processes

Review
A Review of the Efficiency Improvement of Hydraulic Turbines
in Energy Recovery
Yunguang Ji , Hao Song , Zhanpu Xue * , Ze Li , Mingda Tong and Hongtao Li

School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, China;
jiyg@hebust.edu.cn (Y.J.); sh328043264@163.com (H.S.); zx1120732921@163.com (Z.L.);
t3468999721@163.com (M.T.); lht9542@163.com (H.L.)
* Correspondence: xzp83@hebust.edu.cn

Abstract: Turbine energy recovery is a process energy saving technology, and understanding turbine
efficiency has important operational and economic benefits for the operator of a power plant. There
are three main areas of research into turbine energy efficiency: the structural performance of the
turbine itself, the configuration of the recovery device and the regulation of operating conditions.
This paper summarizes recent research advances in hydraulic turbine energy efficiency improvement,
focusing on the design factors that can affect the overall efficiency of a hydraulic turbine. To quantify
the impact of these factors, this paper investigates the effects of surface roughness, flow rate, head
and impeller speed on overall efficiency. Methods for optimizing improvements based on these
design factors are reviewed, and two methods, the Box–Behnken Design method and the NSGA-II
genetic algorithm, are described with practical examples to provide ideas for future research.

Keywords: hydraulic turbines; energy recovery optimization; efficiency; Box–Behnken design;

NSGA-II genetic algorithm

1. Introduction
In industries such as oil refining, natural gas processing, seawater desalination, sewage
Citation: Ji, Y.; Song, H.; Xue, Z.; Li, treatment, coal chemistry, and iron and steel metallurgy, some processes require the use of
Z.; Tong, M.; Li, H. A Review of the industrial pumps to pressurize various liquids (oil, solvents, seawater, sewage, etc.) and
Efficiency Improvement of Hydraulic
then pump them into various systems for physical or chemical reactions. In the past, the
Turbines in Energy Recovery.
residual pressure energy of these liquids has been wasted through pressure-reducing valves
Processes 2023, 11, 1815. https://
or orifice plates. With the development of liquid residual pressure energy recovery technol-
doi.org/10.3390/pr11061815
ogy, the residual pressure energy contained in these high-pressure liquids can be recovered
Academic Editor: Krzysztof through energy recovery devices to achieve energy savings and emission reduction.
Rogowski Figure 1 shows that methods to improve the efficiency of the hydraulic turbine opti-
mize the hydraulic turbine mechanism, optimize the configuration of the device and adjust
Received: 5 May 2023
Revised: 7 June 2023
the system operating parameters. Optimization of components such as blade thickness, duct
Accepted: 12 June 2023
profile and guide vane opening can also be performed. Optimizing the configuration device
Published: 14 June 2023
can replace a mechanical transmission with a hydraulic transmission to reduce energy loss
and improve transmission efficiency. Adjustment of the system operating parameters can
maintain the hydraulic turbine operating condition in the high-efficiency zone.
The mechanical gearbox is one of the most failure-prone turbine components and is
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. also the most expensive to replace and repair; replacing mechanical gears with hydraulic
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. drives can increase efficiency and save costs [1].
This article is an open access article Figure 2 shows that the structural optimization of the hydraulic turbine includes the
distributed under the terms and optimization of the blades, the addition of ribs or not, the optimization of the guide plate,
conditions of the Creative Commons and the optimization of the duct airfoil shape. For example, in blade optimization, simula-
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
tion can be used to determine the optimal thickness and shape of the blade, and adding
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
ribs to the turbine blade or channel can also optimize the structure to improve efficiency.
4.0/).

Processes 2023, 11, 1815. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11061815 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 1
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 2 of 19

Figure 1. Ways to improve the efficiency of hydraulic turbines.

The mechanical gearbox is one of the most failure-prone turbine components and
also the most expensive to replace and repair; replacing mechanical gears with hydrau
drives can increase efficiency and save costs [1].
Figure 2 shows that the structural optimization of the hydraulic turbine includes t
optimization of the blades, the addition of ribs or not, the optimization of the guide pla
and the optimization of the duct airfoil shape. For example, in blade optimization, sim
lation can be used to determine the optimal thickness and shape of the blade, and addin
ribs to the turbine blade or channel can also optimize the structure to improve efficienc
Figure 1. Ways to improve the efficiency of hydraulic turbines.
Figure 1. Ways to improve the efficiency of hydraulic turbines.

The mechanical gearbox is one of the most failure-prone turbine components and i
also the most expensive to replace and repair; replacing mechanical gears with hydrauli
drives can increase efficiency and save costs [1].
Figure 2 shows that the structural optimization of the hydraulic turbine includes th
optimization of the blades, the addition of ribs or not, the optimization of the guide plate
and the optimization of the duct airfoil shape. For example, in blade optimization, simu
lation can be used to determine the optimal thickness and shape of the blade, and addin
ribs to the turbine blade or channel can also optimize the structure to improve efficiency

Figure 2. Hydraulic turbine structure optimization.

Figure 2. Hydraulic turbine structure optimization.
Energy recovery efficiency is improved by optimizing the structure. A three-dimensional
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
Energy calculation
recovery efficiency was carried
is improved byout using a shear
optimizing stress transport
the structure. A three-dime
turbulencesional
model Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes calculation was carried out blades
to analyze the internal flow characteristics near the rotor using aofshear stre
different blade thicknesses
transport to findmodel
turbulence the right blade thickness
to analyze to meet
the internal thecharacteristics
flow required hydraulic
near the rot
performance [2]. Each parameter of the hydraulic turbine affects the overall
blades of different blade thicknesses to find the right blade thickness efficiency tothe
to meet a require
greater or lesser extent.
Various research methods, such as experimental simulation and simulation analysis,
are used to optimize the blade structure and improve the overall efficiency [3–6]. The
energy recovery efficiency is improved by modifying three aspects of the hub size: the
stator stagger setting constants and the runner stagger setting constants. Blades with large
twist angles increase blade complexity and blade manufacturing costs. Therefore, it is very
important to define a minimum hub-to-tip ratio [7].
2
Dhub 4ηt cosθ
= (1)
Figure 2. Hydraulic turbine structure D ω2
optimization.
tip

