during intense exercise

- Need more energy via anaerobic respiration
- Build up lactic acid
- Requires oxygen to break down lactic acid and for aerobic respiration

Why anaerobic respiration releases less energy:

- Glucose is fully metabolized in to water in aerobic respiration, all energy is transferred in ATP
- Glucose is only partially metabolized in anaerobic respiration, only some of the energy is transferred

Unit 9: Coordination and Homeostasis

9.1: Nervous system

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Sensitivity:

 Organisms can detect changes in the environment, called “sensitivity”

 A change is “stimuli”, detected by cells called “receptors”
 The nervous system response by using “effectors”
 This process is called “coordination”
 2 methods of sending information: nerves, hormones
 Central nervous system: contain brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system: contain neurons and receptor cells

Neuron:

 Axons: extension of the cytosol that extends out the furthest, can be thought of as “tail”
 Dendrite: shorter more branch like at the head or “cell body”
 Synapses: gap or connection between 2 nerve ending from different neurons
 Myelin sheath: Optimize the travel of impulses
 Schwann cell: Create myelin sheath; keep the neuron healthy

Central nervous system:

 The nervous system has 2 main systems: central and peripheral

 Central has brain and spinal cord, Peripheral is nerves and receptors
 Central is made up of neurons to coordinate signals
 When receptors detect stimulus, it sends to the brain or spinal cord, then send to the appropriate
neurons

Types of responses:

 Reflex actions: involuntary actions that does not have to be thought about, rapid, automatic
 Involuntary actions: actions that does not require conscious control
 Voluntary actions: actions that require conscious control and or decision making

Reflex arcs:

 The receptors get stimuli and send “nerve impulse” to the “sensory neuron”
 Sensory neuron sends impulse to the “relay neurons” in the spinal cord
 Relay neurons can either send impulse to the brain or straight to the “motor neuron” as an effector
 The path of impulse travelling through these 2 neurons are called “reflex arcs”
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9.2: The human eye

Structure of the eye:

 Retina: contains light-cone receptor cells that can detect light

 The rest of the eye protect the retina or focus light onto it
 Conjunctiva: thin, transparent membrane that protects the eye, produce fluid that keeps the eyes
moist and kill bacteria
 Eyelids: distributes the fluid effectively when blinking
 Eyebrows and eyelashes: prevents dust from landing on the eye
 Sclera: tough coat surrounding the eye

Retina:

 Able to senses light in different colors

 Send impulse to the brain which generate images through the “optic nerve”
 Fovea: place where retina is packed closest, light gets focuses here when looking straight at an object
 Blind spot: where optic nerve gets connected to the retina, no retina here so no impulse
 Rods: night and peripheral vision
 Cones: R G B colors sensing

Iris:
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 Colored part of the eye, opaque

 Control the pupil which control how much light can enter the retina, prevents too much light that can
damage retina
 Circular muscle: contract that makes the pupil constrict, get smaller; surround the pupil

 Radial muscle: contract that makes the pupil dilate, get bigger; runs out from the edge of the pupil

Focusing light:

 Humor inside the eye is transparent

 Cornea focus light, lens make fine adjustments
 The bending magnitude depends on the distance of the object
 The image from the eye is upside down, brain flips it later
 Accommodation: changing the thickness of the lens to bend light via suspensory ligaments and ciliary
muscles

Close Far
Ciliary muscle Contracts Relaxes
Suspensory ligaments Slacken Tightens
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Lens thickness fat Flat

9.3: Hormones

Endocrine glands:

 Hormones are also a way to send signals, made in endocrine glands

 Hormones are secreted into blood capillaries
 Target organs: areas affected by hormone

Feature Nervous Hormone

Components Receptor cells, neurons, brain, spinal cord Pancreas, secretory cells
Method of transmission Electrical impulses Hormone
Pathway Neurons Blood vessel
Speed Fast Slow
Duration Short Long lasting
Area of effect Localized to a few cells Wide spread
Adrenaline:

 Produced by adrenal gland, one above each kidney

 When you need to be alerted, your brain sends signals to the adrenal glands to make adrenaline
 Fight or flight hormone
 Ex: test taking, public speaking, horror movies,
 Effects:

+ Heart beats faster

+ Increase breathing rate

+ Make liver release glucose faster

+ Make pupils widen/dilated

9.4: Coordination and response in plants

Tropism:

 Plants change growth direction or rate as a response to stimuli, called “tropism”

 Positive response: growth towards stimuli
 Negative response: growth away from stimuli
 Phototropism: stimuli = light; grow toward/away from light
 Gravitropism (geotropism): stimuli = gravity; grow toward/away from gravity

Plant hormones:

 Auxin: hormone that controls plant growth; made in tip of shoot

 Diffuses downward from the tip
 Makes the cells at the tip (effector and receptor) grow faster

Auxin concentration Effect

Positive phototropism Shady side . Shady side grow longer than sunny side
. Plant bend toward the light
Positive gravitropism Top side . Top side grow longer than bottom side
. Plant grow downwards
Negative gravitropism Bottom side . Bottom side grow longer than top side
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. Plant grow up
None None Plant grow straight

9.5: Homeostasis

Maintaining internal environment:

 Homeostasis: maintaining balance of internal environment

 Negative feedback: fluctuation of a parameter is reduced to return to optimal state
 Examples: body temperature, blood sugar

Skin:

 Epidermis: top layer; made with cells below and constantly rise
 Dermis: lower layer; much thicker, touch and pressure sensor
 Cornified layer: made up of dead epidermis cells filled with keratin; hard and waterproof; protect
lower layers
 Melanin: pigments that absorb sunlight in the epidermis
 Hair follicle: sections of epidermis that dips; keratin hair grows from that
 Sweat glands: produce sweat (water, salt, urea); regulate body temp; excreted through sweat pores
 Adipose tissue: fat; energy reserve; insulator
 Blood vessels, nerve endings and receptors

Hypothalamus:

 Part of the brain that coordinates temperature regulation

 Receive impulse from the skin’s temperature sensors
 Send impulses to parts of the body that can regulate body temperature if the current temperature is
> or < 37 degrees

Above 37 degrees Below 37 degrees

Vasodilation: open up vessels to allow blood to lose heat closer to Vasoconstriction: close blood vessels to prevent losing heat
the skin
Hair lie flat: less warm air trapped Hair erect: trap warm air
Sweat: sweat take energy from the body to evaporate Shivering: muscles vibrate to product heat through friction
Metabolism decrease Metabolism increase
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Blood sugar:

 Cells need sugar to respire, especially brain cells

 Too much sugar can drive water out of the cells via osmosis
 Pancreas have 2 glands, 1 makes pancreatic juice for digestion
 Islets of Langerhans: makes insulin and glucagon
 Insulin: reduce blood sugar; force liver to absorb glucose to respire and turn into “glycogen”
 Glucagon: forces liver to break down glycogen and release glucose

Unit 10: Reproduction in plants

10.1: Asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction:

 Only 1 parent needed

 Parent cell divides into child’s cell which grows into separate organism
 Child genetically identical

Sexual reproduction:

 A pair of haploid gamete is required

 Gametes fuse to create zygote which grows into separate organism
 Child contain half of each parents’ chromosome and their for different from parent and from each
other
 Process is called “fertilization”

Benefit of asexual reproduction Benefit of sexual reproduction

1 gender required Variation makes species survive better in changing conditions
Colonize new habitat faster Easier to colonize new habitat

Easy to spread beneficial mutation Non-beneficial genes are not spread as widely
Faster Evolution occurs efficiently
Produce more offspring

10.2: Sexual reproduction in plants

Flower structure:

 Sepal: base of the flower; protect flower when it was a bud; green
 Petal: colorful to attract insects; have guidelines running vertically; guide insects to the nectary
 Nectary: produce nectar for insect to drink
 Stamen: consist of anther at the top and filament at the bottom; male reproductive organ
 Anther: contain pollen grains with the male gametes inside
 Carpel: consist of stigma, style, ovary and ovule; female reproductive organ
 Stigma: catch pollen grains
 Style: transport pollen grain down to the ovary
 Ovary and ovule: contain female gamete
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Pollination:

 Process of transferring pollen from anther to stigma

 Ways to pollinate:

+ Animals poop

+ Insects drinking nectar

+ Wind

+ Water

Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

Large, colorful petals with guidelines Small or non attractive petals
Strong scented No scent
Have nectarines at the base of the petal No nectarines
Anthers and stigma force insects to brush past them to reach Anther and stigma stick outside the flower to be easily carried by
nectar the wind
Sticky pollen grains to stick to insects Smooth, light pollen for better flight
Lots of pollen cause some will be eaten Lots of pollen cause most will be lost

Fertilization:

 When the male gamete (pollen nucleus) fuses with the female gamete (ovule nucleus)
 Once the pollen land on the stigma, it grows a tube
 The pollen grain travels down the tube and fuse with the ovule
 One pollen grain fertilize 1 ovule
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Seeds:

