Introduction

Distributed generation (DG), an age-old concept, is experiencing a resurgence as an

emerging approach for providing electric power within the heart of the power system.
Historically the norm, DG primarily relies on the installation and operation of a portfolio of
small, compact, and clean electric power generating units at or near an electrical load (customer).
Initially, early power plants supplied electricity locally, constrained by DC grids and dependent
on local storage like batteries. The emergence of AC grids enabled longer distance transmission,
fostering the development of centralized, large-scale electricity systems. Nonetheless, recent
innovations and growing concerns about reliability and climate change have reignited interest in
DG.

Types of distributed generators

Distributed Generation can be classified into two major groups, fuel-fired based DG units
and Non-conventional source-based DG units. These types of DGs as shown in Fig.1 must be
compared to each other to help in taking the decision with regard to which kind is more suitable
to be chosen in different situations.
Unlike traditional generators, distributed generation units can be positioned closer to
demand due to their reduced size and ability to connect to any voltage level. Thus, transmission
network losses can be reduced, increasing global system efficiency.
There are two types of DG technologies: renewable and non-renewable. Among the
renewable technologies are solar thermal or photovoltaic, wind, geothermal, and ocean power.
DG technologies such as internal combustion engines (ICEs), combined cycles, combustion
turbines, microturbines, and fuel cells are non-renewable.
The different kinds of distributed generation are discussed below.
Traditional combustion generators
Micro-turbine (MT)

Microturbines were initially created for the transportation sector but have recently found
application in the power generation sector as well. These machines can run on a variety of fuel
types like natural gas, hydrogen, propane and diesel to make electricity. Microturbines can be
applied for baseload power needs, backup power needs, peak demand reduction, and cogeneration
uses and are well-suited for small commercial buildings. The capacity of microturbines ranges
from 25 kW to 500 kW and their electrical efficiency is roughly 15% for basic setups and between
20% to 30% for advanced models that recapture exhaust heat to boost combustion temperatures.
Incorporating combined heat and power technology allows the efficiency to reach 85%.
Commercial microturbines have reportedly taken up to 120 seconds to start up. Microturbine
distributed generation units have good nitrogen oxide emissions performance (0.1 kg/MWh);
though, their carbon dioxide emissions are sometimes higher than internal combustion engine
distributed generation units (720 kg/MWh).
Non-traditional generators
Electrochemical devices: fuel cell (FC)

Fuel cells can convert chemical energy to electricity without combustion. Fuel
cell technologies were initially developed for space applications, and then the
transportation sector found it to be a promising technology. Since this technology has
good efficiency, compact size, very low noise, negligible NOx, SO, CO and reliable
operation, it has found its market in the power industry as well. The electrical efficiency
of fuel cells ranges from 30 to 55 percent

Storage devices

It consists of batteries, flywheels, and other devices, which are charged

during low load demand and used when required. It is usually combined with other kinds
of DG types to supply the required peak load demand. These batteries contain a charging
regulator for protection against overcharging and over-draining as it terminates the
charging process once the batteries achieve maximum capacity. The sizes of these
batteries ascertain the battery discharge duration. However, flywheel systems can charge
and supply 700 kW in 5 s briefly.

Renewable devices

Green power is a new clean energy from renewable resources like; sun, wind, and water.
Its electricity price is still higher than that of power generated from conventional oil sources. Some
types of renewable resources are discussed below:

Photovoltaic (PV)

Structure: The basic unit of PV is a square or round cell, made of doped silicon
crystals. The cells are connected to form a module or panel, and modules are connected to
form a network to generate the required power.

Operation and Rating: Cells absorb solar energy from sunlight, where photons
of light force the cell's electrons to move and convert it into DC electricity. In practice,
each cell provides between 2 and 4 A depending on its size with a output voltage of 0.5V.
Typically, an array of series connected cells provides 12V to charge the battery.

Limitations: PV consists of modules that can be connected to provide a wide

range of power, but on the other hand has many limitations:
• It provides low output power.
• The price of land where PV is installed is very expensive. [1]
• It is limited to certain geographical and meteorological features. [1]

Wind-turbines (WT)

Wind power is not a new form of energy: it has been used for decades. The WT
consists of a rotor, turbine blades, a generator, a drive or coupling device, a shaft and
nacelles (turbine heads) containing box gears and generator drives. Modern wind turbines
can provide clean electricity, individually or as wind farms. The blades of the wind turbine
typically consist of two or three blades, each approximately 10 to 30 m long.
 Fig.1

Different DG classifications
DGs are usually classified according to different types and operating technologies.
However, it is more convenient to classify them from an electrical point of view to investigate
their effects on electrical systems. To distinguish between DG types, various classifications can
be made according to electrical application, duration of supply, type of electricity produced,
electricity rating, renewable and non-renewable technologies. Some proposed DG classifications
are discussed below:
Applications:
Standby: DG can be used as a standby power supply to provide the necessary power to sensitive
loads, such as during power outages.

Standalone: Typically, remote locations use the DG as a power supplier instead of connecting to
the power grid. These areas have geographic obstacles and are expensive to connect to the power grid.

Peak load shaving: The electricity price depends on the load demand curve and the corresponding
available power generation. Therefore, DG can be used to service some loads during peak hours, reducing electricity
costs for large industrial customers who previously paid time-of-use (TOU) rates.

Rural and remote applications: DG can provide the performance you need for standalone remote
applications. These applications include lighting, heating, cooling, communications, and small-scale industrial
processes. Additionally, DG can support and regulate system voltage in rural applications (sensitive loads)
connected to the power grid.
 Providing combined heat and power (CHP): Providing combined heat and power cogeneration,
DGs have a high overall energy efficiency. The heat generated during the conversion of fuel to electricity can be
used on-site for a variety of applications, such as hospitals, large commercial areas and process industries.

Base load: Utility-owned DGs are typically used as a baseload to supply a portion of the mains
power required, supporting the grid by improving the system voltage profile, reducing power losses, and improving
the quality of the system power supply.

Supply duration and power type: The output duration of a DG varies greatly depending on the
size, type, and application of the DG. The periods will primarily be long-term supply periods for baseload
applications, temporary supply periods generated from renewable sources, and short supply periods used to support
grid supply. Comparisons can be made according to the amount of power supplied, its duration, and its type (active
power, reactive power, or both).

DG capacities: DG capacity is not limited as it depends on the user type (provider or customer)
and/or the application used. The most commonly used classifications are shown in Figure 2. These capacity levels
vary widely from a single unit to many units connected in modular fashion.

Fig. 2. Distributed generation capacities [2].

Generated power type: Electrical output current can be either direct current or alternating current.
FC, PV, and batteries produce DC power suitable for DC loads. However, this current can be converted to
alternating current for AC loads and grid connection. This conversion can be performed via the power electronics
interface between the DG device and the network. Other DG types, such as MT and WT, provide alternating current,
but in some applications, they need to be controlled by modern power electronic devices to obtain a regulated
voltage. Technology: Depending on the type of fuel used, different attempts at DG classification can be made. As
shown in Figure 3, this can be either fossil fuels or non-fossil fuels.
Fig. 3. Distributed generation technologies.