Energy recovery efficiency is improved by optimizing the structure. A three-dimen

sional Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes calculation was carried out using a shear stres
transport turbulence model to analyze the internal flow characteristics near the roto
 Processes 2023, 11, 1815 3 of 19

where ηt is the initial guessed turbine efficiency, g is the standard gravity constant, θ is
turbine general inclined angle, ω is the designed rotational speed in rad. This equation
provides the initial guide for the turbine hub diameter design.
Traditional methods of calculating turbine efficiency cannot calculate the energy losses
in the flow path. Entropy production theory allows the loss of irreversible energy to
be analyzed and calculated visually. Yu [8] proposed an advanced entropy production
diagnostic model (EPDM) with phase transition for assessing irreversible energy loss in
cavitation flow and analyzing energy recovery efficiency. Chen [9] presented additional
numerical simulations of several blade configurations, including static blade inlet angles,
runner blade robustness and runner blade thickness, and the effects of these geometric
configurations on overall performance and fluid behavior. Kerikous [10] proposed an
optimization method to improve the shape and position of the front thick deflector of the
Savonius turbine in order to increase the output of the energy recovery system. The flow
of the spiral casing is limited to the discharge of cooling water, the output of the fan and
the energy saving head of the cooling water system, so it has a low specific speed and the
hydraulic losses of the spiral casing and the support ring are high, reducing the hydraulic
efficiency. To improve efficiency, Zhang [11] designed a pump casing and support ring
without support vanes. Das et al. [12] used passive control methods to modify the flow
state within the turbine. The interaction of the altered vane tip leakage vortices with the
local vortices generated by the stagnation grid, improved the reconnection flow at high
flow coefficients and improved the turbine operating range by 33.3%.
To investigate the effect of ribs on turbine performance and efficiency improvements,
Abbasi [13] added micron protrusions (ribs) similar to sharkskin to Wells turbine blades.
Star CCM software was used to model the flow interaction with the Wells turbine to subdi-
vide the effect on energy recovery efficiency [14–16]. Krishnaswamy [17]’s experimental
analysis revealed that the use of ribs with the potential to produce high thermal hydraulic
performance (THP) could increase the power output and efficiency of the turbine. Kerik-
ous [18] maximized the output power by modifying the hydro Savonius turbine blade
profile, involving 12 geometrical parameters in the shape optimization process.
Figure 3 shows that the most common methods used to analyze the energy losses and
efficiency of hydraulic turbines, which are numerical simulation and entropy generation
theory. The energy loss of a hydraulic turbine can be caused by erosion, vortex rope
phenomena and energy loss due to friction and unstable flow patterns. To ensure that the
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW hydraulic turbine works safely, its life expectancy needs to be predicted. Commonly used
4 of 19
methods are those based on the application of fracture mechanics to the most important
components and the analysis of the fatigue strength of hydraulic unit components.

Figure 3. Hydraulic turbine efficiency analysis and energy losses.

Figure 3. Hydraulic turbine efficiency analysis and energy losses.

A variety of research methods, such as experimental simulation and simulation anal-

ysis, are used to study the energy loss of different types of hydraulic turbines under dif-
ferent operating conditions [19–23]. The main energy losses in the energy recovery process.
Yu [24] applied entropy generation theory to turbine flow and quantitatively analyzed the
hydraulic loss characteristics of the turbine. The authors used ANSYS CFX software to
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 4 of 19

A variety of research methods, such as experimental simulation and simulation analy-

sis, are used to study the energy loss of different types of hydraulic turbines under different
operating conditions [19–23]. The main energy losses in the energy recovery process.
Yu [24] applied entropy generation theory to turbine flow and quantitatively analyzed the
hydraulic loss characteristics of the turbine. The authors used ANSYS CFX software to
simulate the shear stress turbulence of a mixed flow turbine under different flow conditions.
By comparing with experimental data, the energy losses of different flow components are
analyzed, and the ability of the flow components to generate energy losses under different
conditions is quantitatively evaluated. To study the problem of vortex ropes appearing in
the lead pipe when the pump turbine is operated under non-design conditions, causing
low pressure and low frequency fluctuations. Yu [25] studied the evolution of the vortex
rope under typical operating conditions and its relationship with low-frequency pressure
fluctuations to solve the problem of rotating vortex ropes caused by unstable flow in the
inflow cylinder. Juposhti [26] studied the dynamics of water injection methods to mitigate
RVR and the optimization of fire losses during water injection, using numerical simulations
to investigate how to improve energy recovery efficiency. The study of overall efficiency
has to be studied from multiple directions and perspectives [27–29]. Zou [30] used ANSYS
CFX software to investigate multiphase flow in a turbine type. The main focus was to
understand the mechanism of cavitation evolution and to reveal its correlation mechanism
with flow instability. Yu et al. [31–34] conducted a comprehensive analysis of the flow losses
of Francis turbines by the entropy production method and found that the hydraulic losses
of turbines are closely related to flow separation, eddy motion and backflow. Meanwhile,
the entropy yield of the guide tube accounted for the largest percentage, followed by
the runner.
A life estimation algorithm is proposed to anticipate the life of the turbine, which can
improve the efficiency of energy recovery. Georgievskaia [35] used a method of applying
fracture mechanics to the main components of a hydraulic turbine, which takes into account
construction and technical characteristics, operating modes and external loads. Another
predictive system Georgievskaia [36] proposed implements analytical algorithms based
on assessing the fatigue strength of hydraulic unit components under variable operating
conditions and allows aggregation of damage for different external loads and different
time periods, not only reducing the risk of accidents and unplanned downtime but also
allowing intelligent maintenance of the turbine by developing the most efficient, rational
and life-saving equipment strategies. In search of a simplified modeling tool for the design
and prediction of the expected life of these turbines. Louyot proposed an analytical modal
analysis method based on an assumed modal approach and potential flow theory and
a modal force computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. Both methods accurately
predict intrinsic frequency splitting and intrinsic frequency drift with errors within the
experimentally allowed limits [37–40].
Due to its excellent performance characteristics, the turbine energy recovery device has
good potential for application in the reverse osmosis desalination process, inter-segment
pressurization reverse osmosis wastewater treatment process, petrochemical hydrogenation
process and other fields. In the future, turbine energy recovery devices should be serialized,
integrated and standardized to improve their stability and efficiency, broaden their effective
working range and improve their adaptability to changing working conditions.
Hydropower is a renewable energy source, with a globally installed hydropower
capacity expected to grow by around 60% by 2050, reducing the burning of fossil fuels
and thus greenhouse gas emissions, and meeting energy demand. The development of
hydropower will create 600,000 professional jobs and is expected to require an investment
of USD 1.7 trillion [41].
The study of improving the efficiency of energy recovery hydraulic turbines has great
theoretical significance and economic value and can make a significant contribution to the
economic construction of the country, reducing the energy consumption per unit of GDP
and developing the theory of hydraulic machinery design.
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 5 of 19

The remainder of this overview is organized as follows. In Section 2, the effects of

surface roughness and wear, speed and flow on efficiency are presented. Head and height
have an effect on the flow rate. As the head increases, so does the flow rate, so it is important
to choose the correct head and head height. In Section 3, the practical application and
results of optimizing the structure or working parameters of the hydraulic turbine are
introduced, especially the Box–Behnken Design method and NSGA-II genetic algorithm,
which are used to optimize the centrifugal pump. Finally, Section 4 concludes the paper. By
analyzing the effects of surface roughness, flow rate, head and impeller speed on overall
efficiency, suitable optimization methods can be selected to optimize the structure and
operating parameters of the hydraulic turbine and improve its efficiency.