 Sepal, petal, stamens wither and fall off

 The ovule contain a zygote which is the seed
 Seed have little to no water which makes it inactive or dormant
 This helps the seed to survive harsh conditions before it has the right conditions to germinate
 Testa: hard outer coat
 Cotyledon: food source for the seed
 Radicle: grows to become the root
 Plumule: grows into a shoot

Unit 11: Reproduction in humans

11.1: Human reproductive system

Female reproductive system:

 Ovaries: where the female gamete (egg) is made

 Fallopian tube (oviduct): tube that carries egg to uterus
 Uterus (womb): where the fetus is; thick walls, very small but can stretch
 Cervix: where the vagina connects to the uterus
 Vagina: where the penis enters during intercourse
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Male reproductive system:

 Testicle (testes): where the sperm is made

 Scrotum: skin covering the testicles outside the body
 Sperm duct: tube that carries sperm to urethra
 Urethra: carries substance (urine and sperm at different times) outside the penis
 Prostate gland: makes the fluid that sperm swims in
 Semen: sperm + that prostate made fluid
 Penis: transfers semen to vagina during intercourse

Gamete:

Sperm Egg
Size Very small Large for a cell; 0.15 – 0.2mm
Mobility Very mobile, use whipping motion from the flagellum Immobile, moves by fluid from oviduct
Numbers 300 million per ejaculation 1 per menstruation from puberty to menopause
Adaptations . Flagelum for swimming . Stores energy for the embryo
. Acrosome: contains enzyme that digest the egg outer . Zone pellucida: becomes impenetrable once 1 sperm
layers has entered the egg to prevent “polyspermy”
. Nucleus: contain genetic information
. Mitochondria: energy for swiming
 25

11.2: Fertilization and development

Menstruation:

Menstruation:

- Hormone controlled cycle

- 28 – 35 days
- Follicle: fluid filled sac with the oocyte; each ovary has many follicles
- Oocyte: premature egg
- 2 phases: menstrual (follicular) phase, ovulation (luteal) phase
- Process

Day 1 – 7: menstruation; uterus lining sheds;

Day 8 – 14: uterus lining gets repaired; follicles develop; dominant follicle (the one that will release the egg)
will finish develop after the end of menstruation

Day 15 – 28: ovulation; dominant follicle burst into corpus luteum; egg travels down oviduct; hormones are
produced by the corpus luteum

- If the egg is fertilized

+ Form a zygote

+ Implant into uterus lining

+ Uterus will stay thick

- If the egg isn’t fertilized:

+ Egg will die in oviduct

+ Uterus lining sheds

+ Next menstruation cycle

 26

Intercourse

 Erection: when blood is pumped to stiffen up the penis; close the distance to the vagina
 Intercourse: when the penis penetrates the vagina
 Ejaculation: when the semen is pushed out of the urethra
 Sperm must swim to the egg after ejaculation using their tail (flagellum)
 Head of sperm will enter egg, egg close of all the other sperm cells
 Fertilization: when the nucleus of sperm fuses with the egg

Development:

- Fertilization will result in a zygote (ball of cells)

- Implantation: when the zygote falls into the uterus walls and turns into an embryo
- Umbilical cord: takes blood from/to fetus and the placenta through umbilical veins and artery
- Placenta:

+ Carries mothers blood;

+ Bring them very close to fetal blood but don’t mix;

+ Allow substances to diffuse over the placenta

+Acts as a barrier to protect fetus from toxins

- Amnionic fluid:

+ Fluid that suspends the fetus inside the amniotic sac

+ Prevent physical damage from collision bumps

+ Absorbs excretory products

- Amniotic sac: thin membrane that suspends the amniotic fluid and prevent entry of bacteria
 27

11.3: HIV/AIDS

HIV and AIDS:

- A type of virus that attacks immune system

- AIDS: consequence of HIV; lack of immune system defense; lethal to many common diseases\
- Method of transmitting HIV:

+ From infected mother to fetus across placenta

+ Feeding a baby milk from an infected mother

+ Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

+ Transfusion with unscreened blood

+ Use of unsterilized surgical instruments

+ Sharing hypodermic needles when taking drugs

Preventing STI:

- Abstaining sex
- Have 1 sexual partner
- Test for STI
- Vaccinate
- Use condoms and dental dams: never reuse condoms; never use oil based lubricant with condoms
- Male circumcision
- Increased awareness/education

Unit 12: Inheritance

12.1: Chromosomes

- Inheritance: transmission of genetic information from generation to generation

- Chromosome: threaded structure containing 1 molecule of DNA
- Gene: section of DNA that codes for 1 protein
- Allele: a version of a gene

12.2: Cell division

Chromosome sets:

 All human cells have 2 set of 23 chromosomes, 46 in total

 Gametes have 1 set only
 Child’s 46 chromosomes have 1 set from mom and 1 set from dad
 Diploid: nucleus with 2 sets of chromosomes (normal cell)
 Haploid: nucleus with 1 set of chromosomes (gamete)
 Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that goes together as a pair

Mitosis:

- Nuclear division resulting in genetically identical cells

- Before mitosis, chromosomes are duplicated
- Chromosomes then line up in the middle and separated
- Each daughter will receive 2 set of chromosomes
- Uses: growth, repair, replace, asexual reproduction
 28

Meiosis:

- Reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid resulting in
genetically different cells
- Produce 4 genetically varied haploid daughter cells
- Chromosomes are copied and split 4 ways
- Each daughter will receive a separate alleles
- Used in gamete production

12.3: Inheritance

Genes and alleles:

 Homozygous: same allele in a pair of chromosomes for 1 gene

 Heterozygous: different allele in a pair of chromosomes for 1 gene
 Genotype: genetic properties of an organism in terms of alleles present
 Phenotype: observable properties of an organism; is usually affected by genotype but can also be from
environment and habits
 Pure breeding: 2 phenotype of child same as parent

Dominant and recessive genes:

 Dominant: allele that always affect phenotype regardless of the other allele
 Recessive: allele that only affects phenotype when the other allele is also recessive
 In a homozygous dominant or heterozygous, the phenotype is always affected by the dominant allele
 Only in a homozygous recessive, the phenotype is affected by the recessive allele
 Carrier: organism inheriting a recessive allele in a heterozygous gene but does not show that
 Codominance: sometimes there are 2 alleles that are codominance and shows their same trait together
(blood group AB)

Monohybrid cross and genetic diagrams:

- This 1 trait is determined by 2 alleles

- Punnett squares:

+ Away to determine the phenotype from 2 given pair of alleles

+ Write one pair out horizontally and 1 pair out vertically

+ Determine the combination of each allele in each square

- Pedigree charts: shows the relationship between generations and the phenotypes present
 29

Sex determination:

 Last chromosome responsible for determining gender

 Women’s genotype: XX
 Men’s genotype: XY
 Chances are always 50-50

12.4: Variation

Types of variation:

 Variation: differences among organisms in a species

 Phenotypic variation: visual and abilities (phenotype) differences among organisms; affected by genes
and environmental
 Genotypic variation: genetic differences among organisms; affected by mutations and inheritance
 Environmental variation: variation caused by the surrounding environment
- Continuous variation: range of phenotypes between 2 extremes with unlimited phenotypes
- Discontinuous variation: a limited number of discrete phenotypes; mostly caused by genes alone

Mutation:

 A rare random change in the DNA => change in protein

 Can be inherited in gametes
 Ionizing radiation interact with DNA molecules, causing mutation

Natural selection (Ex: antibiotic resistant bacteria)

- Process:
1) Species produce offspring, more than enough to sustain population
2) Limited resource => competition
3) Variation means that some will possess advantageous characteristics
4) They survive and pass their genes down to future generations
5) The fittest/most advantageous are “selected”
- Evolution: change in adaptive features of a population over time because of natural selection
- Adaptation: by which populations become more suited to their environment over many generations

Selective breeding (Ex: domestication of animals and crops)

- Selecting individuals with desirable characteristics

- Cross them to produce next generation
- Off spring will arise and show desirable characteristics
- Repeat over many generations
 30

Natural selection Artificial selection

Naturally done process Done by humans
A lot of biodiversity A few selected traits
Occur in natural populations Occur in domestic population
Only allow favorable traits inherited Only allow desirable characteristics (might not be
favorable to the organism)
Slow Fast
Facilitate evolution through biodiversity Does not facilitate evolution

Unit 13: Organisms in their environment

13.1: Organisms in their environment

Ecological terms:

- Ecosystem: all organisms and non-organic conditions in one area

- Habitat: place where organism lives
- Population: All organisms of one species
- Community: collection of many populations

Energy flow:

 All energy in an ecosystem comes from the sun

 Producers: turn solar energy into chemical energy stored inside macromolecules
 Consumer: organism that ingest other organisms
 Only 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level
- Energy loss:

Energy is lost between all the trophic levels, higher means less energy

+ Loss as heat when organism is respiring

+ Organisms tend to not ingest the entirety of its prey

+ Not all molecules are digested

+ This is why there are less organisms the further top of the food chain

Types of consumers:

 Primary consumer: herbivore that ingest producers

 Secondary consumer: carnivore that ingest a primary consumer
 Tertiary consumer: carnivore that ingest a secondary consumer

Classification via diet:

 Predator: a carnivore that ingests other animals

 Prey: the organism that the predator ingests
 Herbivore: all primary consumers; ingest plants
 Carnivore: all secondary consumers and above; ingest other animals
 Omnivore: ingest both plants and animals
 31

Ecology diagrams:

 Food chain: diagram showing the energy flow within an ecosystem, starting with a producer
 Food web: network of interconnected food chains
 Trophic level: the position of the organism inside a food chain/web or pyramid

Carbon cycle:

- Atmospheric carbon is converted to organic carbon (glucose) via photosynthesis

- This organic carbon through feeding gets passed along trophic levels and respires out into atmospheric
carbon
- Organisms die and become fossils
- Fossils, now fossil fuels are combusted to give back carbon into the atmosphere

Nitrogen cycle:

- Types of bacteria:

+ Nitrogen fixing (lighting can also do this): convert nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into nitrates in
the soil

+ Decomposing: convert animal waste into ammonia

+ Nitrifying: convert ammonia into nitrites and then nitrates

 32

+ Denitrifying: convert nitrates into nitrogen gas

- Process:

1. Nitrogen fixing of atmospheric nitrogen

2. Nitrates allow plant to grow and mature

3. Feeding passes nitrates up higher trophic levels

4. Excretion waste at each trophic levels gets decomposed to ammonia

5. Organisms die and decompose into ammonia

6. Nitrifying back to step 2

7. Some nitrates that isn’t consumed in step 2 gets denitrified into atmospheric nitrogen

Unit 14: Human influences on ecosystems

Deforestation:

- Trees or forest habitat being destroyed for lumber or space

- Effects:

+ More carbon dioxide and less oxygen

+ Less transpiration

+ Leeching: water washes away the minerals from the exposed soil

+ Soil erosion: Soil gets washed away due to a lack of tree roots

+ Habitat destruction and reduced biodiversity

 33

Polluting water:

- Chemical waste
- Discarded trash
- Untreated sewage: provide food for decomposing bacteria; consume all oxygen

Eutrophication:

- Increased availability of nitrate and other ions

- Increased growth of producers
- Algae block sunlight
- Plants die from lack of sunlight
- Increased decomposition after death of producers
- Increased aerobic respiration by decomposers
- Reduction in dissolved oxygen
- Death of organisms requiring dissolved oxygen in water

Chemistry:

Unit 1: Nature of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Space between particles Close Further Furthest
Movement Vibrate Move over each other Fly freely
Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed (compressible)
Intermolecular force Strong Weaker Weakest
Kinetic energy Low Mid High

Changing state:

- Evaporation: molecules have enough energy to escape surface of the water, cools it down; happens only
at the surface
- Boiling point: temperature at which the liquid boils; does not cool down the liquid
- Melting point: temperature at which the liquid melts

Diffusion:

- the random net movement of particles down the concentration gradient from a high concentration to a
low concentration
- Smaller molecular mass, greater rate of diffusion
 34

Unit 2: Separation techniques

2.1: Measuring

- Time: stopwatch/clock
- Temperature: thermometer
- Mass: balance/scale
- Volume: measuring cylinder, burette, pipette, displacement

2.2: Chromatography

What is chromatography:

- Separate solutes in a solution

- Test for which substance dissolved better
- Use a piece of paper to carry the solvent up
- The sample is spotted on the baseline above the solvent

Interpreting a chromatogram:

- The result is called a chromatogram

- Substances that are more soluble travel higher
- The number of different “spots” are the number of solutes
- Those that travel the same height and have the same color is likely the same substance

Rf value:

- Identify what substance it is based on solubility

- Calculation: distance of sample/distance of solvent front
- Must be between 0 – 1
- Once calculated, compared to a database for reference

Particles and purity:

- Pure substance: substances that only has 1 element or compound

- Impurities: unwanted substances
- Impurities can be dangerous in some situations
- Impurities decrease melting point and increase boiling point
 35

2.2: Other separation techniques

Crystallization:

- Letting a solution evaporate

- Crystals form at the bottom of the container
- Crystals are left to be collected
- Some times the solution can be boiled off as well

Filtration:

- Separate the insoluble substances in a solution

- Use a filter to “filter” it out
- Filtrate: product of filtering
- Residue: waste from filtering that didn’t go through the filter

Simple distillation:

- Separate the substances (liquid) with different boiling points

- The solution is heated to the lower boiling point
- The substances boil off and the vapor is captured
- The vapor is cooled and condensed into liquid again

Fractional distillation:

- Separate substances with very similar boiling points

 36

- Same as before, but the vapor goes to a fractionating column filled with beads
- Those with a lower boiling point travel up higher
- The condenser can be set at a point where the vapor will travel to
- Vapor condensed back into liquid

Unit 3: Atoms, elements and compounds

3.1: Physical & chemical changes

Physical and chemical changes:

Physical Chemical
Same chemical formula Maybe change chemical formula
Change state of matter Produce new substance
Reversible Sometimes reversible

3.2: Elements compounds and mixture

Particles:

- Atom: a single group of electrons, protons and neutron

- Element: a single kind of atom
- Subatomic particles: a single group of quarks (and other materials) either called protons, neutrons, or
electrons
- Molecules: base unit of material, 2 or more atoms or elements chemically bonds
- Compound: 2 or more elements chemically bonds, separated via chemical means
- Mixture: 2 or more compounds or elements physically join, separated via physical means (distillation,
filtration, crystallization)
- Diatomic molecule: molecules of 1 element that has 2 atom

Solutions:

- Solute: substances being dissolved in solvent (salt, sugar…)

- Solvent: substances dissolving the solute (water)
- Solubility: how well the solute dissolves in the solvent
- Solution: mixture of solute and solvent
- Saturated solution: solutions that can dissolve no more solute

3.3: Atomic structure and periodic table

Atom structure:

Particle Location Charge Mass Function

Proton Nucleus +1 1 Determine element
 37

Neutron Nucleus 0 1 Determine mass

Electron Electron orbits -1 0 Determine charge, ion, bonding and chemical reactions

Periodic table:

- Groups: columns in the table; same # of valence electrons; different by 1 shell

- Periods: rows in the table; same # of shells; different # of valence electrons
- Atomic number: # of protons
- Atomic mass: # of protons + # of neutrons
- Chemical symbol: a few letters representing the element
- Chemical name: the actual name of the element

Atomic mass:

- # of protons + # of neutrons
- # of protons might not be equal to # of neutrons
- Isotopes: different version of the same element (same # of protons, different # of neutrons)

3.4: Bonding

Electron configuration:

- Number of electrons usually equals the number of protons, therefore the atom is neutral
- Electrons are found at energy levels/shells
- Each shell have a maximum electron capacity
- Octet rule: 2, 8, 8
- The first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
- The second shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons, and so on
- These are just maximum numbers, some shells are not filled all the way

Ions:

- Sometimes, # of electrons is not equal to # of protons

- Ions: molecules or atoms where # of electrons is not equal to # of protons; they gain or lose electrons
- Positive ion (cation): # of electron < # of protons
- Negative ion (anion): # of electron > # of protons
- How many electrons they gain or lose depends on the oxidation state
- This is called “oxidation state” or “charge”
- Group numbers (1-8) are determined by the number of valence electrons
- Group 1 – 3: its easier to get rid of those electron; then become a positive ion (1+, 2+, 3+)
- Group 5 – 7: its easier to collect more electrons; then become a negative ion (1-, 2-, 3-)
- Group 4: can be either + or –
- Group 8: doesn’t react because they have a full shell

Ionic bonding:

- For non-metals bonding with metals

- Give and receive oppositely charged electrons
- All the charges must add up to 0
- Strong attraction forces due to oppositely charge attracts
 38

Covalent bonding:

- For non-metals bonding with other non-metals

- Share the valence electrons
- All the shells must have 8 electrons
- Weak attraction forces

Ionic Covalent
Melting, boiling points Higher Lower
Solubility . Soluble in water Mostly insoluble
. Insoluble in carbon compounds
Electrical conductivity Only in liquid state None, some react with water to
create ions

Macromolecules:

- A large network of many covalent bonds

- Allotropes: different structural forms of the same element
- Examples: diamond and graphite

Diamond Graphite
4 covalent carbon bonds 3 other carbons, arranged in hexagonal lattice
High boiling and melting point Weak bonds
 39

