UNIT 2

THE WRITING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
Writing is a process which involves a series of stages that all writers must move through to create their finished
product. This process includes prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and presenting. Although the writing process
may sound orderly and predictable, it usually isn’t. Writing is a dynamic and sometimes messy process. As you
write, you are constantly thinking and discovering new ideas. You are continually evaluating your thoughts and the
information you receive, making myriad decisions about what works and what doesn’t, and shaping and reshaping
your ideas into a unified and coherent whole. In the prewriting stage, you explore ideas, choose a topic, and collect
and organize your information. As you draft, you turn your ideas and information into sentences and paragraphs.
During revising, you review and refine, grappling with any problems you detect in content and structure, finally you
edit your work to eliminate errors, and then you present your writing to your audience.

ACTIVITY 1 Check your understanding

Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words from the above introduction.
1. Checking for mistakes and correcting them __________________________
2. Getting ideas before you start writing _________________________
3. The paper with your first try at writing a paragraph ______________________
4. Publishing your writing ________________________________
5. Making your writing clearer _________________________________
Step 1: Pre-writing
At this step, you begin to get ideas for your paragraph. There are many ways to get ideas, such as brainstorming and
free-writing.

ACTIVITY 2 Gathering information

You are going to write a paragraph about what you do every morning before going to class
1. On your exercise book list down the things you do in the morning to get ready for the day. Begin with the
time you get up. Do not write complete sentences. Just take notes – write a few words. For example:
- 7:00 A.M get up
- Make tea
- Shower, shampoo
2. Work with a partner. Ask your partner, “What do you do in the morning?” Take turns describing your
morning routines. Try to use these words: first, then, after that, and finally.
Step 2: Drafting
The first time that you write a paragraph, your paper is called your first draft. Your work is not finished!
Writing the first draft is only one step on the way to your final paper.

ACTIVITY 3

1. Choose a title for your paragraph. You can use Getting Ready for the Day or My Morning Routine if you
like.
2. Begin your paragraph with a general statement about your morning routine.

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 3. Continue your paragraph, using your notes from Step 1.
Step 3: Revising
When you’ve finished writing your draft, it’s time to make sure it says everything you want it to say. You
also want to check that you’ve said things as well as you possibly can. Revising means checking your
writing for content and organization.

ACTIVITY 4

Look at your draft and answer the following questions

1. Does your paragraph have:
a. Title? b . Topic sentence?
b. Enough supporting sentences? C. Concluding sentence?
2. Have you missed any essential information? If so, add.
3. Have you included irrelevant ideas? If so, delete.
4. Does your draft need some kind of rearrangement? If so, do it?
5. Have you make links between your sentences?
Step 4: Editing
When you’ve finished revising your writing and you’re happy with what you’ve written, it’s time to make
edition. When you edit, you make sure you’ve used all the right words and you proofread your work to find
mistakes in grammar, capitalization, and punctuation.

ACTIVITY 5

Look at your revised paragraph and check if there are mistakes in the following areas.
1. Diction 2. Spelling 3. Punctuation 4. Capitalization
5.Faulty Sentences – fragments, comma splices, misplaced & dangling modifiers, faulty parallelism,
subject-Verb agreement
6. Tense, voice
7. The format of the paper
Step 5: Writing the Final Draft
After making all the necessary revisions and editions, it is time to write the final draft on a new piece of
paper. The final draft should be neat, well-organized and free from mistakes.
Sometimes a writer’s first draft needs no changes. This does not happen often. Most of the time, writers
must write new drafts.
Sometimes your first draft will need only small changes. Then maybe you can erase and make changes on
that same paper. Most of the time, you will need to prepare a final draft on a new piece of paper. You will
give your final draft to your teacher.

Activity 6

Now, write the final draft of your paragraph on a piece of paper and submit to your teacher for feedback.

Activity 7 Peer Review

A. Work alone or with a partner. Look at Mark’s first draft below. Mark showed his first draft to a classmate. If
you are his classmate what is your feedback?