2. Effect of Factors on the Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbines

2.1. Effects of Surface Roughness and Wear
Scientists have found that the roughness of the turbine through-flow section affects energy
loss, fluid velocity distribution and pressure distribution. Brice and Kirkland et al. [42–45]
found a similar relationship between the surface roughness of turbine through-flow com-
ponents and the reduced efficiency of hydraulic turbines. In this context, surface roughness
includes initial roughness that is dependent on the manufacturing technique used, as
well as roughness that has changed due to wear or erosion. Thus, an increase in the sur-
face roughness of the flow-through components can lead to an increase in energy loss
during operation.
A gas turbine is used for natural liquefied gas. Replacing the traditional Joule–
Thomson valve with hydraulic turbines can improve the energy and cost benefits of natural
gas liquefaction. Compared with traditional SMR processes using Joule–Thomson valve
valves, the recovered energy can increase the feed pressure of natural gas, save energy
and improve efficiency [46–49]. The marine desulfurization tower is an emission reduction
device widely used in ship transport. While reducing gas emissions, it also brings with
it the problem of energy consumption, which cannot be ignored. With the solution of
desulfurization using twin-suction turbines, the efficiency of the twin-suction turbines can
reach more than 80%. Gas turbines for liquid rocket engines (LPREs) require high thrust,
high specific impulse and high flow rates. Consequently, there are also stringent require-
ments for their components [50–52]. For turbine pumps (TPs), this means high flow rates,
high rotational speeds and high pressure ratios, which make their operation vulnerable to
cavitation, while clean, renewable energy sources such as hydropower play an increasingly
important role in saving energy and reducing emissions [53–57]. As a hydraulic machine,
energy losses from pumps and turbines are always present, and hydraulic turbines are used
in many hydropower stations to generate electricity by recovering water with high pressure
differences. With breakthroughs in related technologies, turbine design and performance
analysis are two critical aspects of any hydroelectric power project, ensuring the economical
and efficient operation of these plants. Variable renewable energy sources need to be used
in parallel to quickly balance fluctuations in grid frequencies. To balance the fluctuation
problem in the generation process, common solutions are: one method is that the auxiliary
fluid injection consists of eliminating the stagnation zone that causes the rope to form
by momentum transfer of the injected fluid at the proper location and velocity. This is
typically accomplished using water. An alternative method is to introduce air for flow
aeration [58–60].
Increased roughness increases losses due to increased friction losses (typically between
the head and the worn surface) and offset from the optimal hydraulic profile [61].
Friction losses should be particularly significant, especially in the runner with the
highest relative speed. As early as 1978, Kurokawa et al. [62] used theoretical and experi-
mental methods to study the effect of roughness on the three-dimensional boundary layer
flow on a closed rotating disk. In 1997, Kubota et al. [63] extracted specific hydraulic energy
deficiency from the performance diagram of a model turbine with changed roughness to
systematically study the influence of surface roughness on the Francis turbine. In 2007,
 roughness on the optimal efficiency of a Francis turbine. More rec
[66–69] studied the specific losses of each component of a Fran
estimated by CFD simulation. The results were obtained for d
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 6 of 19
roughness heights. IEC (International Electrotechnical Commissio
Hydraulic Research Association) and their working groups collect
Krishnamachar
amount of and
data Fayfrom
[64,65] model
combinedandanalytical methods with
prototype actual data
turbines toand pro-
calculate o
vided a reasonably simple calculation to obtain a realistic estimate of the effect of roughness
coefficients by upgrading
on the optimal efficiency IEC 60,995
of a Francis turbine. and other
More recently, proportional
Maruzewski et al. [66–69] effec
studied the specific losses of each component of a Francis turbine, which were estimated
The relationship between the specific hydraulic energy effi
by CFD simulation. The results were obtained for different channel surface roughness
roughness and flow
heights. IEC (International rate is shown
Electrotechnical in Figure
Commission), 4 [70]. The
IAHR (International effect of su
Hydraulic
Research Association) and their working groups collected and analyzed a large amount of
bine performance is carried out in a linear manner, increasing th
data from model and prototype turbines to calculate or scale different friction coefficients
from 2.5 µm
by upgrading to 75andµm.
IEC 60,995 otherAt the same
proportional effectsurface
formulas. roughness, the efficien
The relationship between the specific hydraulic energy efficiency and the surface
bine showed a trend of increasing and then decreasing with incre
roughness and flow rate is shown in Figure 4 [70]. The effect of surface roughness on
ficiency of theishydraulic
turbine performance carried out in aturbine at increasing
linear manner, the same flow
the grit rate height
roughness decreases
from 2.5 µm to 75 µm. At the same surface roughness, the efficiency of the hydraulic turbine
roughness.
showed a trend ofWe noteand
increasing that
thenthis efficiency
decreasing doesflow
with increasing notrate.
decrease
The efficiency rapidly
ness.
of the hydraulic turbine at the same flow rate decreases with increasing surface roughness.
We note that this efficiency does not decrease rapidly with increasing roughness.

Figure 4. Surface roughness impacts the Francis turbine-specific energy efficiency.