Hard and doesn’t scratch easily Slide over each other

Cutting and drilling Lubricant

- Silicon dioxide:

+ Each silicon is bonded to 4 oxygen

+ Each oxygen is bonded to 2 silicon

+ Hard colorless crystal

+ High melting and boiling point

Unit 4: Stoichiometry

Mole and Avogadro’s constant:

- Avogadro constant: 6.02 x 10^23

- Mole: amount of substance that contain 6.02 x 10^23 particles
- Volume of 1 mole of any gas as room temperature is 24 dm3

Road map:
 40

Unit 5: Electrochemistry

Electrolysis:

- External circuit: The battery, wiring, electrode but not solution

- Electrolysis: chemical effect of electricity on ionic compounds, causing them to break up into simpler
substances, usually elements
- Electrodes: rods that carry electricity to/from electrolyte
- Electrolyte: compound that conducts electricity when molten or broken down
- Oxidation: losing electrons
- Reduction: gaining electrons

Anode Cathode
Type of ion attracted Anion Cation
Charge Positive Negative
Reaction Reduction Oxidation
Products Non-metals and oxygen Metals and hydrogen

- Process:
1) Ions go to their respective electrode
2) Anions lose electrons, get reduced
3) External circuit pumps electrons to the cathode
4) Cations gain electrons, get oxidized
- For the electrolysis of aqueous compounds, the one lower in the reactivity series will be discharged
(produced)
 41

Electroplating:

- Put a thin layer of metal on top of another metal

- Object to be electroplated is cathode
- Plating metal is anode
- Electrolyte is solution of ionic compound of plating metal
- Electrolyte must be less reactive than hydrogen or else hydrogen is produced
- Ex: silver plating, solution is silver nitrate

Aluminum extraction:

 Use electrolysis of aluminum oxide

 Aluminum is more reactive than carbon
 Process:
1) Extract bauxite ore
2) Use NaOH
3) Heat to extract aluminum oxide
4) Mix ore with cryolite
5) Conduct electrolysis
 Formula:

+ 2O 2- <= O2 + 4e-

+ C + O2 => CO2

+ Al 3+ + 3e- => Al

Cl, H and NaOH from aqueous NaCl:

- Anode product: Cl gas because less reactive than hydroxide

 42

- Cathode product: H because less reactive than sodium

- The rest is sodium hydroxide
- Formula:
+ 2CL- <= Cl2 + 2e-
+ 2H+ + 2e- => H2

Unit 6: Energy changes in reaction

6.1: Energy changes

Exothermic Endothermic
Energy change Release Absorb
E reactant vs E product Greater Less
E reactant – E product Positive result Negative result

Unit 7: Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction = amount of product / time

Factors affecting:

- Concentration: the more particles, the more frequent collisions

- Particle size: more surface for the reaction
- Catalyst: lower activation energy and does not get used up during the reaction
- Temperature: the higher temperature, the more kinetic energy, more frequent collisions

Unit 8: Acids and bases

8.1: Properties of acids and bases

Properties of acids and bases:

Acid Bases
Contain H+ ions Contain OH- ions
Taste sour Taste bitter, soapy
Proton donor Proton acceptor
Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor
Ph < 7 Ph > 7
Turns blue litmus red Turns red litmus blue

Controlling acidity:

- Air: acid rain causes erosion, harm soil, plant, and water
- Water: treated with slake lime to prevent pollution

Ph scale:
 43

- Ph scale from 0 - 14
- Concentrated: contains more substance proportional to the solution
- Dilute: contains less substance proportional to the solution
- Aqueous solution: dissolved in water
- Acid has ph < 7
- Bases has ph > 7
- 7 is neutral (like water)

8.2: Oxides

Metals Non-metals
Metals + Oxygen => Metal Oxides Non-metals + Oxygen => Non-metal oxides
Metal oxides are solid Non-metal oxides are gas
Metal oxides + water => metal hydroxide Non-metal oxide + water => acid

Basic Acidic
Amphoteric oxides:

- Can act as an acid or base neutralizer

- Examples: zinc oxide, aluminum oxide

Zinc oxide + Sulfuric acid => Zinc sulfate + water

Zinc oxide + sodium hydroxide => Sodium zincate + water

8.3: Preparation of salts

- Acid + Base => Salt + Water

- Metal + Acid => Salt + Hydrogen
- Metal oxide + Acid => Salt + Water
- Metal carbonate + Acid => Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
- Reaction => filtration => heat to concentrate => crystallization/distillation

8.4: Ion analysis

Cation Adding NaOH Adding Ammonia solution

Aluminum . White precipitate . White precipitate
. Dissolve in excess; colorless . Insoluble in excess
Ammonium . Ammonia produced if warmed
Calcium . White precipitate . Faintly visible white precipitate
 44

. Insoluble in excess
Chromium . Green precipitate . Grey-green precipitate
. Insoluble in excess . Insoluble in excess
Copper . Light blue precipitate . Light blue precipitate
. Insoluble in excess . Dissolve in excess; dark blue
Iron (II) . Green precipitate . Green precipitate
. Insoluble in excess . Insoluble in excess
Iron (III) . Red-brown precipitate . Red-brown precipitate
. Insoluble in excess . Insoluble in excess
Zinc . White precipitate . White precipitate
. Dissolve in excess; colorless . Dissolve in excess; colorless

Cation Flame color

Lithium Pink - red
Strontium Bright red
Potassium Lilac
Sodium Yellow
Calcium Orange
Copper Blue - green
Barium Green

Anion Test Result

Carbonate . Add dilute nitric acid; test the gas . Bubbles of CO2, turns lime water milky
Chloride . Acidify with dilute nitric acid . White precipitate
. Add silver nitrate
Bromide . Acidify with dilute nitric acid . Cream precipitate
. Add silver nitrate
Iodine . Acidify with dilute nitric acid . Yellow precipitate
. Add silver nitrate
Nitrate . Add aqueous NaOH and Aluminum foil . Gas given off is ammonia
. Warm gently and test the gas
Sulfate . Acidify with dilute nitric acid . White precipitate
. Add aqueous barium nitrate
Sulfite . Acidify with dilute nitric acid . Decolorized purple acidified potassium
. Warm gently and test the gas released manganate solution

Gas Test Positive result

Ammonia . Damp red litmus paper . Turns blue
Oxygen . Hold a glowing splint . Splint relights
Hydrogen . Hold a lighted splint . Pop sound
Carbon dioxide . Lime water test . White precipitate
Sulfur dioxide . Potassium manganate . Purple to colorless
Chlorine . Damp blue litmus paper . Turns red then white

Solubility rule:

Soluble Insoluble
Sodium, potassium, ammonium compounds
 45

All nitrates
All chlorides except Silver and lead
All sulfates except Barium, calcium, lead
Sodium, potassium, ammonium carbonate All other carbonates
Sodium, potassium, calcium hydroxide All other hydroxides

Unit 9: The periodic table

9.1: Table arrangement

The modern periodic table:

- Arranged by atomic number (proton number)

- Each column are called “groups”
- Each row are called “periods”

Groups:

- Elements in the same group have similar properties

- There are 8 main groups (10 transition metals group)
- Each group is labelled as 1 to 8
- The charges are +1 to +/-4 to 0 (the ionic charges when the element is bonded)

Periods:

- Period are separated by the number of shells

 46

- More down, more shells

9.2: Group properties

Group 1:

- Called Akali metals

- Have a charge of +1
- Chemical property: Extremely reactive
- Physical property: Soft and can be cut with a knife
- Elements become more reactive going down
- Decrease boiling and melting point going down

Fizz Bubbles Disappears Move Melt Flame

Lithium (Li) slow A few Slowly Slowly No No
Sodium (Na) Quick Many Quick Quick Liquid ball No
Potassium (K) Violent Lots Very quick Very quick Liquid ball Violet

Group 7:

- Called Halogens
- Have a charge of -1
- Chemical property: toxic; diatomic molecules; low boiling, melting points; poor conductors of heat and
electricity
- Elements become less reactive going down
- Increasing boiling and melting point going down
-

Group 8:

- Called Noble gas

- Full outer electron shell
- Extremely non-reactive
- All gas, monatomic gases
- Helium: balloons because lighter than air
- Neon: colored glowing signs
- Argon: extraction of titanium; electric light bulbs
- Krypton: laser eye surgery
- Xenon: lamps

Unit 10: Metals

10.1: Properties of metals

Properties:

Metal Non-metal
Lustrous (shiny) Dull
Hard and strong Soft and brittle
Malleable Brittle
Ductile Brittle
Denser Less dense
Good heat and electrical conductor Poor heat and electrical conductor
Sonorous Poor sound conductor
 47

Higher boiling, melting point Lower boiling, melting point

Properties of transition metals:

- High melting and boiling points

- High density
- Stronger than group 1 metals
- Have more than 1 oxidation state/charge
- Form colored ionic compounds
- Less reactive
- Catalyst