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 It easy for me to get ready for the day. My alarm clock wakes me up at 7:30.
I get up and have a shower. I get dressed. I drive to school at 8:15. I go to the cafeteria. I very hungry in
the morning, I eat cereal, fruit, eggs, and toast. I drink orange juice and tea. I go to my class at 9:00.
that is my morning.
B. Mark edited his paragraph. Look at his final draft below. What is different? Mark the changes. How many
changes did Mark make?
Getting Ready for the day
It is easy for me to get ready for the day. My alarm clock wakes me up at 7:30. I get up and take a
shower. Then I get dressed. I drive to school at 8:15. First, I go to the cafeteria. I am very hungry in the
morning. I eat cereal, fruit, eggs, and toast. I drink orange juice and tea. I talk with my friends. Finally, I
go to my class at 9:00. That is my morning routine.
Reviewer’s Checklist
Content
 Read all of your partner’s paragraph.
 Underline any part of the paragraph you do not understand. Ask your partner to explain it.
 Ask questions if you want more information about your partner’s morning routine
Form
Look at these parts of your partner’s paper. Mark any problems on the paper in pencil. Put a question mark (?) if you
are not sure about something.

 the heading
 The title
 Indenting the first sentence
 Skipping lines
 Correct use of capital letters
 A period after every statement
PARAGRAPH WRITING
INTRODUCTION
A paragraph is a group of sentences that works together to develop a main idea. One of these sentences identifies the
topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the topic. This statement is called the topic sentence.
Sentences that give additional information about the idea stated in the topic sentence are called supporting
sentences (developers). The last sentence (concluding sentence) summarizes the main idea of the paragraph.
ACTIVITY 1
Read the following paragraph and answer the questions which follow.
The weather in March is unpredictable. One day there was heavy ground fog, and the next day was clear. It
rained for a few days and cleared up, and then it rained again. One day the temperature ranged from 45
degrees to 75 degrees, and the next day the temperature stayed around 55 degrees all day long. It was
difficult to plan activities or know what to wear with such unpredictable weather.
1. Which sentence states the main idea of the paragraph?
2. Which sentences support the main idea?
3. Does the paragraph have a concluding sentence?
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph because it contains the main idea of the paragraph. A
topic sentence is usually a general sentence. That is, it makes a broad statement about the person, place, animal,
building, idea, event, etc., that is being discussed in the paragraph. Because it is broad or general, a topic sentence
leaves the reader with the feeling that more information will follow. The reader expects that there will be some

