College of Engineering

Department of Civil & Construction Engineering

CONEN 452: Foundation Design

Site Investigation

Dr. Zaheer Kazmi

2nd Semester 2022-2023 Email: zakazmi@iau.edu.sa
 Site Investigations
• A site investigation should be carried out for all projects.

• The investigation should provide sufficient data for an

adequate and economical design.

• The level of detail should be appropriate to the proposed

site use and to the consequences of failure to meet the
performance requirements.

• Comprises three components:

• Desk Study and Site Reconnaissance;
• Field Exploration;
• Reporting.
 Site Investigations

• Site investigations for moderate to large projects will consist of the

following general stages (inter-related):

a) Preliminary desk study

b) Air photography interpretation
c) Site reconnaissance (walkover)
d) Preliminary subsurface exploration
e) Soil classification by description / simple testing
f) Detailed subsurface exploration and field testing
g) Lab testing of samples
h) Evaluation of data
i) Geotechnical design
j) Reporting
 Site Investigations
The Ground Model – Fookes, 1997
 Site Investigations

• The objectives of site investigation are to determine:

✓ The nature and sequence of the subsurface strata;
✓ The groundwater conditions;
✓ The physical properties of the soils and rocks
underlying the site;
✓ Other specific information, such as the groundwater
chemistry, foundations of adjacent structures, etc.

• The extend of investigation is determined by the soil

type and variability, the project, and the amount of
existing information.
 Site Investigations
• The lateral and vertical extend of the investigation should cover
all ground that may be significantly affected by the project and
construction.
✓ Extend the borehole to such a depth that the net increase in
soil stress (structure and fill) is less than 10% of the applied
load, or less that 5% of the effective stress at that depth,
whichever is less;
✓ Extend the borehole below all deposits that may be
unsuitable for foundation purposes (e.g. weak, compressible
or expansive soils);
✓ If rock is found, borehole should penetrate at least 3 m in
more than one boreholes to confirm whether bedrock or a
boulder has been found.
 Site Investigations
• Extend of site investigation
 Soil Sampling
• Methods of soil sampling:
✓ Block Samples
✓ Open drive samples (SPT split
spoon & Shelby tube)
✓ Piston/foil samples
✓ Freezing for sand
 Laboratory Testing
• Samples to be tested should be representative of each significant
stratum.
• Undisturbed samples for structural properties tests must be
obtained.
• Index Property Tests (gradation, relative density, water content,
organic content, unit weight, Atterberg limits).
• Compaction Tests (Standard and Modified Proctor, CBR, minimum
and maximum density).
• Structural Properties Tests (constant and falling head
permeability tests, consolidation and swelling, direct shear,
triaxial compression, vane shear).
• Other Specialized Tests (dynamic tests, corrosivity, etc.).
Laboratory Testing Objectives
 In-situ Testing
• Borehole drilling
✓ Auger drilling (solid stem, hollow stem)
✓ Wash boring
✓ Rotary drilling
✓ Rock coring
In-situ Testing
 In-situ Testing
• In-situ tests: to determine soil properties and ground
water conditions):
✓Standard penetration test (SPT)
✓Cone penetration test (CPT)
✓Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
✓Vane shear test (VST)
✓Plate load test
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

ASTM D-1586
SPT test procedure
ASTM D-1586

Drill a 60-200 mm (2.5-8 in) dia

exploratory boring to the depth of
test.
Insert SPT sampler into boring. 63.5 kg (140 lb)
A hammer of 63.5 kg (140 lb) is
raised 760 mm (30 in) and allowed
to fall freely.
The process of hammering is
repeated until the sampler has
penetrated 450 mm (18 in).
Number of hammer blows are
recorded for each 150 mm (6 in)
penetration.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 SPT test procedure

Test is stopped if

(a) more than 50 blows are required for any of the 150 mm
intervals, or
(b) more than one hundred total blows are required to drive the
required 300 mm or
(c) 10 successive blows produce no advance. This is known as
refusal and noted on boring log.

Total blow count for last 300 mm (12 in) of penetration is called
SPT N value.
 Sources of error in SPT N value
The principal variants of the test are
• Method of drilling
• How well the bottom of hole is cleared before the test
• Presence or lack of drilling mud
• Diameter of the hole
• Location of the hammer (surface type or down-hole type)
• Type of hammer
• Number of turns of the ropes around the cathead
• Actual hammer drop height
• Mass of the anvil that the hammer strikes
• Friction in rope guides and pulleys
• Wear in the sampler drive shoe
• Straightness of the drill rods
• Presence or absence of liner inside the sampler
• Rate at which the blows are applied
Correction to N value
Overburden correction
 Correlations using SPT results
• For granular soils only:
Schmertmann, 1975:
 Correlations using SPT results
In cohesive soils, correlation between N60 and the shear strength,
su of clay is given by:

0.72
𝑆𝑢 = 0.29𝑁60 𝑃𝑎

The OCR of a natural clay can approximately be estimated from:

0.689
𝑁60
𝑂𝐶𝑅 = 0.193
𝜎𝑧′

Where ’z is the vertical effective stress (MPa).