Use of specific metals:

Properties Use
Aluminum (Al) . Low density . Aircraft manufacturing
. Good electrical conductors . Food containers
. Resistance to corrosion
Copper (Cu) . Ductile and malleable . Electrical cables and wires
. Good electrical conductors
Zinc (Zn) . . Galivanize iron or mild steel
Alloy:

 Combination of at least 1 metal and another element, new properties

 Disrupts the atomic arrangement, make it harder and stronger
 Purposefully made to achieve desirable characteristics (hardness, strength, resistance to temperature
and corrosion)
 Brass: copper + zinc; harder than copper; make musical instruments
 Stainless steel: iron + chrome + nickel; anti-corrosion; car parts, cutlery, surgical instruments

10.2: Reactivity series

Corrosion:

 Metals react with oxygen, forming a layer of metal oxide

 The speed of corrosion depend on the reactivity of the metal
 Noble metals: low reactivity, little corrosion (Ru, Rh, Au, Ag, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt)
 Rusting: corrosion but ONLY for Iron

Prevention of corrosion:

 Remove oxygen or water

+ Store in oil

+ Use a desiccant to absorb moisture

 Use a physical/chemical barrier (paint, oil, plastic, electroplating)

 Galvanizing: coat with zinc, zin reacts instead of oxygen
 48

Reactivity series:

Element React with water React with dilute HCL

Potassium Violent Violent
Sodium Violent Violent
Lithium Violent Violent
Calcium Slow (steam) Vigorous
Magnesium Slow (steam Vigorous
Aluminum Slow (steam) Readily
Carbon
Zinc Very slow (steam) Less strong
Iron Very slow (steam) Less strong
Tin No Less strong
Lead No Less strong
Hydrogen
Copper No No
Silver No No
Gold No No
Platinum No No

Displacement reaction:

Metal oxide + more reactive metal => new metal oxide + less reactive metal

- More reactive metal lost electrons

- Less reactive metal gained electrons
- Easier to lose electrons as reactive metal:

+ Valence electrons further from the nucleus

+ More electron shells, further from the nucleus

+ Fewer protons, fewer attractive force

10.3: Metal extraction

Carbon displacement:

 Used for metals less reactive than carbon

 Use coke (carbon) or carbon monoxide
 Formula:

Metal oxide + carbon => metal + carbon dioxide

 49

Metal oxide + carbon monoxide => metal + carbon dioxide

Blast furnace:

- Materials: Hematite iron ore; coke; limestone

- All is added to a really hot blast furnace at the top
- Iron reduction:

+ C + O2 => CO2

+ CO2 + C => CO

+ Fe2O3 + CO => Fe + CO2

+ Fe2O3 + C => Fe + CO2

- Iron purification:

+ CaCO3 + heat => CaO + CO2

+ CaO + SiO2 => CaSiO3 (slag)

Unit 11: Air and Water

11.1 Water

Testing for water:

- Anhydrous: dry, no water

- Hydrated: wet, with water

Cobalt chloride Copper sulfate

 50

Formula CoCl2 CuSO4

Anhydrou Blue White
s
Hydrated Pink Blue
Formula CuSO4 + H2O => CuSO4.H2O CoCl2 + H2O => CoCl2.H2O
Water treatment:

- Sedimentation: letting dense particles sink down

- Filtering: allow water to pass
- Carbon filtering: remove unwanted tastes
- Disinfection: use chlorine/UV to kill bacteria

Water uses:

Industrial Home
. Cooling . Hygiene
. Hydroelectric . Cooking
. Solvent . Washing
. Irrigation . Drinking

11.2: Air

Nitrogen oxygen distillation:

1) Air gets compressed into liquid

2) Fed into fractional distillation set up
3) Nitrogen evaporated first due to lower boiling point
4) Liquid oxygen is collected at the bottom

Air composition:

- 78% nitrogen
- 21% oxygen
- Remaining 1% = CO2, Ne, He, H2, CH4, Kr
- 0.04% CO2

Air pollutants:

Pollutant Formula Source Effect

Carbon monoxide CO Incomplete combustion Compete with oxygen in the blood
Soot C Incomplete combustion Asthma and cancer
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Sulfur fossil fuels Acid rain, respiratory problems
Nitrogen oxides NOx Combustion of vehicle engines Acid rain, asthma, respiratory problems

Catalytic converters:

 Reduction of NOX

+ carbon + nitrogen dioxide => carbon dioxide + nitrogen monoxide

+ carbon monoxide + nitrogen monoxide => nitrogen + carbon dioxide

 51

+ nitrogen monoxide + hydrogen => water + nitrogen

 Reduction of carbon monoxide:

+ carbon + oxygen => carbon dioxide

+ carbon monoxide + oxygen => carbon dioxide

+ hydrocarbon + oxygen => carbon dioxide + water

Greenhouse gases:

- Carbon dioxide: mainly from combustion

- Methane: cow burps, cow farts; bacteria in rice fields, decay of land fills
- Chlorofluoromethane (CFC): aerosol spray cans
- Nitrous oxide (N2O): car fumes and denitrifying bacteria
- Water vapor

Effect of global warming:

- Change of climate and weather patterns

- Threaten wildlife and biodiversity
- Melt ice caps, sea water rise

Effects of acid rain:

 Change the pH of environments

 Erode structures
 Harm organisms and crops

11.3: Nitrogen fertilizers

Haber process:

- Use to make ammonia (NH3)

- Make from hydrogen and nitrogen
- Reversible reaction
- Nitrogen gets from the air
- Hydrogen is produced via methane reaction (Methane + steam => Carbon monoxide + hydrogen)
- Optimum conditions:

+ 3H2(g) + N2(g) => <= 2NH3(g)

+ Exothermic

+ 400 – 450 degrees C

+ 200 atm

+ Iron catalyst
 52

Fertilizers:

- NPK: nitrogen (ammonia) phosphorus potassium

- Nitrogen: proteins
- Phosphorus: neutralize ph of the soil
- Potassium: make chloroplast
- Neutralization of fertilizers:

Ammonium chloride + calcium hydroxide => ammonia + calcium chloride + water

Unit 12: Sulfur

Obtaining sulfur

- Byproduct from removal sulfur and natural gas

- Get from sulfide ores

Properties of sulfuric acid:

- React normally like other acids

- Very corrosive
- Strong oxidizing agent
- Good dehydrator, remove water from other substances

Uses:

Chemical Uses
Sulfuric acid . Act catalyst to clean metals
. Car batteries, soap, detergents, fertilizers
. Acid drain cleaners, paints & dyes
Sulfur . Make rubber more flexible
Sulfur dioxide . Kill bacteria
. Decolorize wood pulp to make papper
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Contact process:

1. Stage 1
- Burn sulfur in the air
- Get oxygen

S + O2 => SO2

2. Stage 2
- Pressure: 2 atm
- Temperature: 450 C
- Catalyst: Vanadium Oxide

2SO2 + O2 => 2SO3

3. Stage 3
- Make into oleum to prevent a fine mist if absorb straight into water

SO3 + H2SO4 => H2S2O7 (oleum)

H2S2O7 + H2O => 2H2SO4

Unit 13: Carbonates

Making lime:

CaCO3 + heat => <= CaO + CO2

- Made in a lime kiln which rotates and heat by a current of air

- CO2 is taken out so that it doesn’t react with CaO

Lime uses:

- Treat acidic soil

- Treat industrial waste
- Neutralize them
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Unit 14: Organic chemistry

14.1: Homologous series

Hydrocarbons:

- Molecules that contain hydrogen and carbon

- Bonded and react differently
- Classified into homologous series

+ Same chemical reactions

+ Same general formula

+ Same functional group

+ Similar physical and chemical properties

+ Alkanes; alkenes; alcohols

- Different number of carbon molecules can determine the number of hydrogens

Number of carbons Prefix Number of carbons Prefix

1 Meth 6 Hex
2 Eth 7 Hep
3 Prop 8 Oct
4 But 9 Non
5 Pent 10 Dec
- Add the prefix to the suffix of the homologous series based on the number of carbons

Naming hydrocarbons:

- For other chemicals attached to the main hydrocarbons: add number in the front indicating the
position of the carbon (Ex: 1, Chloroethane; an ethane molecule with a chlorine bonded to the first
carbon)
- For the double or triple bonds of alkenes and alkynes: add the number with dashes after the prefix
(Ex: But-1-ene; the double bond is at the first carbon)
- Always goes from the side where the carbon is the closest because it is the same molecule flipped

14.2: Alkanes

Concept:

- General formula: CnH2n+2

- Suffix: Ane
- Functional group: C – C
 55

Properties:

- Only contain single bonds

- Very unreactive
- Saturated hydrocarbon
- Good fuel
- Increased boiling melting point going down (butane is the last alkane that is gas at room temperature)