Figure 4. Surface roughness impacts the Francis turbine-specific energy e
The effect of wear on roughness was also significant. Truscott investigated the factors
and types of wear and the impact of wear on performance and service life. Padhy and
Saini [71–73] reviewed the different reasons for the decline in turbine performance and effi-
ciency and the appropriate remedial measures proposed by various investigators based on
literature surveys covering various aspects of turbine sediment erosion. In the worn bucket,
the boundary layer thickens and is disturbed due to the increase in surface corrugations.
For reaction turbines, the performance of the turbine is destined to decline over time
for various reasons, as shown in Figure 5. These factors include metal loss (cavitation,
erosion and corrosion), runner seal openings, guide vane gap openings and increased
surface roughness. Erosion wear due to high abrasive content is very important wear
during monsoon and cavitation [74].
 For reaction turbines, the performance of the turbine is destined to dec
for various reasons, as shown in Figure 5. These factors include metal los
erosion and corrosion), runner seal openings, guide vane gap openings and i
Processes 2023, 11, 1815
face roughness. Erosion wear due to high abrasive content is very7 importan
of 19
monsoon and cavitation [74].

1.000

0.995

0.990

0.985
η/ηsmooth

0.980

0.975

0.970

0.965 New turbine

Severely worn turbines
0.960

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Flow rate
Figure 5. Decay in efficiency due to wear.
Figure 5. Decay in efficiency due to wear.
Figure 6 shows that cavitation occurs when pressure drops below the steam pressure
and isFigure
a major6problem
showsfor thathydraulic
cavitationreaction turbines
occurs whenbecause it can damage
pressure dropsturbine
below the st
components, affect turbine performance and increase maintenance costs. The service
and
life ofisa gas
a major
turbineproblem
engine mainly for depends
hydraulic on the reaction
service lifeturbines because
of high-pressure it can da
turbine
components,
blades. The impact affect turbine performance
of high-pressure and high-temperature and gas increase
on moving maintenance costs. Th
rotor blades will
lead to various failure mechanisms along the blade contour,
of a gas turbine engine mainly depends on the service life of high-pressure tuthus affecting the operation
efficiency of the gas turbine. The geometry of the high-pressure side of the blade has
The impactinfluence
an important of high-pressure and high-temperature
on the performance of the pump turbine under gas on bothmoving
design androtor bla
to variousconditions.
non-design failure mechanisms
If the pump and alongturbinethemodes
bladearecontour,
optimized,thus affecting the o
the optimized
runner can
ciency of significantly reduce hydraulic
the gas turbine. loss in the downstream
The geometry area of the high-pressure
of the high-pressure side of the bla
side. The geometry of the high pressure side of the blade has a significant influence on
portant
hydraulic influence on loss
loss. The energy the atperformance
the same flow rate of isthe pump
mainly turbineonunder
concentrated both des
the guide
design conditions.
vane, volute and runner, Ifaccounting
the pump forand turbine 20.13–22.45%
49.73–58.07%, modes are and optimized,
16.81–23.23% the optim
respectively. The wall effect and velocity fluctuation are
can significantly reduce hydraulic loss in the downstream area of the the main factors contributing to high-p
the generation of entropies, accounting for more than 98% in total. A comparison of wall
The geometry
entropy generation ofrates
the and
high pressure
wall shear forces side of the
shows thatblade has stress
wall shear a significant
has a directinfluenc
lic loss.
effect The
on the energy
energy loss ofloss
guideat theand
vanes same flow
impeller rateShocks,
blades. is mainly concentrated
backflows and vortices on th
are the main
volute andcontributors to irreversible for
runner, accounting energy losses. The flow20.13–22.45%
49.73–58.07%, and torque mechanisms
and 16.81–2
inside the turbine can be explained by stagnation pressure on the concave side of the blade
tively.
at small The
angleswall
to theeffect
blade and velocity
position and coaxial fluctuation
flow on theare the side,
convex main factors
which then contri
generation of entropies,
creates a high-speed zone insideaccounting
the turbine, which for impinges
more than on the98% in total.
downstream A compariso
blade at a
large angle. These flow field changes produce increased local
tropy generation rates and wall shear forces shows that wall shear stress has torque at small angles and
moderate torque at large angles. By optimizing the impeller blade top clearance and the
on the energy loss of guide vanes and impeller blades. Shocks, backflows an
turbine blade tip speed ratio, the turbine can be made more efficient, which is verified by
the mainthe
observing contributors
correspondence tobetween
irreversible
the flowenergy
velocity losses. The and
in the turbine flowtheand torque me
different
bladethe
side position angles.
turbine can be explained by stagnation pressure on the concave sid
at small angles to the blade position and coaxial flow on the convex side
 a large angle. These flow field changes produce increased local torque at small angle
moderate torque at large angles. By optimizing the impeller blade top clearance an
turbine blade tip speed ratio, the turbine can be made more efficient, which is verifi
observing the correspondence between the flow velocity in the turbine and the diff
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 8 of 19
blade position angles.

Figure 6. Influence factor.