 Correlations using SPT results
In cohesive soils, correlation between N60 and the unconfined
compression strength, qu of clay can be determined from:

REMARKS:
1. The values given by the previous equations are approximate.
2. The soil is not homogeneous and the N-values may vary widely
3. Where boulders and gravel are present, N-values may be erratic and
unreliable.
 Correlations using SPT results
Example
A SPT was performed on a near surface deposit of clean sand where
the number of blows to drive the sampler 45 cm was 5 for the first
15 cm, 8 for the second 15 cm, and 9 for the third 15 cm. Assume
standard sampler with Em = 60 percent, the borehole diameter is 100
mm, and the drill rod length is 5 m. Calculate the measured SPT N-
value, N60, and (N1)60 assuming that the vertical effective stress (’z)
= 50 kPa. Also indicate the density condition of the sand.
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

• Provides continuous soil profile and has high accuracy

and reproducibility.
• No need for borehole.
• Fast, economical, and productive.
• Piezocone (combined with a built-in piezometer for PWP
measurement).
• Applicable to most soils, except gravelly soils, soils
containing stones, and soils with SPT N-value greater
than 50.
• Cannot obtain soil samples for further laboratory testing
and verification.
• High initial cost for equipment and skilled operators.
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
• Comprises
✓ A cone point with 10 cm2 base area and apex angle of 60.
✓ A friction sleeve with an area of 150 cm2 located
immediately above the cone point.
• Measures
✓ Cone tip resistance (qc);
✓ Local side shear (fs);
✓ PWP (ue) in Piezocone.
 Typical CPT Log
𝑓𝑠
Friction ratio: 𝑓𝑅 (%) = × 100
𝑞𝑐
 Correlations using CPT results
• In cohesive soils
✓ Undrained shear strength, su
𝑞𝑐 − 𝜎𝑧
𝑆𝑢 = 𝑁𝑘 = 13 + 0.11𝐼𝑃 ± 2
𝑁𝑘

Nk = bearing capacity factor (=15 for electric cone, 20 for mechanical

cone); IP = Plasticity Index

✓ OCR of a natural clay 𝑞𝑐 − 𝜎𝑧

1.01
𝑂𝐶𝑅 = 0.37
𝜎𝑧′
z ,’z = total and effective stress at sampling depth
✓ Preconsolidation pressure, ’p (MPa)

𝜎𝑃′ = 0.243(𝑞𝑐 )0.96

 Correlations using CPT results
• In non-cohesive soils
✓ Effective angle of internal
friction, 

𝑞𝑐
∅′ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.1 + 0.38𝑙𝑜𝑔 ′
𝜎𝑧
 CPTU use for Soil Classification
• Correction of cone resistance for pore pressure at the shoulder
according to:
Robertson et al. (1986)
𝑞𝑡 = 𝑞𝑐 + 𝑢𝑧 (1 − 𝑎)
Where:
qt - corrected tip resistance
qc – measured tip resistance
uz - measured shoulder PWP
a – net area ratio (0.6-0.8)
 Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
• A pressuremeter test consists of expanding a cylindrical
probe in the soil, while measuring the pressure and the
corresponding amount of expansion.

• However, its main disadvantages are that the test is slow –

and hence expensive - and the test is complex, requiring
careful attention to detail and the services of experienced
personnel.

• Thus, the test can be interpreted to give elastic parameters

(shear modulus, G), strength parameters (su in cohesive
soil, and ’ in sands) and horizontal stress in the ground.
Pressuremeter Test (PMT)
 Field Vane Test (FVT)

• Used for in situ

measurement of
undrained shear
strength of cohesive
soils.
• A torque is applied to
rotate the vanes,
which is then related
to the shear strength
of soils.
• Cannot be used for
coarse-grained soils
and very stiff clays.
 Field Vane Test (FVT)
• The undrained shear strength of clay is
calculated from the measured maximum
torque:

2𝑇
𝑆𝑢 = 3
(𝐻 Τ𝐷 + 𝑎Τ2)
𝜋𝐷

Where
su = undrained shear strength (kPa)
T = maximum applied torque (kN.m)
H = vane height (m)
D = vane diameter (m)
a = factor which is a function of the
assumed shear distribution along the
failure cylinder (usually a = 0.66)
 Field Vane Test (FVT)

• The failure mode around a vane is complex and the test

interpretation is based on the simplified assumption of cylindrical
failure surface corresponding to the periphery of the vane blades.

• The vane shear test measures a weighted average of the shear

strength on vertical and horizontal planes.

• It is possible to determine the shear strength for either plane by

performing the test in similar soil conditions using vanes of
different shapes and height/diameter ratios.

• It has been found that the field vane value of su is a conservative

estimate of the shear strength along the vertical plane.
 Field Vane Test (FVT)
• Bjerrum (1972, 1973) and Aas et al. (1986) recommended that for
design, su need be corrected as:

𝑆𝑢(𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟) = 𝜇𝑆𝑢(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)

𝜇 = 1.7 + 0.54log(𝑃𝐼)
 Plate load test

• Used for estimating the bearing capacity of foundations

on soil, and for obtaining the soil shear strength and
deformation characteristics for settlement predictions;

• Commonly carried out in shallow pits or trenches but

can be also performed at the bottom of a borehole;

• Involves application of a series of loads of increasing

magnitude and measurement of penetration of a plate
being pushed into a soil or rock mass.
Plate load test
ASTM D-1194
Limitation of plate load test
 Borehole Log

• A borehole log is defined as a written record prepared

during the subsurface excavation of borings, test pits, or
trenches that documents the observed conditions.

• Typically, the log contains information about the scope of

investigation, geologic conditions at the site, location of
the borehole, details of boring (SPT N-value), description
of subsoil conditions, GWT location.

• The log also may include certain laboratory and in situ test
data such as unit weight, water content, shear strength
parameters (angle of internal friction and cohesion), etc.
Borehole Log
Borehole Log
Borehole Log
 Subsurface Profile
• The results of the subsurface exploration are often summarized
on a subsurface (subsoil) profile.
• Prepared by extrapolating conditions between the boreholes,
test pits, and trenches.
 Subsurface Profile

Example

Three boreholes (BH) along a

proposed road intersection
are shown in the Figure. The
soils in each borehole were
classified using the USCS.
Sketch a soil profile along the
center line.
 Subsurface Profile

Solution