Combustion of alkanes

1. Complete
- When there is sufficient oxygen
- Reactant: fuel, oxygen
- Product: water, carbon dioxide

CH4 + O2 => CO2 + 2H2O

2. Incomplete
- When there is insufficient oxygen
- Reactant: fuel, insufficient oxygen
- Product: carbon particulate/carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide, water

CH4 + O2 => C + CO2 + CO + H2O

14.3: Alkenes

Concept:

- General formula: CnH2n

- Suffix: Ene
- Functional group: C = C

Properties:

- Contains double bonds and single bonds

- More reactive than alkane
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons
- Increased boiling melting point going down

Cracking:

- A reaction that causes a large molecule to split

- Produce an alkane and an alkene
- Temperature: 600 – 700 to vaporize the alkane
- Catalyst: alumina or silica
 56

Bromine water test:

- Test for alkene

- Drop bromine water into the substance
- Bromine water is yellow or brown
- Alkane: if the color stays the same; alkane does not react
- Alkene: if the color turns clear; alkene does react

Addition reaction

- Halogen

Ethene + chlorine => dichloroethane

- Hydrogen

Ethene + hydrogen => ethane

- Water

Ethene + steam => ethanol

14.4: Alcohol

Concept:

- General formula: CnH2n+1OH

- Suffix: Anol
- Functional group: OH

Producing ethanol:

- Addition reaction with steam:

+ Reactant: ethene, steam

+ Pressure: 60 – 70 atm

+ Temperature: 300 degrees C

+ Catalyst: phosphoric acid

 57

- Fermentation:
1) Add sugar, water and yeast
2) Fermen between 15 and 35 degrees without oxygen
3) Yeast contains enzyme to catalyze the reaction:

C6H12O6 => CO2 + C2H5OH

4) Stop and kill the yeast at 15% alcohol concentration

Function of ethanol:

- Solvent in cosmetics and inks

- Fuel to burn in cars or home cooking gas
- Alcohol consumption

14.5: Carboxylic acids

Concept:

- General formula: CnH2n+1COOH

- Suffix: Anoic acid
- Functional group: COOH

Properties:

- Weak acid
- Dissociate partially
- Turns blue litmus red
- React with base to form salt and water

14.6: Polymers and polymerization

Polymers:

- Monomers: small single unit molecules

- Polymers: long chain of monomers
- Copolymers: contain more than 1 type of monomer
- Bonded together via links: ester, acyl, amide
- Types of polymerization:

+ Addition

+ Condensation

- Add “poly” to the monomer to name the polymer

 58

Addition polymerization:

- Monomers join together through addition reaction

- Made from alkenes

Esters:

- Made from an alcohol and carboxylic acid

- Naming: name the prefix of the alcohol; add “anoate” to the carboxylic acid
- Bonded with ester bond: R – COO – R

Condensation polymerization:

- Combining monomers with the same functional group

- Produce polymer and water
- Adding water will reverse the reaction
- Nylon: a polyamide made from a carboxylic acid and an amine (NH2)
- Amide linkage: the linkage made from condensation of nylon (C O N H)
 59

14.7: Fuel

Crude oil:

- Coal, oil, natural gas are all fossil fuel that burns to produce carbon dioxide
- Natural gas mainly contain methane
- Petroleum (gasoline): a mixture of different hydrocarbons that have to be separated using fractional
distillation

Fractional distillation properties:

- A larger molecule will have stronger intermolecular forces

- Melting and boiling point increase going down the fractions
- Viscosity increase going down the fractions
- Color gets darker going down the fractions
- Volatility decrease going down the fractions

Fraction Number of carbons Boiling point Uses

Liquified petroleum gas 1–4 < 25 Heating and cooking
Gasoline/petroleum 5 – 12 40 -100 Car fuel
Naphtha 7 – 14 90 – 150 Raw product for producing chemicals
Kerosene/paraffin 12 – 16 150 – 240 Jet fuel
Diesel/gas oil 14 – 18 220 – 300 Diesel engines
Heavy fuel oil 19 – 25 250 – 320 Ships and home heating
Lubricating oil 20 – 40 300 – 350 Lubricants and waxes
Bitumen/asphalt > 70 > 350 Road making

Fractional distillation process:

1) Crude oil enters a furnace to be vaporized

2) The vapors enter the column where it is cooler at the top and warmer at the bottom
3) Denser vapors sink and turn into liquid
4) Lighter vapors rise up to there respective columns, condense at the top
5) LPGs are collected as gases
6) All fractions are tapped off and further processed
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Physics:

Unit 1: Motion

1.1: Measurement

Length:

- Ruler: measure small to medium distance

- Micrometer screw gauge: very small distance

Time: measured with a stop watch

Volume:

- Use math for regular shaped object

- Use displacement for irregular shaped object
1) Add water to a measuring cylinder
2) Record starting volume
3) Add the object and record ending volume
4) Find the difference

1.2 Density and pressure

Density:

- Describe how compacted matter is in a material

- Density = Mass/Volume
- Measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3

Pressure:

- Measures the amount of force per unit of area

- Pressure = Force / Area
- Unit: Pascal (N/m2)

1.3 : Mass and weight

Weight:

- Shows the effect of gravity on an object

- Gravity is an acceleration believe it or not
- Weight (Force) = Mass x G
- Earths gravity (G): 10 m/s2

Mass vs Weight:

- Mass is the amount of matter something has

- Weight is the force resulted from the pull of gravity
- Mass does not change
- Weight does change based on gravitational field strength

1.4: Speed, velocity and acceleration

Speed:

- Show how much distance is covered in a certain amount of time

- How fast or how slow something is
 61

- Speed: distance / time

- Average speed: total distance / total time
- Measured in km/h or m/s

Distance-time graphs:

- Used to calculate speed

- Gradient = speed

Speed/velocity-time graphs:

- Velocity is speed with direction

- There is no negative speed, but there is negative velocity
- The total area under the graph is the total distance travelled
- Use maths to calculate the area of the shape

Acceleration:

- Shows the rate of changing velocity.

- Acceleration: get faster
- Deceleration: get slower
- Acceleration = final velocity – initial velocity / time
- Measured in km/h2 or m/s2

1.5: Effect of a force

Force:

- Shows the effect of energy on an object

- Force = Mass x acceleration
- Measured in N (Newtons)
- Resultant force: the sum of all forces combined accounted for direction
- If resultant force = 0; the object is either not moving or not accelerating; the system is in
“equilibrium”

Hooke’s law and extension load graph:

- Hooke’s law measures the force required to elastically deform and object
- Must stay within the elastic region
- Force = spring constant (K) x distance
- Every object has a different K value; how elastic or inelastic the object is
- Extension load graph: Graph showing the force and extension of an object
- Limit of proportionality: point where Hooke’s law does not apply
- Elastic limit: point which the object will not return to its original shape
 62

Moment:

- Describe the turning effects of a force

- Moment = Force x Distance from pivot
- Measured in Newton meters (Nm)

Unit 2: Energy, work and power

Work and energy:

- Work: effect of a force

- Energy: the ability to do work via force
- Work done is energy transferred
- Work = force x distance (or height)
- Measured in Joules

Forms of energy:

- Kinetic: energy based on the velocity; ½ mass x velocity^2

- Potential: energy stored in the position or the gravitational height; mass x G value x height; usually
transferred to kinetic energy
- Chemical: potential energy stored in the bonds of chemicals; vary based on substance
- Elastic potential energy: potential energy based on the elastic deformation; the object decompresses
and releases kinetic energy
- Nuclear energy: energy stored in the nucleus

+ Fusion: forming larger nucleus release energy

+ Fission: separating of larger nucleus release energy

- Thermal energy: energy from heat (average kinetic energy of the molecules)
- Electrical energy: energy required to move charged particles through a conductor
- Light: radiation energy in the form of a wave or photons
- Sound: vibration of particles in a longitudinal wave

Energy transfer:

- Energy cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred from 1 form to another
- Energy in = energy out + losses
- Efficiency % = useful energy out / total energy in x 100

Power:

- Energy transferred per unit of time

- Power = work / time
- Measured in Watts (W)
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Sources of energy:

- Renewable sources: sources of energy that are not limited in supply can be regenerated
- Nonrenewable sources: sources of energy that are limited in supply and cannot be regenerated quickly

Source Relation to the Sun How it works Advantages Disadvantages

Solar Photons causes electrons to . No emissions . Does not work at night
be knocked and moved . Free . Expensive tech
Wind Sun heats up the air, causes Wind turns a turbine which . Free . Not reliable
uneven air distribution; generates electricity . No emissions . Fixed position
creating wind
Tidal Moon creates the tides Tides spin a turbine . No emissions . Difficult to build
. Not reliable
Hydroelectri Sun causes water to evaporate Water fall down from said . Mid reliable . Fixed positions
c and deposit at high areas high areas and spin a turbine . No emissions . Seasonal
. Expensive
. Affect the water flow
Fossil fuel Plants and animals get energy Burn the fuel, make water . Cheap . Non renewable
and natural from sunlight through feeding; into steam, steam turns the . Reliable . Harmful emissions
gas die and turn to fossils turbine . Low tech required
. Easy to transport
Nuclear Create energy from nuclear . High yield . Dangerous
fission …. . Reliable . Radioactive waste
. Expensive
Geothermal Create heat from the . No emissions . Expensive deep drilling
Earth… . Reliable