Figure Through
6. Influence factor.discussion, we analyze the influence of surface roughness and
the above
wear on the efficiency of turbines. Based on the analysis, we can grind, coat or spray
wetThrough the above
surfaces, which discussion,
can improve we analyze
surface roughness andthe
wearinfluence
resistance.of surface
This roughnes
also helps
maintain and extend the lives of these structures [75].
wear on the efficiency of turbines. Based on the analysis, we can grind, coat or spra
surfaces,
1. Forwhich can
turbines, improve
adequate surface
needle roughness
and nozzle coatingsand wear resistance.
are relatively This
inexpensive also helps
to main-
tain performance, helping to maintain the
tain and extend the lives of these structures [75].quality and compactness of the injection.
For a mixed flow turbine, the condition of its components is much more complex than
1. For turbines,
that of Pelton. adequate
Coating theneedle and nozzle
static/dynamic sealingcoatings arevanes
rings, guide relatively inexpensive
(with wear plate) to m
tain
andperformance, helping
the inlet and outlet edges to maintain
of the the quality
runners keeps andincompactness
the turbine good condition.ofInthe inje
For a mixed flow turbine, the condition of its componentsis is
some cases, field tests have shown that the efficiency of pre-coating improved
much by more com
0.1~0.8% compared with post-coating.
than that of Pelton. Coating the static/dynamic sealing rings, guide vanes (with
2. The application of new materials is another effective method for improving surface
plate) and the
properties. Useinlet and mature
suitable, outlet materials,
edges of suchthe runners
as stainlesskeeps
steel the
andturbine
coatings inof good c
tion.
newly Ininvented
some cases, field
materials, tests have turbine
to manufacture showncomponents
that the efficiency
to maximize of pre-coating
resistance
proved by abrasive
to erosion, 0.1~0.8% wearcompared withand
and cavitation, post-coating.
to extend life. If sediments contain hard
2. minerals,
The such as of
application quartz,
newthe abrasion of
materials is steels,
another sucheffective
as guide vanes
method and for
flowimproving
paths, su
can become very large and can quickly reduce efficiency or completely destroy the
properties. Use suitable, mature materials, such as stainless steel and coatin
turbine in a very short time. New solutions are being developed to coat steel with
newly
very hardinvented materials,
ceramic coatings to manufacture
to prevent erosion or delay turbine components to maximiz
the process.
3. sistance to erosion,
In addition, reducingabrasive
the surface wear and cavitation,
roughness (i.e., reducing and to extend
friction life. of
resistance) If the
sediment
inner surface of the pressure pipe by using new coating materials
tain hard minerals, such as quartz, the abrasion of steels, such as guide vane will help reduce
head loss through the system and thus improve efficiency.
flow paths, can become very large and can quickly reduce efficiency or comp
2.2. Influence the
destroy turbine
of Speed in Rate
and Flow a very short time. New solutions are being developed to
on Efficiency
steel withwas
The RPM very hardatceramic
tested coatings
different running to prevent
blade erosion
opening angles andorflow
delay theEach
rates. process.
3. flowInrate
addition,
shows its reducing the surface
optimal rotational roughness
speed, increasing (i.e.,
as the flowreducing friction
rate increases resistance)
to maintain
theinner
velocity triangle and accommodate larger flows. Turbine
surface of the pressure pipe by using new coating materials will efficiency is a parabola in help re
speed ratio and maximum efficiency occurs when the speed ratio is between 0.9 and 1. In
head loss through the system and thus improve efficiency.
order to maintain high efficiency at low flow ratios, the nozzle design must ensure that the
lower flow remains in the deflector [76].
2.2. Influence
GoodarzofMehr
Speed[76]
andintroduced
Flow Ratea on
newEfficiency
method for the design and optimization of
hydrodynamic flow turbines for various operating conditions. This method not only
The RPM was tested at different running blade opening angles and flow rates.
decomposes and simplifies the design process into well-defined steps but also allows
flow rate shows
numerical its optimal
simulations rotational
of individual speed,
turbines. The increasing
design processasincludes
the flow rate increases
designing the to m
tain the velocity
geometry triangle
of the guide vane,and accommodate
optimizing larger
the impeller flows.
speed Turbine
parameters andefficiency
improvingis a par
in the
speed ratio and
performance maximum
of the turbine byefficiency occursload
analyzing various when the speed
conditions. In aratio is between
simulation case 0.9 a
study, a turbine designed using the new method has a peak hydraulic efficiency
In order to maintain high efficiency at low flow ratios, the nozzle design must ensur of 91% and
a peak overall efficiency of 82% at volumetric flows as low as 14% of nominal value and
thehead
lower flow remains in the deflector [76].
variations as high as 30% of nominal value.
Goodarz Mehr [76] introduced a new method for the design and optimization o
drodynamic flow turbines for various operating conditions. This method not only de
poses and simplifies the design process into well-defined steps but also allows num
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 9 of 19

Vivas [77] chose a new flow-head coefficient as the main dimensionless coefficient by
studying the effect of flow and head on efficiency. From the five commonly used input
design parameters, the values of three parameters were selected and allowed to vary for
two to meet the design needs, and the designed and simulated turbine showed a maximum
hydraulic efficiency of 65%.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that speed and flow have a direct impact on
efficiency. If the best speed and flow for the system are determined by appropriate design
methods, the overall efficiency will be greatly improved.

2.3. Efficiency vs. Head

The efficiency does not decrease significantly when the head is higher than the optimal
head (the head determines the optimal efficiency at a given rotational speed), while the
efficiency decreases sharply when the head is smaller. The optimal RPMN depends on
head H, which is the result of the increased velocity of the runner passing through the
head [78]. The geometric parameters of the impeller are the main factors affecting the
hydraulic performance of the turbine. The hydraulic performance of the turbine is different
from that of the pump. The hydraulic performance of a turbine is different from that of
a pump because a turbine is a pump that rotates in reverse. Then, in order to predict the
turbine performance at the optimal efficiency point of the pump, the turbine performance
at the optimal efficiency point of the pump is required; the flow rate Qt and head Ht
of the turbine with optimal performance can be obtained through the calculation of the
Sharma relationship.
Qt 1
= 0.8 (2)
Qp ηp
Ht 1
= 1.2 (3)
Hp ηp
where Qt and Ht are the flow rate and head of the turbine, respectively, Qp and Hp are the
flow rate and head of the pump, respectively, and η is the optimal efficiency of the pump.
Figure 7 shows that the unsteady flow field around the turbine was measured in an
open water tunnel using phase-averaged particle image velocimetry and compared to
the results of a two-dimensional numerical simulation using the volume of fluid method
for two-phase flow analysis. By reducing the bottom spacing, these flow characteristics
were improved, contributing to local torque generation. Therefore, the torque performance
and efficiency of the cross-flow turbine improved. However, very small bottom spacing
may not be an effective way to improve efficiency. The process is decomposed into clearly
defined steps and simplified by a three-step continuous numerical method. Once a single
turbine is numerically simulated, most of the results can be applied to the entire cross-flow
turbine. The turbine designed with this process achieves 91% peak hydraulic efficiency
and 82% peak total efficiency, with volume flow as low as 14% of nominal value and
head variation as high as 30% of nominal value. The entropy generation theory was
introduced to analyze the drop method of the hydraulic loss distribution of PAT to make
the numerical simulation results more consistent with the hydraulic performance test
results. Dynamic grid technology in CFD is used to make the simulated situation more
realistic, and the flow field changes and operation characteristics inside the gas turbine
can be better represented by the optimization of the simulation. The main purpose of this
research is to discuss boundary conditions and turbulence models that capture different
hydrodynamic phenomena in turbine design and non-design operation. Critical review of
various calculation methods is necessary to achieve different objectives for turbine hydraulic
design and performance evaluation. The hydraulic turbine governance system (HTGS) is
a complex non-linear time-delayed system and stability control is an important factor in
the safe operation of hydroelectric units. Control focusing on Liapunov asymmetrically
stabilized HTGSs may suffer from poor transient performance, and external disturbances
 hydrodynamic phenomena in turbine design and non-design operation. Critical review
of various calculation methods is necessary to achieve different objectives for turbine hy-
draulic design and performance evaluation. The hydraulic turbine governance system
(HTGS) is a complex non-linear time-delayed system and stability control is an important
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 factor in the safe operation of hydroelectric units. Control focusing on Liapunov 10 asym-
of 19
metrically stabilized HTGSs may suffer from poor transient performance, and external
disturbances may also make control unsatisfactory. Numerical simulation results show
that it provides a better method for stability control of HTGS for practical engineering
may also make control unsatisfactory. Numerical simulation results show that it provides a
applications [79,80].
better method for stability control of HTGS for practical engineering applications [79,80].