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description or explanation within the paragraph that tells how many, which one, what kind of, when, where, how,
why, etc.
For example, a topic sentence might be:
There many reasons why I have chosen to join Addis Ababa University.
Notice that this sentence is raises questions as it stands. By itself, it does not tell enough about why I have chosen
Ambo University. The reader expects the reasons from the sentences which follow.
Writing Effective Topic Sentences
What are the ingredients of an effective topic sentence? What makes one topic sentence more effective than another?
Here are some suggestions for writing strong topic sentences.
1. A good topic sentence usually states an opinion or attitude that can be supported by details and examples.
Examples:
Topic sentence: The weather is miserable today.
Support: 105-degree temperature; High humidity; No breeze; Bad pollution
Topic Sentence: Abdi is a good teacher.
Support: Knowledgeable in his field; Excellent lecturer
Fair ; Works hard; Helpful
2. A good topic sentence is specific enough to be clear and interesting.
Examples:
Good Topic sentence: The orange trees in your garden look diseased.
Weak Topic sentence: The trees in your garden look bad.
Good Topic sentence: Tabor College is having financial problems.
Weak Topic sentence: A school in town is having some problems.
3. A good topic sentence gives a definite direction to a paragraph.
Example:
Weak Topic sentence: I own a dog name Biscuit. (No direction given)
Better Topic sentence: My cocker spaniel Biscuit is a lazy dog.
Parts of a Topic Sentence
A good topic sentence has two parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic is the subject of your paragraph.
It is what you are writing about. The controlling idea limits the topic of your paragraph to the aspect of that topic
that you want to explore in your paragraph. Look at these examples:
1. Hawassa is a nice place to live.
Topic controlling idea
2. Hawassa has many tourist attraction spots.
Topic controlling idea
3. Hawassa has a suitable weather for living.
Topic controlling idea
Activity 2 Identifying Topics and Controlling Ideas
Read each sentence. Underline the topic and circle the controlling idea.
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 1. Riding horses is my favorite hobby.
2. Smoking cigarette is harmful to your health.
3. Lily is the most beautiful girl in our class.
4. Driving ambulance can be a hazardous job.
5. Gizaw is the best friend I have made this semester.
Activity 3 Supplying Controlling Ideas
For each of the following topics, supply a controlling idea.
1. Addis Ababa ___________________________________
2. Addis Ababa ___________________________________
3. Alcohol ___________________________________
4. Mohammed ___________________________________
Activity 4 Evaluating Topic Sentences
Read each sentence and decide if it is a good topic sentence. Remember that topic sentences should state an opinion
or divide the topic into parts. If the sentence is a good topic sentence, underline the topic and circle the controlling
idea. If it is not, cross it out.
1. My younger brother is driving me crazy.
2. My brother is thirty years old.
3. You need four ingredients to make Tella.
4. Global warming is threatening the environment.
5. Global warming has an effect on the environment.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES
You have seen that a topic sentence states general idea, and the reader expects some description or explanation
within the paragraph that tells details – how many, which one, what kind of, when, where, how, why, etc – about the
topic sentence. Sentences that give such information are called supporting sentences. Supporting sentences are
specific.
Supporting sentences support the topic sentence in many different ways.
1. One of the most common ways to support a topic sentence is to use facts or statistics.
2. The second way to support a topic sentence is with examples.
3. The third common way of supporting a topic sentence is by using an illustration that is based on personal
experience.
ACTIVITY 5
Read the following paragraphs and decide how the supporting sentences are developed.
1. An Expensive Holiday
Valentine’s Day is a very expensive holiday. Typically, people who are in love with each other exchange
gifts. The gifts often cost a lot of money, sometimes as much as $100. In some cases, if you don’t spend that
much, your sweetheart might think you don’t care. Some less expensive gifts that people often give are
chocolate and flowers. One pound of good chocolate my cost $10 to $15, and when you add up all of the
chocolate that is sold on Valentine’s Day, the total is probably well over $1 million. Flowers cost more than
chocolate, so sales of flowers may amount to $5 million! Also, it is often expected that you and your

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 sweetheart will go out to dinner on that evening. A romantic dinner at a nice restaurant may cost $100 or
more per person. It seems to me that Valentine’s Day is one of the most expensive days of the year.