Unit 3: Thermal physics

3.1: Thermometers

Thermal expansion:

- Particle gain heat => vibrate => take more space

- Vice versa for contraction
- Exception is water (ice is less dense)
- Better conductors will expand more

Fixed points:

- Some properties change when temperature changes

- Fixed point: temperature where something predictable occur; upper and lower fixed points
- Sensitivity: ability to detect small changes
- Range: how low or high can the thermometer measure
- Linearity: changes in a steady rate

Liquid in glass thermometer:

- Thin glass capillary tube

- Liquid that expands linearly as temperature rises
- A scale to measure the temperature
 64

- Properties:

+ Increase linearly as temperature increases

+ Expand greatly, increase sensitivity

+ Low melting point/high boiling point; used over a long range of temperatures

- Change the range:

+ Increase/decrease length of thermometer

+ Use a different liquid with greater boiling point and lower melting point

- Increase sensitivity:

+ Use a larger glass bulb

+ Use a narrower inner tube

+ Use a glass with thinner outside walls

Thermocouple:

- Two wired connected together at the end

- When the wires are heated, it created a potential difference
- Greater the temperature, greater the potential difference
- Not very sensitive; responsive to rapidly changing temperatures
- Measure very high temperatures
 65

3.2: Energy transfer

Conduction:

- Heat travelling from hot to cold by direct contact

- Material heated =>atoms vibrate faster => collides with neighboring particles => heat is transferred
- More conduction when there is more delocalized electrons
- Good conductor examples: iron, copper, nickel, zinc, tungsten

Convection:

- Transfer energy mainly in fluids

- Use of a convection current
- Warm fluid rises, cold fluid sinks
- Process:
1) The fluid gain energy, move faster, expand, become less dense
2) The fluid rises to the top
3) The top is cooler to the fluid looses energy and sinks
4) Create a convection current

Radiation:

- Energy transferred as a particle or a wave

- Part of the electromagnetic spectrum
- Does not need a medium
- White: worst emitter; best reflector; worst absorber
- Black: best emitter; best absorber; worst reflector
- Shiny: best reflector
- Dull: worst reflector
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Unit 4: Waves

4.1: Wave properties

Waves:

- A disturbance that transport energy from one location to another

- Transfer energy without transferring matter
- Longitudinal waves: wave that goes back and forth with compressions and rarefactions; along the
direction of the wave
- Transverse wave: wave that go side to side/up and down that has points along its line 90 degrees;
perpendicular to the direction of the wave

Wave structure:

- Wavefront: a line where the vibrations are in phase and same direction from the source; perpendicular
to the wave direction
- Amplitude: maximum displacement of points on a wave
- Crest: highest part of a TRANSVERSE wave
- Trough: lowest part of a TRANSVERSE wave
- Compression: where vibrations of a LONGITUDINAL waves are close
- Rarefaction: where vibrations of a LONGITUDINAL waves are far
- Rest position: undisturbed position of particle or fields when not vibrating
- Displacement: distance from a certain point to rest position

Wave equations:

- Wave speed (v): frequency x wavelength; measured in m/s

- Wavelength (λ): measured in m
- Wave frequency (f): how many complete waves in 1 second; measured in Hz

4.2: Light

Reflection:

- When light hits a reflective surface, it bounces back

- Normal: perpendicular line to the surface where the light ray hits
- Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
- Plane mirror optical image:

+ Same size as object

+ Upright

+ Virtual image
 67

+ Distance object to mirror = distance image to mirror

Refraction:

- When light travels to a different medium at a non 0 degree angle, it bends

- If light travels to an optically denser medium, light bends toward the normal and vice versa
- If light travels to an optically denser medium, wave speed is decreased and vice versa
- Snell’s law: refractive index = sin i/sin r

Total internal reflection:

- Light goes from optically denser medium

- Angle of incidence > critical angle
- The angle where angle of incidence makes the angle of refraction 90 degrees

Electromagnetic spectrum:
 68

Wave Uses
Radio waves . Long range communication
Microwave . Satellite communication
. Microwave heating
Infrared . Optical fiber communication
Visible light . Taking photos or videos
Ultraviolet . Detecting security ink
. Sterilization
X – ray . Photograph bones
. Scanning of items through customs
Gama ray . Sterilization

- All travel with the same speed in a vacuum (3 x 10^8)

- Dangers of:

+ Microwave: cause internal heating

+ X – ray: causes cell mutation

+ Ultraviolet radiation: destroy skin cells

4.3: Lens

Lens:

- Principal axis: a line that goes through the middle of the lens
- Focal point: where light converge to or diverge from the principal axis
- Focal length: distance between center to of the lens and focal point
- Converging (convex):

+ Lens that bend outwards

+ Parallel light rays are bought to a focal point

+ The more curve, the shorter focal length

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- Diverging (concave)

+ Lens that bend inwards

+ Parallel light rays are spread out from focal point

Image:

- Real:

+ Formed when light converge and meet at focal point

+ Always inverted

+ Can be projected to a screen

+ Can be projected

- Virtual:

+ Formed when light diverged away from focal point

+ Always upright

+ Cannot be projected to a screen

Lens Image Distance (f) Properties

Converging Real >2f Enlarged
Converging Real <2f Diminished
Converging Real = 2f Stays the same
Converging Virtual >f Enlarged
Diverging Virtual Diminished
4.4: Sound

Sound waves:

- Longitudinal
- Carries matter; required a medium
- Mechanical wave: wave that uses matter and need a medium (like sound waves)
- Sound can’t travel in a vacuum
- Sound travel fastest in solids
- Human hearing range: 20 – 20 000 Hz
 70

- Speed of sound in air: 1235 km/h

Effect of changing:

Amplitude Increase Louder

Amplitude Decrease Quieter
Frequency Increase Higher pitch
Frequency Decrease Lower pitch

Unit 5: Magnetism

Magnets:

- Any material that can produce a magnetic field

- Magnetic field can attract or repel objects depending on charge
- Ferromagnetic material: anything that is attracted to magnet
- Magnetic field: area where the effects of a magnet can be detected
- Like poles repel
- Opposite poles attract
- Permanent magnets: constant magnetic field; cannot be turned on or off
- Electromagnet: only produce magnetic field when there is current; can be turned on or off

Magnetic field:

- Can be represented using magnetic field lines

- Cannot touch or cross
- Always goes from north to south
- Surrounds the entire magnet

Materials to make magnets:

- Soft iron:

+ Cannot retain magnetism well

+ Can be magnetized and demagnetized easily

+ Used in electromagnet

- Steel:

+ Retain magnetism well

+ Hard to magnetize and hard to demagnetize

+ Used to make permanent magnets

Making magnets:

- Induced magnetism:
 71

+ Placing the material in a strong magnetic field

+ The material will develop a North and South Pole

- Place in a strong DC current

- Stroke with a magnet from 1 direction to another without changing

Unit 6: Electrical quantities

6.1: Electric charge

Electric charges:

- Electrons carry a charge of -1

- Protons carry a charge of +1
- Opposite charges attract
- Same charges repel
- Charging a body means to add or remove electrons

Unit charge:

- Total amount of charge in a circuit

- Charge = Current x Time
- Measured in Coulombs (C)

Electric field:

- Electrical charges emit a field like the magnetic field

- The field gets stronger the closer to the object (field lines get closer together)
- The field goes from North to South
- The field surrounds the entire charged object

Static electricity:

- Transfer of electrons via friction

- All objects are neutral at first, friction causes electrons to move
- After an object is charged, it can attract opposite charge or neutral object
- Spark:
+ An attraction between 2 opposite charges cause a spark
+ Electrons jump over the gap
+ Creating a current
Conductors:
- Metallic bonds creates irregular patterns
- Causing delocalized electrons that are not bound to any particular molecule
- Delocalized electrons creates current
- Conductors tend to be metals
- Insulators tend to be non-metals (except water)
 72

6.2: Electrical quantities

Current:

- The rate of electron flow through a certain period of time

- Current = charge / time
- Measured in Amps (A) using an Ammeter
- Is the same at the beginning and end of a circuit
- Direct current: electron always flows from negative to positive terminal
- Alternating current: direction of electron flow changes (50 Hz)
- Conventional current: current flow from positive to negative; used to be considered the right way
- Current flow: the right way of electron flow from negative to positive

Ammeters:

- Used to measure current

- Placed in series with the part being measured

- Analogue:

+ Uses a needle and a scale

+ Range: 0.1 – 5 A

+ Check if the needle is at 0 before measuring, subtract from calculation if necessary

+ Read perpendicular to the scale

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- Digital:

+ Uses a digital display which is more accurate

+ Measure small current

+ Digits can flicker back and forth

+ Check if the display is at 0 before measuring, subtract from calculation if necessary

Voltage:

- Electromotive force: electrical work done by source that moves the charge around a complete circuit
- Potential difference: electrical work done by current going through 2 points
- Both measured in Volts (V) using a Voltmeter
- Voltage = current x resistance

Voltmeters:

- Used to measure current

- Placed in parallel with the part being measured

- Analogue:

+ Uses a needle and a scale

+ Range: 0.1 – 5 V

+ Check if the needle is at 0 before measuring, subtract from calculation if necessary

 74

+ Read perpendicular to the scale

- Digital:

+ Uses a digital display which is more accurate

+ Measure small voltage

+ Digits can flicker back and forth

+ Check if the display is at 0 before measuring, subtract from calculation if necessary

Resistance:

- Measures how difficult to move a current

- Higher the resistance, lower the current
- Resistance = Voltage / current
- Measured in Ohms

Types of resistors:

- Normal resistor: has a fixed resistance

- Variable resistor: can change its resistance depending on the setting
- Filament lamp: current causes lamp to heat up; increase resistance; decrease heating; increase
resistance at a slower rate
- Thermistor: the higher the temperature, the lower the resistance
- Light Dependent Resistor (LDR): the higher the light intensity, the lower the resistance

Factors affecting resistance:

- Length: more length = more resistance

- Thickness (cross-section): more thick = less resistance
- Number of components: more components = more resistance
- Heat:
+ Conductor material: more heat = more resistance
+ Insulator material: more heat = less resistance
Energy and power:
- Electrical energy (J) = Voltage x Charge (current x time)
- Electrical power (W) = Voltage x Current
- Electrical power = Energy / time in seconds
6.3: Electric circuits
Circuit component:
 75

- Cell: a single cell used for power

- Battery: a unit of multiple cells
- Magnetizing coil: produces a magnetic field as current passes through it
- Fuse: breaks and protect the circuit from exploding if there is too much current

Series vs parallel circuit:

Series Parallel
Structure Component in 1 closed loop Components in a separate branches
Current . Stays the same wherever in the circuit . Get split along the branches
. More voltage = more current . Split not evenly
. More components = more resistance = less current
EMF . Total EMF = sum of individual EMF . Total EMF = EMF 1 = EMF 2
Potential . Total EMF = sum of individual PD . PD across each branch is the same
difference . PD gets split to each component . Total PD = PD 1 = PD 2 …
Resistance . Total resistance = sum of individual resistance . Total resistance less than smallest individual resistance
Total resistance . Total resistance = R 1 + R 2 …. + R n . Total resistance = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 …. + 1/Rn)
Unit 7: Electromagnetism

7.1: Magnetic effects of a current

Magnetic field of wires:

- Any current will produce a magnetic field

- Magnetic field has no poles, goes in a circle
- Made up of concentric rings
- Gets stronger the closer to the wire
- Reverse the current will reverse the magnetic field
 76

Magnetic field of solenoid:

- Magnetic field passes through the center

- Creating a pattern similar to a bar magnet
- Has poles, very strong magnetic field
- If the loops are going clock wise it’s the South Pole and vice versa

7.2: Force on a current and a magnetic field

Left hand rule:

- A current when interacting with an external magnetic field will produce a force
- This happens when the current is perpendicular to the conductor

- How to increase the force:

+ Make the current stronger

+ Make the magnetic field stronger

+ Make sure that the angle between the current and magnetic field is 90 degrees

- How to reverse the force:

+ Reverse the magnetic field

 77

+ Reverse the current

Motor:

- Consist of a coil and magnets

- Spin when there is a current applied to the coil

- Process:

1) The current and motor causes a force

2) The force will make the positive go down and the negative side go up

3) The motor will spin for 180 degrees

4) The commutator swap the contact of the brushes every 180 turn

5) Motor spins in the same direction

- How to increase spin:

+ Make the current stronger

+ Make the magnetic field stronger

+ Make more turns in the coil

7.3: Electromagnetic induction

Induced EMF:
- Relative movement between the conductor and the magnet
- Happens also for a fixed conductor and a changing magnetic field
- Factors affecting:
+ Number of coils
+ Strength of magnetic field
+ The speed of the movement
+ Size of the coil
AC generator:

- Generator effect can be used to create alternating current

- A coil spins in a uniform magnetic field
- Connected to brushes with slip rings with permanently connects to the meter
- The pointer points in one way than another as the coil spins
- Induces EMF in the coil
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- Graphs:

+ The EMF vary in size as the coil rotates

+ Depend on the number of magnetic field lines it cuts through

+ EMF at the greatest value at position 2 and 4

+ Position 2 and 4 have opposing polarities

+ EMF is lowest at position 1 and 3

7.4: Transformer

Transformer:

- A device to increase or decrease potential difference using the generator effect

- Consist of a primary coil; a secondary coil and a soft iron core
- Soft iron is easily magnetized
- Step-up: increase potential difference; more turns in the secondary coil
- Step-down: decrease potential difference; more turns in the primary coil
- Process:

1) An AC current is supplied to the primary coil

2) The AC current produces a changing magnetic field

3) Iron core changes the magnetic field that passes through it

4) Changing magnetic field in the secondary coil induces potential difference

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5) Potential difference will be alternating at the same frequency as the AC current

- Equation (for 100% efficiency): V primary / V secondary = N primary / N secondary

- Equation (for 100% efficiency): V primary x A primary = P secondary

High voltage transmission:

- Transformer’s roles:

+ Increase PD of electricity before transmitted across the national grid

+ Lower PD of power lines into PD for home use

+ Maintain low voltage used by many devices

- Advantages:

+ Lower the current by increasing the PD

+ Maintain the same power

+ Prevent overheating from too much current

+ Reduce energy loss from too much current

- Power loss = current^2 x resistance

- Total energy loss = power loss x time in seconds
- Using a step-up transformer will result in lower current due to increase in PD and power stay the same
- Lower current results in less power loss

Unit 8: Atomic physics

8.1: Radioactive particles

Radiation particles:

Type Structure Charge Range Ionization Penetration

Alpha 2 proton 2 neutron +2 Few Cm Strong Stopped by paper
Beta - . 1 electron -1 Few Dm Medium Stopped by Al foil
. Release when a neutron turn into proton
Gama High energy electromagnetic wave 0 Infinite Weak Stopped by 1m3 of lead
Radiation deflection:
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- Beta particles are deflected more in an electric field because they are lighter
- Alpha and beta particles are deflected in opposite directions in a magnetic field

8.2: Radioactive decay

Radioactive decay:

- Isotopes give radiation to release forces inside the nuclei

- Since particles have molecular forces => Forces inside nucleus of an isotope (with extra neutrons) is
unstable
- Isotopes that are too heavy will be more unstable
- Unstable isotopes decay producing radiation
- Radioactive decay is a random process

Background radiation:

- Radiation that we are constantly exposed to subconsciously

- Natural sources:
+ Radon gas: comes from uranium decay
+ Rocks and buildings: uranium and rocks can be radioactive
+ Cosmic rays: the sun emits protons which produce gamma radiation
+ Carbon - 14 in organic material: carbon - 14 is an unstable isotope
+ Small traces of radioactive material in food and drinks
- Man-made:
+ Medical equipment: X-ray; CT scan …
+ Nuclear waste
+ Nuclear fallout: remaining radioactivity caused by nuclear explosions and disaster
Nucleus composition during radioactive decay:
- Alpha decay:
+ Atomic mass decrease by 4
+ Atomic number decrease by 2
- Beta decay:
+ Atomic mass stay the same
+ Atomic number increase by 1
- Gamma decay: atomic mass/number stays the same
Half-life calculations:
- Half life: the time it takes for half the sample to decay
- A sample of un decayed isotopes will be measured until half of it has decayed
- The period of time is called “half life”
- Half life is the same for the same isotope
- Half life varies between different isotopes
- Subtract background radiation
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8.3: Safety
Effect of ionizing radiation:

- Cell death: gamma radiation can destroy cells; often used to treat cancer cells but can be harmful to
normal cells
- Tissue damage: large scale cell death can cause tissue damage
- Mutations: radiation can cause changes in the DNA sequence; lead to cancer and uncontrolled mutation
- Acute radiation: cause skin burns; damage immune system white blood cells

Safety when handling radiation:

- Store in a lead box that is far away

- Use tongs when handling radioactive materials;
- Wear protective clothing
- Return to the box as soon as you have finished using
- Stay away from the source
- Minimize the time interacting with the material
- Long half-life waste must be buried