OWEN EDSON GWEME

R198710A

PROJECT TOPIC: DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A MICROBIAL FUEL

CELL TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY USING WASTEWATER.
 ABSTRACT

Energy and waste management are two crisis that world is facing nowadays.

A Microbial fuel cells (MFC) is a collective solution of these two crisis. MFC

converts energy of chemical bond of biodegradable compound into electricity

with the help of microorganisms. MFC technology has very wide range of

applications but very recent researches are more focused on wastewater

treatment and biosensor technology.

There are many types of MFCs are made but among all those 2-chamber H-

type MFC is used in study because it is best for preliminary experimental

purpose. The anoxic anode chamber is connected internally to the cathode

chamber via a proton exchange membrane with the circuit completed by an

external wire.

The project represents experimental setup construction, setup run

prerequisites and results. In whole project we are aiming to check maximum

generated Voltage, Current and Power and treatability of anaerobic sewage

sludge and review of benefits of MFC technology for wastewater treatment

and simultaneous energy generation. The report presents the study done to

understand various aspects of design and operation of MFC and how it is

implemented to make an experimental setup of MFC as well as feasibility and

benefits of MFC technology for wastewater treatment with electricity

generation.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

While the world population is growing, energy and water resources are
becoming limited. An additional challenge associated with population
growth is the increase in wastewater generation and environmental
pollution. While water scarcity and energy demand are continuously
increasing in the world, alternative sources are needed to meet the
requirement of a growing population. Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) is a
sustainable technology that converts organic matter in wastewater into
electricity, thus it can be a potential alternative source for water and
energy. Although significant studies in MFC research have been
accomplished in the last few years, improvement in power generation and
decrease in material cost are still necessary to bring MFC into Practical
application. The main goal of this work is to contribute in making MFC
more applicable in industrial and municipal facilities, and to evaluate its
scaling up for real world application.

1.2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY FROM SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS:

However, wastewater itself is intrinsically rich in energy, estimated to
have an energy content greater than the energy necessary to treat it.
Approximately 66% of this energy is stored in sludge, following treatment
and further developing technologies capable of extracting energy from the
organic material in sludge is key to decreasing external energy demands
and overall treatment costs of wastewater treatment. Energy usage of
wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) can range from 0.4 to 1.4 kWh m -3.
While there are many technologies capable of extracting energy from
sludge to offset this energy demand, anaerobic digestion has seen the most
widespread application [12, 28].Anaerobic digesters are able to convert
1
about 28% of the energy potential of the biodegradable organics in
wastewater to electricity through generation and subsequent combustion
of CH4 biogas, meeting roughly a quarter to almost half the energy needs
of an average WWTP [28]. Though anaerobic digestion is a proven
technology, significant energy reserves are left unrecovered, and effluent
standards are not met necessitating secondary processes such as aeration.
Further developing nascent wastewater technologies with the potential for
increased energy efficiency can greatly decrease wastewater treatment
costs.

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-developed technology to generate

biogas (mainly methane) from organic wastes through a series of
microbial reactions. It has an established performance and is considered
as an effective approach for wastes-to-energy. AD is a well-developed
and practiced technology and AD can handle high strength wastewater at
a loading rate of 10-20 kg COD/ (m3 day) [28]. Biogas is difficult to store
and needs to be treated because of components such as H2S and
Conversion of biogas to electricity requires an additional step and is at an
efficiency of conventional combustion, and The effluent of AD still
contains high organic contents and requires post-treatment and some
previous studies and others’ have found that MFCs can improve
biodegradation of organics, even some refractory compounds and MFCs
can be diversified with new functions such as hydrogen production,
desalination, and heavy metal removal.

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a new technology to directly produce

electricity from organic wastes. MFCs are bio-electrochemical reactors in
which bacteria oxidize various organic or inorganic compounds in the
anode chamber and generate proton and electrons that transport to the

2
cathode to reduce oxygen to water. Electron flow from the anode to the
cathode generates an electric current or power if a load is connected
advantages of MFCs include that Direct generation of electricity; no
additional conversion step is require and MFCs can be operated at
temperatures below 20 ºC, and are efficient at low substrate concentration
levels, in terms of both electricity generation and organic removal
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are able to the convert the potential energy of
a wide range of organics directly into electricity. Various sludge types
were tested directly in MFCs, including raw sludge, primary sludge,
digested sludge from anaerobic digesters and membrane bioreactors, as
well as a mixture of primary sludge with primary effluent. However,
columbic efficiencies were low and volumetric power densities observed
were a small fraction of what is achievable in MFC systems [32]. Poor
performance can be partly attributed to low concentrations of dissolved
organics and well as inefficient reactor design. In order to improve MFC
power generation from sludge treatment, various sludge pre-treatment
procedures have been explored to increase dissolved organic
concentrations, including sonication, sterilization, and basification,
Ozonation, the use of microwaves, and fermentation. Fermentation was
not only highly effective at solubilizing organics, but less energy intensive
than other pre-treatment processes. The power density of a fermented
sludge supernatant/primary effluent solution is much higher than that
without the fermented sludge pre-treatment. However adding phosphate
buffer to fermented sludge solutions doubled or tripled power densities,
indicating that lowering the internal resistance of MFC would be key for
further increasing the power generation from pre-treated sludge. A novel
cloth electrode assembly (CEA) MFC has recently demonstrated high
power while operated in both batch and continuous flow modes.[15]
Therefore this design and its associated community has the potential to

3
generate high

4
power using waste streams without high conductivity. However, this
reactor setup has been evaluated using a real waste stream.