2. Valentine’s Day Overload

Usually three or four weeks before Valentine’s Day, you begin to see too many reminders of this only-for-lovers
holiday almost everywhere. For example, you see red hearts and cupids in every shop and restaurant. Shops want
you to buy a gift for your Valentine, and restaurants hope that you will treat yourself and your Valentine to an
expensive dinner. You also seem to see more pictures of people in love and more people on the streets who are
obviously in love. They walk hand-in-hand and gaze into each other’s eyes lovingly. Another example of
Valentine’s Day reminders is seeing the commercials on TV, which tell you about all the wonderful presents and
cards that you can buy for that “special someone.” In short, we are constantly reminded of Valentine’s Day for
several weeks each year.
3. A Sad Valentine
Valentine’s Day makes people feel bad if they are alone. Last Valentine’s Day, I was alone because I had broken
up with my boyfriend the week before. On that Valentine’s night, I was expecting roses and chocolates from him
when he took me out to a romantic dinner, but instead I stayed in and ate a frozen pizza and a candy bar in front
of the TV while I booked at my artificial flowers. I was so upset. Then, I found the present that I was going to
give him on Valentine’s Day. It was a cute teddy bear holding a big heart that said, “I love you!” As I held it, I
realized that the only Valentine card I had received was from my grandmother. I started to cry and wondered
how many other people felt as bad as I did. It’s clear that Valentine’s Day can only be a happy day if you have
someone special to share it with.
MAJOR AND MINOR SUPPORTING SENTENCES
In terms of organization, there are two types of supporting sentences: major supporting sentences and minor
supporting sentences. The major supporting sentences are the main details that tell us about the topic sentence.
The minor supporting sentences tell us more about the major supporting sentences.
Look again at the paragraph “Ways to Celebrate New Year’s Eve”. Below, it has been diagrammed to show the parts
of a paragraph, including the major and minor supporting sentences.
Topic Sentence (TS)
 People in the United States celebrate New Year’s Eve in many ways.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 The most common way may be going to a big party with lots of friends, music, and dancing.
Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o At the stroke of midnight, people at these parties grab their sweethearts and spend the first seconds
of the New Year kissing them.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 Another way to spend New Year’s Eve is with the significant other in your life.
Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o The New Year is greeted with a champagne toast to the relationship.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 Sometimes, families with children like to spend the evening together, letting the kids stay up until
midnight.
Major Supporting Sentence (SS)
 Finally, some people like to spend the evening by themselves.
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 Minor Supporting Sentence (SS)
o They use this time to evaluate the past year and to make resolutions and plans for the coming year.
Minor Supporting Sentence(SS)
o It is a time of reflection that can only happen when one is alone.
Concluding Sentence (CS)
 In short, New Year’s Eve is a special time that can be spent with friends, with family, or even alone.
It is important to note that all major supporting sentences do not need to have the same number of minor supporting
sentences. In fact, sometimes you will not have any minor supporting sentences at all.
Activity 6 Diagramming a Paragraph
Diagram the paragraph “Valentine’s Day Overload”. Indicate the major supporting sentences and the minor
supporting sentences. Use the above example as a guide.
4. THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE
The role of a concluding sentence is to wind up the paragraph. There are two ways of doing that:
a) By restating the topic sentence, or
b) By summarizing the main points in the body of the paragraph
Activity 7. Look at this paragraph and pay a particular attention to the topic sentence and its restatement in
the concluding sentence.
Celebrating the New Year
The New Year is celebrated throughout the world at many different times, based on the solar or lunar
calendar. January 1 is recognized throughout the world as the beginning of the New Year, but this date is the
beginning of the Christian year based on the Gregorian solar calendar. The Jewish new year is called Rosh
Hashanah and is celebrated in September or October even though the Hebrew calendar is lunar. The Chinese
New Year, called Tet in Vietnam, follows a lunar calendar and comes on a day between January 10 and
February 19 according to the solar calendar. Islam also uses a lunar calendar. Its New Year celebration is in
the spring, and the date varies depending on the year. In short, Christians use the solar calendar, whereas
Jews, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Muslims use a lunar calendar t o determine when to celebrate the New Year.
UNITY, COHESION & COHERENCE
So far, you have learned about paragraph organization. As you have seen, a good paragraph must have three separate
parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. A good paragraph also must have unity,
cohesion and coherence.

1. UNITY
When a paragraph has unity, all the supporting sentences relate to the topic sentence. Any other sentence that does
not relate to the main idea affects the unity of the paragraph.
Activity 8. Finding Irrelevant Sentences
Find the irrelevant sentences and cross them out so that the paragraph will be unified.
Two Similar Canals
The Suez Canal and the Panama Canal have similar histories. Today, many tourists visit both canals. The same
Frenchman, Ferdinand De Lesseps, controlled the initial building of both canals. The Suez Canal was begun in
1859 by the Suez Canal Company. This company, which completed the project in 1869, was controlled by the
French. Likewise, the French bought a Colombian canal-building company in 1881 in order to build the Panama
Canal. Americans finally finished that canal. In the end, however, both canals finally came under control of the
countries in which they are located. Egypt gained control of the Suez Canal in 1957 by fighting France and

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 Britain. Panama gained control over its canal peaceably in 1977. These similar events took place about twenty
years apart and provided the world with two important waterways.