Figure 7. Optimization method.

Head and height have a certain effect

effect on the flow rate. With the increase of head, the
flow will also increase, as will the best flow path
flow will also increase, as will the best flow path for
for evil
evil and
and the
thefinal
finalefficiency.
efficiency. Therefore,
Therefore,
it is very important to select the right head and head height.
it is very important to select the right head and head height.

3. Optimization of
3. Optimization of Hydraulic
Hydraulic Turbine
Turbine
3.1. Effect of Structure and Working Parameter Optimization on the Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbine
3.1. Effect of Structure and Working Parameter Optimization on the Efficiency of Hydraulic
As the core mechanical equipment of water energy development, the performance of
Turbine
a water turbine determines the utilization rate of water energy development. Driven by
As the core
the progress mechanical
of modern equipment
science of water energy
and technology, turbinedevelopment,
technology has thealso
performance
made great of
a water turbine determines the utilization rate of water energy development.
progress. By studying the optimization of steam turbine running parameters and structural Driven by
the progressthe
parameters, of modern sciencecan
steam turbine and technology,
keep turbine technology
running continuously has also
in the high made great
efficiency zone
progress. By studying the optimization
and improve system efficiency [81–86]. of steam turbine running parameters and struc-
turalFigure
parameters,
8 shows thethat
steam turbine
turbine can keep
pumps on therunning
marketcontinuously
mainly include in the high efficiency
mixed-flow type,
zone and improve system efficiency [81–86].
impact type, axial flow type, oblique flow type, transcurrent type and pump turbine. Each
Figure
turbine pump 8 shows
has itsthat
ownturbine pumps
advantages and ondisadvantages.
the market mainly For include
example,mixed-flow type,
the mixed-flow
impacthead
pump type,isaxial flow
higher type,
than theoblique flowpump,
axial flow type, transcurrent
but the flow type and pump
is smaller turbine.
than the axial Each
flow
turbine pump has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example,
pump and larger than the centrifugal pump, and the inclined flow pump covers less area, the mixed-flow
pump
has headdiameter,
a small is higher isthan thetoaxial
easy startflow
and haspump,
highbut the flow Axial
efficiency. is smaller
flow than
pumpstheare
axial flow
mainly
pump and larger than the centrifugal pump, and the inclined flow pump
suitable for low head, large flow occasions, such as irrigation, drainage, dock drainage, covers less area,
has a small diameter, is easy to start and has high efficiency. Axial flow pumps are mainly
Processes 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWcanal lock water level regulation, or as large circulating water pump power plants. The
11 of 19
suitable for
hydraulic low of
action head, largeturbines
different flow occasions,
can causesuch as irrigation,
serious drainage,
problems (e.g., dockshutdowns
abnormal drainage,
canaltolock
due watermachine
excessive level regulation, or as
vibrations), andlarge circulating determines
the production water pump power
which kindplants. The
of pump
hydraulic
is action of different
needed according to the actualturbines can [87,88].
situation cause serious problems (e.g., abnormal shut-
downs due to excessive machine vibrations), and the production determines which kind
of pump is needed according to the actual situation [87,88].

Figure 8. Study on the types of turbines.

Figure 8. Study on the types of turbines.
As the core mechanical equipment of water energy development, the performance
of As
a water turbine
the core determines
mechanical the utilization
equipment of waterrate of water
energy energy development.
development, Withofthe
the performance
a water turbine determines the utilization rate of water energy development. With the
advancement of modern science and technology, the calibration technology of hydraulic
turbines has made great progress. By optimizing the operation parameters and structural
parameters of the steam turbine, the steam turbine can keep running continuously in the
high efficiency zone and improve system efficiency [89–91]. Verbeek [92] found that the
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 11 of 19

advancement of modern science and technology, the calibration technology of hydraulic

turbines has made great progress. By optimizing the operation parameters and structural
parameters of the steam turbine, the steam turbine can keep running continuously in the
high efficiency zone and improve system efficiency [89–91]. Verbeek [92] found that the
power coefficient of the turbine could be improved by optimizing the degree of blockage
of the channel and the distance between the turbine and the structure, which was related
to wake configuration. As a result, when the turbine is repositioned from the upstream
end of the structure to the downstream end, the power coefficient improves by 40%.
Han et al. [93,94] reduced the internal energy loss and improved the working efficiency
and service life of the hydraulic turbine by optimizing the structure of the valve distributor,
bifurcated pipe and nozzle.
Performance prediction of the hydraulic turbine multistage centrifugal pump. At
present, research on the performance prediction and structure optimization of multi-stage
hydraulic turbine pumps mostly adopts a numerical simulation method, and the single-
stage pump is used for reference in theory [95,96]. However, the design principles of the
two are not exactly the same. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the turbulence
theory and structure optimization of a multistage centrifugal pump to improve its working
performance [97–99].
The influence of medium temperature on prediction accuracy and the influence of
medium property change caused by temperature change on turbine performance cannot be
ignored. Working efficiency can be improved by optimizing the working parameters of
hydraulic turbines [100–102].
There are three main types of hydraulic turbine pumps: one is a hydraulic turbine
pump, one is a reverse hydraulic pump, and one is a new type of hydraulic pump. Hy-
draulic turbine pumps with high comprehensive performance and good adaptability are
widely used in enterprises. The reverse hydraulic pump is relatively simple to operate,
widely used, economical and practical, and performs well in production. The new hy-
draulic pump is easy to use, has a higher overall performance, and can optimize the
overall structure. Each pump has its own advantages, and the specific choice depends on
the situation.
Whether in aerospace or hydroelectric power generation, where the hydraulic turbine
is a critical part, Luiz Henrique Lindquist Whitacker et al. [103–105] used simulation
to verify the effect of parameters, such as blade structure and the top clearance of the
blade, on efficiency, providing a new approach for future research in numerical simulation.
Elena-Maria et al. [106] reduced the impact of hydraulic turbines on the environment by
improving the structure, and Rahimilarki et al. [107,108] improved the efficiency of fault
detection by using neural network algorithms to ensure safe operation. Delgado [109]
proposed a new two-step method based on Hermite polynomial chaotic expansion to
predict the characteristic curve of a pump operating as a hydraulic turbine and to model its
variable speed operation so as to improve the prediction accuracy. The proposed predictive
agent function and variable speed mountain map model are useful engineering tools for
improving the design of pumps as turbine hydropower stations and for optimizing the
operation of pumps as turbine control settings to maximize the energy generated.