To address those serious problems, advances in research have been made

to improve water management and to make wastewater treatment more
effective and efficient. Also, alternative renewable energy sources
(bioenergy, geothermal, solar, wind etc.) have been investigated and
applied. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a sustainable technology that has
potential to treat wastewater while producing electricity and thus
providing a solution for water and energy shortages [9]. In the present
study, CEA- MFCs were used to investigate the possibility of generating
high power outputs from fermented primary sludge. The feasibility and
efficiency of integrating MFC and anaerobic digestion treatment
processes was also evaluated. MFC can use organics in waste streams as
energy source and enhance food security by providing treated water that
could be applied in irrigation. The bacteria on the MFC anode decompose
organic matter in wastewater, liberating electrons that flow to the cathode
through an external circuit and generate electricity. At the cathode,
electrons, protons and oxygen form water.

Though it has been known that bacteria can produce electrical current.
Only in the last decade that research on MFCs for potential application in
wastewater treatment and energy production has been conducted
extensively resulted in large enhancements in MFC performance. The
factors contributing to the improvements include the discovery of new
electrochemically active bacterial species, the development of electrodes,
and development of ion exchange membranes and the modification of
reactor design.

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1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of this project is to take ideas being generated in current research
on microbial fuel cells and apply them to produce a fully functional prototype
that could potentially be used commercially. This project focuses on
engineering design and optimization of the fuel cells, while meeting specified
objectives. The scope of the project lies within its technology and its
applications. In this project a detailed study and evaluation is done on
treatability of wastewater (anaerobic sludge) with simultaneous electricity
production.

1. Microbial Fuel Cell is a promising technology for wastewater

treatment that almost 80% than conventional treatment in removal
of heavy metal.

2. Microbial fuel cell is capability of producing direct electricity from

organic compounds with the help of micro- organism.

3. Microbial Fuel Cell can produce Hydrogen as fuel and which is said
to be a future fuel. And these hydrogen will end up on combustion
as water which is even more eco-friendly.

4. Unlike chemical fuel cell, MFC does not require complex systems
or devices in its process of producing energy.

5. Availability of raw material- This technology uses microbes as raw

materials that are abundant.

6. Biosensor- Apart from the mentioned applications, another potential

application of the MFC technology is to use it as a sensor for
6
pollutant analysis and in situ process monitoring and control.

7
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

Because of the complexity of this project it is important to fulfil very

basic objectives like producing electricity and efficiency in reducing
COD of wastewater. Objectives are defined in that manner.

1. To analyze the characteristics of Substrate i.e. anaerobic wastewater

chosen for the present study.

2. To find the Maximum voltage generated from the chosen substrate

(i.e.) Secondary Sewage sludge (wastewater) using Microbial Fuel Cell.

3. To determine the Maximum current generated from Secondary sewage

sludge by Microbial Fuel Cell.

4. To calculate the Maximum power generated from the produced voltage

and current in Microbial Fuel Cell using Secondary Sewage Sludge as
substrate.

5. To propose a feasible method for anaerobic sludge treatment with more

energy recovery than from conventional anaerobic digester.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

In this chapter literature review of this project is carried out from various
books, reference, journals, and from several websites. The brief discussion of
the project is presented below in this project.

2.1.2 Bruce E. Logan, et al, (2010), observed that the Microbial fuel cell
(MFC) research is a rapidly evolving field that lacks established terminology
and methods for the analysis of system performance. This makes it difficult
for researchers to compare devices on an equivalent basis. The construction
and analysis of MFCs requires knowledge of different scientific and
engineering fields, ranging from microbiology and electrochemistry to
materials and environmental engineering. Describing MFC systems therefore
involves an understanding of these different scientific and engineering
principles. In this paper, we provide a review of the different materials and
methods used to construct MFCs, techniques used to analyse system
performance, and recommendations on what information to include in MFC
studies and the most useful ways to present results.