2. COHERENCE
Another element of a well-composed text is coherence. A coherent paragraph is made up of sentences that are
ordered according to a principle. The principle changes depending on the type of paragraph that you are writing. The
three types of ordering are chronological ordering, spatial ordering, and logical ordering.
a) Chronological Ordering
For a narrative paragraph, you must use good chronological ordering of sentences. This means that the supporting
sentences must tell the events of a story in the order that they happened. In other words, the events must be ordered
according to time.
b) Spatial Ordering
Descriptive paragraphs also need good coherence, or good ordering of sentences. However, they do not use
chronological ordering. They use spatial ordering. In other words, they have sentences that are ordered according
to space. Usually, this means that items are described systematically through space. For example, this could be top
to bottom, head to foot, left to right, or front to back.
c) Logical Ordering
Expository paragraphs also require good coherence. The principle, however, is different. With expository
paragraphs, coherence is based on logic or reason. We call this logical ordering of sentences in a paragraph.
Activity 9 Working with Coherence
In each of the following paragraphs there is a sentence which is out order. Circle the sentence that is out of order
and draw an arrow to indicate where it should go.
1. Kenenisa Bekele is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in a crowd, you
would never notice him. He has won two medals in athletics for his country in 2004 Athens Olympics. When
you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out one-word replies. He never speaks during training,
and I have never seen him talk to a girl.
2. Hanna is an attractive girl. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion is flawless, and she has a lovely
big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and slender, and her every movement is graceful.
She also dresses stylishly, and her assortment of peasant skirts and loose-fitting blouses look great in her. She
is very intelligent.
3. My brother is driving me crazy. First, he borrows my jacket and doesn’t put it back. Then he will sneak into
the kitchen and eat the food I have cooked for myself. He helps me with my homework, which I appreciate.
Then he borrows my car without asking and returns it with the gas tank empty. Finally, he borrows money
from me and never pays it back. I will be glad when he moves out of the house.
4. The dormitory rooms were unusually large. They were sixteen-foot squares with wide bay windows. The ten-
foot-high ceilings added to the feeling of spaciousness, as did the light-colored walls and the mirrored closet
doors. There was space in the rooms for two double beds, dressers, a console television, and a sofa and a chair.
The cupboard space was small and cramped. They looked twice the size of your average dormitory rooms.
5. The modern orchestra is divided into four distinct groups. The first group is the strings. Their sound is
produced by vibrating strings or wires. Woodwind instruments make up the second section of an orchestra.
These instruments, such as flutes, piccolos, and oboes, make their sound by the player blowing into a
mouthpiece and opening and closing holes in the instrument. The third section is the brass section, whose
instruments are bugles, trumpets, and tubas. Examples of string instruments are violins, cellos, and basses. The
last section of an orchestra is the percussion section. The sound of these instruments is made by hitting them.
Examples of percussion instruments include cymbals, drums, and tambourines. When put together, these four
groups of instruments make a complete orchestra. _______________

3. COHESION
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Another characteristic of a good paragraph is cohesion. When a paragraph has cohesion, all the supporting sentences
“stick together” in their support of the topic sentence. The methods of connecting sentences to each other are called
cohesive devices. Five important cohesive devices are linking words, personal pronouns, definite articles,
demonstrative pronouns, and synonyms.
3.1. Linking Words
There are many kinds of linking words: coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and
transitions. The chart below lists some common linking words.

Conjunctions
Transitions Prepositions
Subordinate Coordinate

Chronology first, second, etc; first of all; at After; before; and; or after; before; since;
first; next; after that; later on; while; when; prior to
at last; finally; then; since
eventually

Description nearby on top of; under; to the

left; to the right; in
front of; behind;
above; next to

Example for example; for instance such as

Causation because; for because of; due to

since; as

Result therefore; for this reason; as a so

result; consequence;
consequently; hence

Unexpected however; nevertheless; even though; but; yet in spite of; despite
Result although
nonetheless

however but in contrast to; instead

of; different from
Contrast in contrast yet

Direct on the other hand; however but unlike

Contrast
yet

Similarity likewise; similarly; whereas; Both…..and; like; similar to

while neither...nor; not
in the same way
only…but also

Explanation In other words; that is

Emphasis Indeed; in fact

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 Addition in addition; furthermore; in addition to
moreover