3.2. Optimization of Turbine by the Box–Behnken Design Method

To improve turbine efficiency, Ji et al. [110] combined the BBD response surface method
with CFD numerical simulation to obtain an optimal turbine model. The Sharma relation
between the flow and head maximum performance of the turbine was calculated to predict
the turbine performance at the optimum pump efficiency point. In the test, the impeller
blade outlet angle, blade inlet angle and blade thickness are taken as the influence factors of
the BBD test, and the water head and efficiency are taken as the evaluation indicators. The
response surface test design and results are shown in Table 1. Through variance analysis
of the quadratic linear model of turbine blade efficiency, the turbine efficiency is mainly
influenced by the blade inlet angle and not by the outlet angle and blade thickness.
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 12 of 19

Table 1. Response surface test design and results [110].

Blade Outlet Blade Inlet Blade

No. Efficiency/%
Angle/◦ Angle/◦ Thickness/mm
1 22 18 3.5 84.3
2 28 18 3.5 84.2
3 25 22 3.5 86.8
4 28 26 3.5 85.8
5 25 22 3.5 86.3
6 28 22 2.8 86.6
7 25 18 4.2 83.5
8 28 22 4.2 84.7
9 25 22 3.5 86.8
10 25 26 2.8 86.3
11 22 26 3.5 86.1
12 25 26 4.2 85.4
13 25 22 3.5 86.3
14 22 22 4.2 85.5
15 25 18 2.8 84.6
16 25 22 3.5 86.3
17 22 22 2.8 86.2

In addition, Ji et al. [110] completed the calculation model and verification of grid in-
dependence. By analyzing the external characteristic curve of the turbine, the performance
of the model is optimized, and the efficiency is improved. In a comparative analysis of the
turbine flow field, optimizing the turbine inlet and outlet pressures reduces energy loss.
The velocity field of the optimized model can make the turbine speed change slowly and
the flow stable and improve the hydraulic performance of the turbine.

3.3. Multi-Objective Parameter Optimization of Turbine Impeller Based on the RBF Neural
Network and NSGA-II Genetic Algorithm
Ji et al. [111] proposed a radial basis function (RBF) neural network combined with an
NSGA-II genetic algorithm for multi-objective optimization of the PAT impeller in order
to improve the efficiency of a centrifugal pump as a turbine (PAT). A Plackett–Burman
screening test was used to screen the geometric parameters affecting the turbine impeller
and a Latin experimental design method was used to sample the selected significant
influences. An RBF neural network was used to fit the mapping relationship between the
optimization variables and the optimization objectives, and the NSGA-II genetic algorithm
was used for multi-objective optimization. The results showed that the efficiency and
competence of the optimized model were improved by 5.74% and 4.85%, respectively,
compared to the original model.
In Figure 9, pumps and turbines are reversible. However, in engineering practice, the
working conditions and operation modes of pump and steam turbines are very different. If
the design method of the pump is directly applied to the design of the steam turbine, the
efficiency of the steam turbine is generally low, the service life is shortened, and the energy
cannot be effectively recovered. Therefore, it is found that there is a certain conversion
relationship between the pump and steam turbine.
The model calculation domain is shown in Figure 10 and includes the impeller flow
path and the vortex flow path. The impeller runners are meshed by Turbogrid in ANSYS.
Many parameters affect turbine performance. In order to clarify the significant influ-
encing parameters, Design Expect 10 software was used to design the Plackett–Burman
screening test for the geometrical parameters of the turbine, taking the water head and
efficiency of the turbine as optimization objectives. Six geometric parameters, including
inlet angle, outlet angle, winding angle, inlet width, outlet diameter and blade thickness,
were selected. The above values are about 0.8 times and 1.2 times the original geometric pa-
rameters, respectively, and a total of 12 tests were carried out. The corresponding efficiency
and headers of 12 groups of samples were simulated using Ansys-CFX software, and the
 the efficiency
compared of original
to the the steam turbine is generally low, the service life is
model.
energy cannot9,be
In Figure effectively
pumps recovered.
and turbines Therefore, However,
are reversible. it is foundinthat th
engin
version relationship
working conditions and between the pump
operation modesand steam and
of pump turbine.
steam turbines
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 If the design method of the pump is directly applied to the13design of 19 of
the efficiency of the steam turbine is generally low, the service life is
energy cannot
results were beusing
analyzed effectively recovered.
Design Expect 10 software.Therefore,
The analysis it is found
results that the
show that
version relationship
inlet placement between
angle, winding the
angle, and inletpump and
width are steamparameters
important turbine.affecting
turbine performance.

Figure 9. Geometric parameters of the impeller [111].

The model calculation domain is shown in Figure 10 and include

path and the vortex flow path. The impeller runners are meshed by T
SYS.9. Geometric parameters of the impeller [111].
Figure
Figure 9. Geometric parameters of the impeller [111].

The model calculation domain is shown in Figure 10 and includes

path and the vortex flow path. The impeller runners are meshed by Tu
SYS.

Figure 10. Calculation domain of the original model [111].