2.1.3 Zhuwei Du, Haoran Li, Tingyue Gu (2011) observes that a microbial
fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical
bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of
microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. It has been known for many
years that it is possible to generate electricity directly by using bacteria to
break down organic substrates. The recent energy crisis has reinvigorated
interests in MFCs among academic researchers as a way to generate electric
power or hydrogen from biomass without a net carbon emission into the
ecosystem. MFCs can also be used in wastewater treatment facilities to break
down organic matters. They
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have also been studied for applications as biosensors such as sensors for

10
biological oxygen demand monitoring. Power output and Columbic efficiency
are significantly affected by the types of microbe in the anodic chamber of an
MFC, configuration of the MFC and operating conditions. Currently, real-
world applications of MFCs are limited because of their low power density
level of several thousand mW/m 2. Efforts are being made to improve the
performance and reduce the construction and operating costs of MFCs.

2.1.4 M.M. Ghangrekar and V.B. Shinde (2011) observes that While
treating sewage, particularly in small capacity treatment plant recovery of
methane may not be attractive, because most of the methane produced in the
reactor is lost through effluent of the reactor. The methane concentration of
about 16 mg/L (equivalent COD 64 mg/L) is expected in the effluent of the
reactor due to high partial pressure of methane gas inside the reactor1. Hence,
while treating low strength wastewater major fraction of the methane gas may
be lost through effluents, reducing the energy recovery. In addition, due to
global environmental concerns and energy insecurity, there is emergent
interest to find out sustainable and clean energy source with minimal or zero
use of hydrocarbons. Electricity can be produced in different types of power
plant systems, batteries or fuel cells. Bacteria can be used to catalyse the
conversion of organic matter into electricity.

2.1.5 Mostafa Rahimnejad, et al, (2011) observes that Microbial fuel cells
(MFCs) are biochemical-catalyzed systems in which electricity is produced
by oxidizing biodegradable organic matters in presence of either bacteria or
enzyme. This system can serve as a device for generating clean energy and,
also wastewater treatment unit. The performance of MFC was analysed by the
measurement of polarization curve and cyclic voltammetry data as well.
Closed circuit voltage was obtained using a 1 kohm resistance. The voltage at
steady- state condition was 440 mV and it was stable for the entire operation
time. In a continuous system, the effect of hydraulic retention time
(HRT) on
11
performance of MFC was examined. The optimum HRT was found to be

12
around 7 h. Maximum produced power and current density at optimum HRT
were 1210 mA m-2 and 283 mWm-2, respectively. As aforementioned, MFCs
can potentially be used for different applications. When used in wastewater
treatment, a large surface area is needed for biofilm to build up on the anode.
A breakthrough is needed in creating inexpensive electrodes that resist
fouling. It is unrealistic to expect that the power density output from an MFC
to match that of conventional chemical fuel cell such as a hydrogen-powered
fuel cell. The fuel in an MFC is often a rather dilute biomass (as in
wastewater treatment) in the anodic chamber that has a limited energy
(reflected by its BOD). Another limitation is the inherent naturally low
catalytic rate of the microbes. Even at their fastest growth rate microbes are
relatively slow transformers. Although Columbic efficiency over 90% has
been achieved in some cases, it has little effect on the crucial problem of low
reaction rate.

2.1.6 Katalin Belafi-Bako, et al, (2012) observed that the anaerobic sludge
applied in the anodic cell was pre-treated prior to usage, as it was reported.
The MFC was placed in a thermo stated container, where the liquids in both
cells were possible to circulate and stir. In the cathodic cell air was entered
continuously by a pump to ensure aerobic environment, while N2 was
spangled through the anodic cell to assure the anaerobic conditions. The MFC
reactor was initially inoculated with the pre-treated anaerobic sludge. Then
the microbial consortia started to operate in the cell and they were allowed to
adapt the actual conditions and colonise locally. To follow the processes
various analytical methods: pH, total solid substance (TSS), COD were
applied. COD values of the samples taken from the cells were determined by
the potassium dichromate method, which is based on the following oxidation
reaction in acidic environment as it can be seen remarkable TSS and COD
decrease could be observed during the processes, while electric power was
generated continuously.
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2.1.7 Zheng Ge, Fei Zhang, Julien Grimaud, Jim Hurst, (2014) observes
that Sewage sludge is a by-product of municipal wastewater treatment and
generated from primary and secondary sedimentation. In municipal
wastewater treatment plants, the treatment and disposal of sewage sludge can
comprise up to 50% of the operation costs .There are several approaches for
treating sludge to reduce solid contents and to stabilize biomass; however,
anaerobic digestion (AD) is generally preferred because of its cost-
effectiveness and bioenergy production. Digested sludge can be further
composted for agriculture uses, and biogas can be converted into electricity
and/or heat through combustion and thus compensate for some energy use in a
wastewater treatment plant. Because of a large amount of organic contents,
primary sludge contains about 66% of the energy content of wastewater, and
about 81% of biodegradable organic energy may be converted to methane.
Despite the great energy potential with biogas production, several issues limit
successful methane-to-electricity is about 33%. Therefore, it is of great
interest to explore alternative technologies for sludge treatment and energy
recovery. Electricity can be generated directly from sludge. The amount of
current increases when a readily biodegradable substrate is added, indicating
that the current is related to degradation of this organic (acetate), and that it is
microbially mediated. Based on several different analytical techniques, there
is no accumulation of a surface film of Geobacter or other microorganisms.

2.1.8 Based on Materials and Methodology

Logan et al., (2013) used acetate as their source for power generation, having
concentration of 1g/L. They used pre acclimated bacteria from MFC and cube
shaped single chamber MFC having graphite fiber brush anode. The
maximum current density generated was 0.8 mA/cm2. (12)

14
Catal et al., (2014) used arbitol as one of the substrate for single chamber,
air- cathode microbial fuel cell, producing current density of 0.68 mA/cm 2.
They used pre acclimated bacteria from MFC (13)

Dumas et al., (2014) used sodium fumarate and G.sulferreducens for his
stainless steel cathode based MFC and succeeded in producing current density
of 2.05 mA/cm2. (14)

Luo et al. (2008) used phenol of concentration 400mg/ml for his two
chamber and air cathode MFC. He successfully produced current density of
0.1 mA/cm2.

2.1.9 S.K. Dentel et al. (2004) observe that recently it has been shown that
electrical energy can be harvested from marine sediments, simply by
connection of an electrode (anode) in anaerobic marine sediments to an
electrode in the aerobic zone above the sediments. We have now shown that
similar applications are available in sludge treatment. Using a reactor with
graphite foil electrodes in an aerated aerobic and anaerobic sludge zone,
electrical current was generated, and enhanced when an additional organic
substrate (acetate) was added. Electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and
PCR examination of the anode surface showed no surface colonization and no
increase in Geo-bacterrelative to a control, indicating that microbial use of the
anode as an electron acceptor was indirect through the use of redox mediators.

2.1.10 Based on Experiment with complex substrates

Rodrigo et al. (2007) used real urban waste water of concentration of

330mg/ml in two chamber MFC and successfully generated current density of
0.018 mW/cm2. (17)

Oh and Logan (2005) used Food processing waste water for two chamber
MFC, having graphite electrode and generated a current density of 0.05
mW/cm2. (18)

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2.2 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)

A Microbial Fuel Cell or biological fuel cell is a bio-electrochemical system

that drives an electric current with degradation by using microbes. They can
be served for several purposes and their application in energy production and
waste treatment have attracted researchers in recent years thus it’s a
promising technology to address the future energy crisis and waste treatment.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MICROBIAL FUEL CELL

2.3.1 SINGLE CHAMBER

In single chamber MFC, anode and cathode are in the same chamber but
on opposite sides. A higher power density is obtained with single chamber
MFC compared to two chamber system due to a decrease in internal
resistance. Single –chamber MFCs have also the advantage of being less
expensive and simpler than double-chamber MFC [19]. (CEA) MFC is a
single-chamber MFC where anode and cathode are separated by cloth
layer (Figure 1.2). The minimum distance between the two electrodes
reduces internal resistance and consequently, increases power production.

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of CEA-MFC design.

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2.3.2. DOUBLE CHAMBER

In two-chamber MFCs, anode and cathode chambers are separated by a

membrane or salt bridge. The oxidant at the cathode could be ferric
cyanide or permanganate or others [28] Oxygen could be used as well but
it is less efficient and requires energy for air spangling. Two-chamber
MFCs are not much sustainable due to the need of oxidant refilling in the
cathode chamber but though double chamber is one that well suited for
studies on laboratory scales.

Figure 3.2: Schematic diagram of Double Chamber-MFC design

2.3.3 MATERIALS
The need for wider application and increase power output of MFCs has
resulted to the alteration of the essential physical components of MFCs
which includes the anode, cathode and proton exchange membrane. The
following are various materials and components of Microbial Fuel Cell.

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2.3.4 ANODE CHAMBER
In the Anode chamber, Electricigens which are active bacteria oxidize the
substrate to generate electrons and protons, and transport the electrons to the
anode electrode surface to form biofilm [19, 26]. These electrons travel to the
cathode through the external circuit while the protons travel to the cathode by
diffusing through the electrolyte and exchange membrane. And the electrodes
on anode chamber sometimes remains the same as one on cathode chamber
and some of anodic electrodes are Graphite anodes are the most abundantly
used one and its cost is also low. They are porous metal, therefore graphite
anodes used for MFC are pre-treated with oil or wax to prevent internal pores
deterioration by mechanical & chemical action on anode that cause softening
& swelling, oiling and waxing results in reduced penetration of the electrolyte
and increased mechanical strength [41]. Carbon paper and carbon cloths are
also used, mainly for the lab-scale study of current generations. In this present
study Anode chamber was designed to 500ml volume and the anode electrode
was chosen as carbon cloth electrode. The cathode chamber was maintained
anaerobic and air tight chamber and by which methanogen activity reduces
the results, a head space of 5cm maintained for gaseous collection. And thus
only 300 ml of sample is taken for study.