Figure 10. Calculation domain of the original model [111].
When the NSGA-II genetic algorithm is used for global optimization, the population
size is defined
Manyasparameters
200, the maximumaffectgenetic algebra performance.
turbine is 100, and the crossover probability
In order to clarify t
is 0.9. The Pareto front figure optimized by the NSGA-II genetic algorithm is shown in
encing
Figure parameters,
11. On Design
the basis of ensuring Expect
turbine water10 software
head, the Paretowas
front’sused to design th
three optimal
screening
efficiency testare
solutions forselected.
the geometrical parameters
The best efficiency was 83.34%, andof the turbine, taking
the corresponding
Figure
head was10. Calculation
234.37 m. domain of the original model [111].
efficiency of theresults
The optimization turbine
showas thatoptimization objectives.
compared to the original model,Six geometric pa
the optimized
inletMany
model angle,the
reduces outlet angle,
inlet angle
parameters Bt by winding angle,
2.64, the wrap
affect turbine inlet
angle (by 33.15width,
performance. outlet to diameter
◦ and the inlet width by
In order a
clarify th
0.97 mm). At the design working point, the optimized model is 5.74% more efficient than
were selected.
encing parameters,
the original
The above
model and has aDesign
values
Expect
5.74% higher
are
10about
head than software
the
0.8 times
was used
original model.
and to 1.2design
times the
th
parameters,
screening testrespectively, and a total
for the geometrical of 12 tests
parameters ofwere carried out.
the turbine, Thet
taking
ciency and
efficiency of headers of 12asgroups
the turbine of samples
optimization were simulated
objectives. usingpar
Six geometric A
and angle,
inlet the results were
outlet analyzed
angle, windingusing Design
angle, inletExpect
width,10 software.
outlet The aa
diameter
that inlet
were placement
selected. angle,
The above winding
values angle,0.8
are about and inletand
times width
1.2 are impor
times the
fecting turbine performance.
parameters, respectively, and a total of 12 tests were carried out. The
 When the NSGA-II genetic algorithm is used for global optimization, the population
size is defined as 200, the maximum genetic algebra is 100, and the crossover probability
is 0.9. The Pareto front figure optimized by the NSGA-II genetic algorithm is shown in
Figure 11. On the basis of ensuring turbine water head, the Pareto front’s three optimal
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 14 of 19
efficiency solutions are selected. The best efficiency was 83.34%, and the corresponding
head was 234.37 m.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Pareto
Paretofront
front[111].
[111].

4. Conclusions
The optimization results show that compared to the original model, the optimized
model reduces turbine
Hydraulic the inletenergy
angle Bt by 2.64,devices
recovery the wrap angle
are (by used,
widely 33.15°and
andtheir
the inlet widthhas
research by
0.97 mm). At
developed the direction
in the design working point, the specialization
of specialization, optimized model andisdiversification.
5.74% more efficient than
the original model and has a 5.74% higher head than the original model.
(1) Improving the efficiency of a hydraulic turbine can be regulated in three ways: the
structural performance of the turbine itself, the configuration of the recovery unit and
4. Conclusions
the operating conditions. The methods used to analyze the energy loss and efficiency
Hydraulic
of turbine
a hydraulic energy
turbine recovery devices
are numerical are and
simulation widely used,generation
entropy and their research has
theory. The
developed in thethat
conditions direction
cause of specialization,
energy specialization
losses in hydraulic and diversification.
turbines are erosion, vortex rope
(1) phenomena
Improving the andefficiency
energy losses due to friction
of a hydraulic turbine andcanunstable flow patterns.
be regulated in three ways: the
(2) With the increase
structural in head,
performance of the
the pump
turbineflow and
itself, theoutput power increase,
configuration and the unit
of the recovery trendandis
first rise and then
the operating a small decline,
conditions. mainly
The methods usedat the impeller,the
to analyze followed
energy by losstheandworm gear
efficiency
and
of a discharge
hydraulic pipeturbine area.
areThe pump showed
numerical simulation obviousand hump
entropy characteristics in the low
generation theory. The
flow area, and the hydraulic efficiency increased and then
conditions that cause energy losses in hydraulic turbines are erosion, vortex rope decreased with the flow
rate. The main
phenomena andreason
energy forlosses
the hydraulic loss in
due to friction andtheunstable
low-flow condition
flow patterns. is the vortex
(2) With the increase in head, the pump flow and output power increase, andhydraulic
flow and the flow separation in the suction surface at the impeller, and the the trend
loss in the
is first rise impeller
and thendomaina small gradually decreases
decline, mainly at the with the increase
impeller, followed of the
by flow
the wormrate.
The
gearmain reason forpipe
and discharge the area.
hydraulic loss in
The pump the high-flow
showed obviouscondition is the secondary
hump characteristics in the
flow in thearea,
low flow worm andgeartheand the turbulent
hydraulic efficiency flow increased
in the outlet andpipe.
thenThe lift coefficient
decreased with theof
the pump decreases with the increase of roughness. The
flow rate. The main reason for the hydraulic loss in the low-flow condition is the increase of the inlet angle
will
vortexmakeflowtheand
influence
the flow of roughness
separationon in the
the impeller increaseattothe
suction surface a certain
impeller,extent,
andandthe
the lift coefficient and drag coefficient of the impeller are
hydraulic loss in the impeller domain gradually decreases with the increase of the distributed as a periodic
function
flow rate.ofThe time.main reason for the hydraulic loss in the high-flow condition is the
(3) Different
secondary flow inand
turbines the different
worm gear working
and the conditions
turbulentcan flowadopt different
in the outlet optimization
pipe. The lift
methods.
coefficientThe optimization
of the pump decreases methods described
with in detail
the increase in this paperThe
of roughness. are increase
Box–Behnkenof the
Design method and the NSGA-II genetic algorithm. By optimizing the inlet angle,
inlet angle will make the influence of roughness on the impeller increase to a certain
outlet noise, blade thickness and other adjustments are made. Compared with the
extent, and the lift coefficient and drag coefficient of the impeller are distributed as a
data of the original model, the distribution of pressure, turbulent kinetic energy and
periodic function of time.
velocity in the flow are significantly improved.
(3) Different turbines and different working conditions can adopt different optimization
The conclusion
methods. is that a lot ofmethods
The optimization work needs to be done
described in detailto understand
in this paper the working
are Box–
conditions
Behnken of the hydraulic
Design method turbine
and the under various
NSGA-II working
genetic conditions,
algorithm. to use a variety
By optimizing of
the inlet
multi-objective
angle, outlet optimization
noise, blademethods
thicknesstoand optimize the design, and
other adjustments to improve
are made. Comparedthe workwith
efficiency and prolong the working life. Developing a more efficient hydraulic turbine or
better optimization methods is an important direction of future research.

Funding: The research was supported by the Program for the Introduction of Foreign Intellects in
Hebei Prov (2022) “Research on Key Technologies and Equipment of Efficient and Clean Power
Generation for Carbon Neutralization” (No. 20220701).
Processes 2023, 11, 1815 15 of 19

Data Availability Statement: The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study
are available within the article.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei
Province (No. E2021208004) and the Program for the Introduction of Foreign Intellects in Hebei Prov.
(2022). This research was supported by the Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Public Big Data
(No. PBD2021-06) and Guizhou optoelectronic information and intelligent application International
Joint Research Center (Qiankehe platform talents No. 5802[2019]).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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