2.3.5 CATHODE CHAMBER

The protons on passing to the cathode chamber forms water by

combining with the electrons and oxygen, with the aid of catalyst. The
oxidant at the cathode could be ferric cyanide or permanganate or others.
Oxygen could be used as well and requires energy for air spangling. And
cathode electrodes are as follows Cathode materials- Cathode are usually
made up of platinum, major concern is the optimization of MFC design in
order to maximize power output and reducing installation and operation
costs simultaneously. The cost of the Platinum catalyst used at the

18
cathode is a

19
major limitation to MFC application and economic viability. On the
Concept of bio-cathodes that would use bacteria instead of Platinum as a
biocatalyst at the cathode. Sometime same anode and cathode materials
are used in the construction of MFC. The electrodes are made from
carbon rods, inert metals can also be used, metals such as copper, iron,
zinc, aluminium etc… Should be avoided as they may give rise to
spurious generation of current from electrochemical dissolution of the
metal [18]. Solar energy can serve as an alternative energy source for
MFC operation proposed the concept of a ‘living solar cell’ in which the
green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii produces hydrogen photo
synthetically which in turn is oxidized in situ to produce current. In this
present study cathode chamber was designed as similar to anode chamber
of 500ml and cathode electrode of carbon cloth electrode coated with
platinum is used where platinum act as catalyst.

2.3.6 PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE (PEM)

The Proton exchange membrane permits the passage of protons to the
cathode chamber. Nafion-117 a type of PEM developed for optimum
transport of proton generated in the anode chamber to the cathode
chamber due to its selectivity. Nafion-117 is expensive resulting to
increase in unit cost of MFC. The design of a cheaper PEM has been
reported to me a major factor to improve the unit cost of MFC [8]. PEM
in some cases is called CEM based on the fact that it allows for the
transfer of other ions like Na+, K+, NH4 +, Ca2+, and Mg2+ apart from
proton. These competitive transfers has been noted to inhibit proton
transport through PEM including the Nafion-117 And even salt bridge
can be used as a proton exchange membrane. In this present study
Nafion-117 is chosen as Proton exchange membrane and even a salt
bridge of agarose and 1MKCl is tested for economical evaluation of
Microbial Fuel Cell.
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2.3.7 SALT BRIDGE PREPARATION
Salt bridge is made of agar + salt. 100ml of distil water is taken in 250ml
beaker and put on the heating at 80°C, now 0.1g KCl is added as a salt and
dissolved. Provide continuous stirring and add 5 g agar slowly until the
viscosity of the solution rich to solidify. Cotton plugs are placed to the two
side opening of the salt bridge casing pipe and solution is immediately
poured. Let it be until the agar salt bridge is solidified completely. For 2 to 3
hours. Now salt bridge is ready for operation.

2.3.8 ELECTRODE MATERIALS

Research has shown that the selection of material such as substrate, anode
and cathode electrode for MFC has a major effect on the efficiency of the
MFC [28]. The material affect key parameters of columbic efficiency
(CE) (the ratio of total electrons recovered as current, to maximum
possible electrons if all substrate removal produced current) .The basic
properties of the MFC electrode include biocompatibility, conductivity,
non- corrosive and surface area. Many materials that have found
application as electrode in MFCs include carbon paper, cloth, foam, and
felt; graphite rod, foil, brush and granules, activated carbon, reticulated
vitreous carbon,; metals, aluminium, nickel and stainless steel Carbon
felt, platinum, graphite-ceramic composite, cobalt, ash cement composite
[9, 18, 20]. In this present study anode with carbon cloth electrode and
cathode with carbon cloth electrode coated with platinum where platinum
act as a catalyst were taken for study.

2.3.9 SUBSTRATES

Substrate used for Electricity Generation Substrate is a key factor for

efficient production of electricity from a MFC. Substrate spectrum used
for electricity generation ranges from simple to complex mixture of
organic matter present in wastewater. Although substrate rich in complex

21
organic content helps in growth but simple substrates considered to be
good for immediate productive output. Acetate and Glucose are most
preferred substrate for basic MFC operations and electricity generation.
Ligno cellulosic biomass from agriculture residues are a good source for
electricity production in MFC. Another promising and most preferred
unusual substrate used in MFCs operations for power generation is
Brewery wastewater as it is supplemented with growth promoting
organic matter and devoid of inhibitory substances. Starch processing
water can be used to develop microbial consortium in MFC. Cellulose
and Chitin (from industrial and municipal wastewater), Synthetic or
Chemical wastewater, Dye wastewater and Landfill leachates are some
unconventional substrates used for electricity production via MFCs [23].
And anaerobic sludge from anaerobic digester is taken for the study
which was collected from Delta Breweries Cooperation and stored in
container at -10 C in order to ensure that no biological activity to be
happen before testing the samples.

2.3.10 MICROORGANISMS IN A MICROBIAL FUEL CELL

Microorganisms in the MFC breakdown organic or and inorganic substrates in

the anode chamber to produce and transfer electrons to an electrode surface,
this biochemical reaction generates proton also which migrate to the cathode
and combine with the electron and mainly oxygen as catholyte, which is
reduced at the cathode surface. This produces electricity and metabolizes the
wastewater which is mainly the MFC fuel, microbes acting as a catalyst on
the anode surface. Brevibacillus sp. found in abundant member of a MFC
community. Power production by Brevibacillus sp. is low unless it is
cocultured with a Pseudomonas sp. or supernatant from a MFC run with the
Pseudomonas sp. is added.

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The intestinal tract of human and animals have been found to be the major
sources of Salmonella and Escherichia coli in nature [18], which could be
shed in feces. These pathogens may persist for days to weeks to months
depending on the type of pathogen, the medium and the environmental
conditions. Approximately 1% to 3% of all domestic animals are infected with
Salmonellae [12,19]. Furthermore, other nonbacterial pathogens that may be
present with fecal material include protozoa (Cyptosporidium and Giardia)
and viruses (Swine Hepatitis E- virus). The management and disposal of
animal wastes harboring such pathogens can increase the risk of infections
and diseases that threatens human health if these wastes are not properly
treated and contained [20]. Firmicutes and Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hansenula anomala, Shewanella oneidensis,
Geothrix fermentans, Rhodoferax ferrireducens, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia
coli, etc…are some bacteria that can be used in MFC’s commonly used
Microbes in Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) usually mixed culture of microbes
is used for anaerobic digestion of substrate as complex mixed culture permits
broad substrate utilization. But there are some regular MFCs designs which
explore metabolic tendency of single microbial species to generate electricity.
Organic component rich sources (marine sediment, soil, wastewater, fresh
water sediment and activated sludge) are rich source of microbes that can be
used in MFCs catalytic unit [15]. Bacteria used in MFCs with mediator or
without mediators have been extensively studied and reviewed (Table 1).
Metal reducing and anodophilic microorganisms show better opportunities for
mediator-less operation of a MFC.

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Table 3.1: Types of Substrate and Microbes that can be used in MFC.

Microorganism waste source Aim

Clostridium Cellulosic waste Bioelectricity production

acetobutylicum and
Clostridium
thermohydrosulfuricum.

Yogurt bacteria and Waste carbohydrate

Bioelectricity production
methylene blue as mediator (manure sludge)

Pseudomonas putida, Glucose, Low Voltage Power

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Municipal waste, Generation, waste
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Domestic waste Treatment

Escherichia coli and

Aspergillus niger

anaerobic mixed consortia Waste water, Bioelectricity production ,

Municipal waste, waste Treatment
Industrial waste,
Activated sludge

Mixed population (decay organics)

Bioelectricity production
Industrial waste

Shewanella putre-faciens (starch) Bioelectricity production

and wastewater treatment,

Geobacter sulpfur-reducens (acetate) Bioelectricity production

and waste water treatment

Synechococcus sp. Light as a fuel Bioelectricity production

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2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MFC.

MFC explores metabolic potential of microbes for conversion of organic

Substrate into electricity by transferring electrons from cell to circuit. In
anodic chamber, oxidation of substrate in the absence of oxygen by
respiratory bacteria produce electron and proton that are passed onto
Cathode chamber terminal e- acceptor [O2, nitrate or Fe (III)] through
electron transport chain (ETC) [28]. However, in absence of e- acceptor in
a MFC, some microorganisms pass electron onto anode. An efficient
electron shuttle to anode can be achieved either by a spontaneous (direct)
or by means of some electron shuttling mediators. Direct electron transfer
to anode by bacteria requires some physical contact with electrode for
current generation. Line up between bacteria and anode surface involves
outer membrane bound cytochromes or putative conductive pili called
nanowires. Numbers of electron and proton fabricated depends upon
substrate utilized by microbes. Mediator-less MFCs have more
commercial potential as mediators are expensive and are sometimes toxic
to microorganisms. Electrode reactions in a MFC compartments are as
follows:

The reactions occurring at the anode and cathode are the following:

Anode: C6H12O6 + 6H2O 6CO2 +24H+ + 24e-

Cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O

If Acetate is used as substrate

Anodic reaction: CH3COO- + H2O → 2CO2+ 2H+ + 8e-

Cathode reaction: O2 +4e- +4H+ → 2H2O

25
If sucrose is used as substrate

Anodic reaction: C12H22O11 + 13H2O → 12CO2 + 48H+ + 48e-

Cathode reaction: O2 + 4e- + 4H- → 2H2O

Fig.3.3 Diagrammatic representation of Working of Microbial Fuel Cell

2.5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

2.5.1 ADVANTAGES:

Wastewater Treatment and Electricity Generation

Due to unique metabolic assets of microbes, variety of microorganisms

are used in MFCs either single species or consortia. Some substrates
(sanitary wastes, food processing wastewater) are exceptionally loaded
with organic matter that itself feed wide range of microbes used in MFCs.
MFCs using certain microbes have a special ability to remove sulphides

26
as required in

27
wastewater treatment. MFC substrates have huge content of growth
promoters that can enhance growth of bio-electrochemically active
microbes during wastewater treatment. This Simultaneous operation not
only reduces energy demand on treatment plant but also reduces amount
of unfeasible sludge produce by existing anaerobic production. MFCs
connected in series have high level of removal efficiency to treat leachate
with supplementary benefit of generating electricity.

Secondary Fuel Production

With minor modification, MFCs can be employed to produce secondary

fuels like hydrogen (H2) as an alternative of electricity. Under standard
experimental conditions, proton and electron produced in anodic chamber
get transferred to cathode, which then combines with oxygen to form
water. H2 generation is thermodynamically not favoured or it is a harsh
process for a cell to convert proton and electron into H2. Increase in
external potential applied at cathode can be competent to overcome
thermodynamic barrier in reaction and used for H2 generation. As a
result, proton and electron produced in anodic reaction chamber combine
at cathode to form H2. MFCs can probably produce extra H2 as compared
to quantity that pull off from classical glucose fermentation method36. H2
and methane production by using microbial electrolytic cells that are
modified MFC with increased external potential at cathode [32]. Thus,
MFCs provide a renewable H2 to contribute to overall H2 demand in a H2
economy.

Treatment of cellulose containing wastewater

Apart from the treatment of soluble organic matter, it is interesting that

MFCs can be used for the treatment of cellulose containing wastewater to
generate electricity. Unlike typical soluble substrates that have been used
28
as electron donors in MFCs, cellulose is unique because it requires a

29
microbial consortium that can metabolize both an insoluble electron donor
(cellulose) and electron acceptor (electrode) [32]. The pure culture alone
could not produce any electricity from these substrates.

Biosensors

MFCs with replaceable anaerobic consortium could be used as a biosensor

for on-line monitoring of organic matter. Though diverse conventional
methods are used to calculate organic content in term of biological
oxygen demand (BOD) in wastewater, most of them are unsuitable for on-
line monitoring and control of biological wastewater treatment processes.
A linear correlation between Columbic yield of MFC and strength of
organic matter in wastewater makes MFC a possible BOD sensor [32].
Columbic yield of MFC provides an idea about BOD of liquid stream that
proves to be an accurate method to measure BOD value at quite wide
concentration range of organic matter in waste water.

Generation of Energy Out of Bio-waste/Organic Matter

This feature is certainly the most ‘green’ aspect of microbial fuel cells.
Electricity is being generated in a direct way from bio wastes and organic
matter. This energy can be used for operation of the waste treatment plant, or
sold to the energy market. Furthermore, the generated current can be used to
produce hydrogen gas. Since waste flows are often variable, a temporary
storage of the energy in the form of hydrogen, as a buffer, can be desirable.

Direct Conversion of Substrate Energy to Electricity

As previously reported, in anaerobic processes the yield of high value

electrical energy is only one third of the input energy during the thermal
combustion of the biogas. While recuperation of energy can be obtained
by
30
heat exchange, the overall effective yield still remains of the order of 30%.

31
2.5.2 LIMITATIONS

Low power density

The major limitations to implementation of MFCs for are their power density
is still relatively low and the technology is only in the laboratory phase. Based
on the potential difference, ΔE, between the electron donor and acceptor, a
maximum potential of nearly 1V can be expected in MFCs, which is not much
greater than the 0.7 V that is currently being produced [19]. However, by
linking several MFCs together, the voltage can be increased. Current and
power densities are lower than what is theoretically possible, and system
performance varies considerably. The maximum power density reported in the
literature, 3600mW/m2, was observed in a dual-chamber fuel cell treating
glucose with an adapted anaerobic consortium in the anode chamber and a
continuously aerated cathode chamber containing an electrolyte solution that
was formulated to improve oxygen transfer to cathode

High Initial Cost:

A limiting factor to general MFC use is the high cost of materials, such as the
Nafion-117 membrane commonly used in laboratories as a proton permeable
membrane. Attempts are currently underway to produce low cost MFCs
constructed from earthen pots for use in India. By removing the proton
permeable membrane, utilizing locally produced 400 ml earthen pots,
stainless steel mesh cathodes and a graphite plate anode, each MFC unit could
be produced for INR 80. The earthen pot MFCs used sewerage sludge as an
initial inoculum and experiments were conducted using acetate as a carbon
source. While producing low levels of power, these devices could potentially
be incorporated in large numbers into oxidation ponds for the treatment of
concentrated wastewater while generating power. In areas where off grid
applications are required, even low power MFC devices may prove useful.
Current applications are all limited to low power level devices.
32
Up-scaling problems
Scale-up of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) will require a better understanding of
the effects of reactor architecture and operation mode on volumetric power
densities. We compared the performance of a smaller MFC (MFC, 28mL)
with a larger MFC (MFC, 520mL) in fed-batch mode. The SMFC produced
14Wm−3, consistent with previous reports for this reactor with an electrode
spacing of 4 cm. The MFC produced 16Wm−3, resulting from the lower
average electrode spacing (2.6 cm) and the higher anode surface area per
volume (150m2 m−3 vs. 25m2m−3 for the MFC). The effect of the larger anode
surface area on power was shown to be relatively insignificant by adding
graphite granules or using graphite fiber brushes in the MFC anode chamber
[18]. Although the granules and graphite brushes increased the surface area.
The maximum power density in the MFC was only increased by 8% and these
results demonstrate that power output. can be maintained during reactor scale-
up; increasing the anode surface area and biofilm formation on the cathode do
not greatly affect reactor performance,
1. Several aspects needed for an efficient MFC are hampering up-
scaling.
2. The influent needs to reach the whole anode matrix sufficiently.
3. Protons need rapid diffusion towards the membrane.
4. Sufficient electrical contact needs to be established between
bacteria in suspension and the anode.
5. Sufficient voltage needs to be reached over the MFC to have a
useful power.
6. Instatement of an aeration device should be avoided.

Activation Losses:
Due to the activation energy needed for an oxidation/reduction reaction,
activation losses (or activation polarization) occur during the transfer of

33
electrons from or to a compound reacting at the electrode surface. This
compound can be present at the bacterial surface, as a mediator in the
solution, or as the final electron acceptor reacting at the cathode. Activation
losses often show a strong increase at low currents and steadily increase when
current density increases. Low activation losses can be achieved by increasing
the electrode surface area, improving electrode catalysis, increasing the
operating temperature, and through the establishment of an enriched biofilm
on the electrode(s).

Ohmic Losses.
The ohmic losses (or ohmic polarization) in an MFC include both the
resistance to the flow of electrons through the electrodes and
interconnections, and the resistance to the flow of ions through the CEM (if
present) and the anodic and cathodic electrolytes. Ohmic losses can be
reduced by minimizing the electrode spacing, using a membrane with a low
resistivity, checking thoroughly all contacts, and (if practical) increasing
solution conductivity to the maximum tolerated by the bacteria.

Bacterial Metabolic Losses:

To generate metabolic energy, bacteria transport electrons from a substrate at
a low potential through the electron transport chain to the final electron
acceptor (such as oxygen or nitrate) at a higher potential. In an MFC, the
anode is the final electron acceptorandits potential determines the energy gain
for the bacteria. The higher the difference between the redox potential of the
substrate and the anode potential, the higher the possible metabolic energy
gain for the bacteria, but the lower the maximum attainable MFC voltage. To
maximize the MFC voltage, therefore, the potential of the anode should be
kept as low (negative) as possible. However, if the anode potential
becomes too low,

34
electron transport will be inhibited and fermentation of the substrate (if
possible) may provide greater energy for the microorganisms.

Concentration Losses.
Concentration losses (or concentration polarization) occur when the rate of
mass transport of a species to or from the electrode limits current production.
Concentration losses occur mainly at high current densities due to limited
mass transfer of chemical species by diffusion to the electrode surface. At the
anode concentration losses are caused by either a limited discharge of
oxidized species from the electrode surface or a limited supply of reduced
species toward the electrode. This increases the ratio between the oxidized
and the reduced species at the electrode surface which can produce an
increase in the electrode potential. At the cathode side the reverse may occur,
causing a drop in cathode potential. In poorly mixed systems diffusional
gradients may also arise in the bulk liquid. Mass transport limitations in the
bulk fluid can limit the substrate flux to the biofilm, which is a separate type
of concentration loss. By recording polarization curves, the onset of
concentration losses can be determined.

2.6 SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY

The study and development of MFC is still in initial phase. The fabricated
MFC has produced satisfying amount of voltage, though there is wide scope
for development of MFCs in terms of design and power output as for now the
power density is too low for their use in automobiles, electronic devices,
medical appliances and other industrial applications. Modification in design
components will provide improved results. High quality substrates can be
used in MFC that can provide high power to run electrical appliances. The
microorganisms which supply electrons can be modified genetically to
provide more efficient electron transfer to electrodes. Optimizing the process

35
parameters involved production of electricity can be increased. It is the
matter

36
of proper electrodes, salt bridge, volume of anode chamber and an appropriate
resistance to produce high power. Since the use of catalyzed electrodes have
added most of the cost of fabrication and maintenance, different innovations
like bio cathodes can be applied as a substitute. High quality proton exchange
membranes can effectively increase the ion exchange without hindrance in the
electricity production. Nanoparticles may be incorporated in salt bridge,
cathode chamber or anode chamber which might boost up the output values.
Which might help to find the rate of reactions responsible for maximum and
minimum values of the observed parameters.

The advances in Microbial Fuel Cell may lead to production of secondary fuel
that can drive our fuel crisis and thus on further study can brighten our future
with all prosperity.

37
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