Condition Otherwise; in this case If

Conclusion in conclusion; to sum up; in

short;
all in all

3.2. Personal Pronouns

Another way to help a paragraph have good cohesion is by using personal pronouns. Pronouns usually have
antecedents, or nouns that they stand for, in previous sentence parts or sentences. In other words, a pronoun usually
refers back to a previous noun-its antecedent. For example:
The little boy looked at the birthday cake. He stuck out his finger and took a taste of it.
3.3. The Definite Article
A third way to connect sentences is to use the definite article the. A noun with a definite article often relates to a
previously mentioned noun. For example:
I bought an anniversary present yesterday. The anniversary present is for my grandparents.
3.4. Demonstrative Pronouns
Another way to connect sentences in a paragraph, or to give a paragraph good cohesion, is to use the demonstrative
pronouns this, that, these, and these. Like previous cohesive devices, demonstrative pronouns require antecedents in
order to help connect sentences to those that came before. For example;
On top of the table was a present. This present had purple wrapping paper.
3.5. Synonyms
The use of synonyms is also a cohesive device in that the synonyms refer back to their antecedents. Like using a
pronoun, using a synonym also prevents the frequent repletion of a word or words. Read the first paragraph. It is
awkward because of the over repetition of words. Then read the revised version using synonyms for the forms of
depress and retire.
Retirement
The sixty-five-year-old employee was depressed at the thought of his retirement. His boss told him that that
he had to retire because he was retirement age, but he didn’t want to retire. Therefore, he became depressed.
He thought that his days would be depressing from then on because he was retired. In fact, he was so
depressed that his wife made him find another job with a company that didn’t have a retirement age. He
wasn’t depressed after that.
Retirement (Revised Version)
The employee was saddened by the thought of his retirement. His boss told him that he had to stop working
because he was sixty-five, but he felt that he still had a lot of good work years in him, he didn’t want to quit
working, so he became depressed. He thought that his days would become boring and useless from then on
because he couldn’t work. In fact, he became so distressed that his wife made him find a company to work
for that didn’t have a retirement policy. He felt great after that.
In the revised paragraph, the cohesive devices are useful in relating sentences in a paragraph to one another. When
sentences are related, a paragraph has good cohesion.
Activity 10 Working with Cohesive Devices

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This paragraph lacks cohesion because it doesn’t have linking words, definite articles, or demonstrative pronouns.
It also repeats nouns instead of using personal pronouns or synonyms. Rewrite the paragraph on a separate piece of
paper. Make the cohesion better.
Preparing to Travel
Traveling to a foreign city can be fun, but traveling to foreign city requires some planning besides getting a passport.
You should buy a phrase book and learn a few key phrases in a foreign language. Using phrases demonstrates a
willingness to learn about the people who live in a foreign city. Read about a city beforehand. Read about what
places in a foreign city you’d like to see. Get a feeling for a foreign city and for weather so that you can pack
appropriate clothes. Check your camera. Make sure that your camera is in good working order and that you have lots
of film. Get yourself a good pair of walking shoes, and break a good pair of walking shoes in for about a month
before you leave. Taking a few precautions before you leave can make your trip to a foreign city more enjoyable.
FROM PARAGRAPH TO ESSAY
INTRODUCTION
In the earlier section, you were dealing with the construction of one paragraph from an original topic statement. In
this section, you will learn the construction of multi-paragraph compositions by extensions of the same basic
process.
The kinds of writing assignments you will experience in college will not always allow you to limit yourself to a
single paragraph. Most of your compositions, such as reports, essay tests, research papers, and the like, will extend
to several paragraphs – paragraphs that deal with a single main topic, however, and that develop a single topic
statement about that topic. Such writing will give you the opportunity to explain and develop your topic and topic
statement in considerable detail. This topic statement will, in fact, become the main idea, or thesis, of your entire
composition. It will be developed through several additional paragraphs, each of which may contain its own topic
statement. Your original topic statement, from which your additional paragraphs are developed, is now called the
“thesis statement” of your multi-paragraph composition. In short, an essay is a group of paragraphs that deals with
a single main topic.
A Model Essay
The following model should help you understand clearly the form of an essay.

The Hazards of Movie going

Introductory I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in 1980 or
Paragraph who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though, have stopped asking
me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in getting to the theatre, the theatre itself,
and the behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often wait for a movie to show up on
TV.

First For one thing, just getting to the theatre presents difficulties. Leaving a home equipped with
Supporting a TV and a video recorder is not an attractive idea on a humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if
Paragraph the weather cooperates, there is a thirty-minute drive to the theatre down a congested
highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a parking space. And then there are the lines.
After hooking yourself to the end of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be
enough tickets, whether you will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into
the line ahead of you.

Second Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are confronted with the
Supporting problems of the theatre itself. If you are in one of the run-down older theatres, you must
Paragraph adjust to the musty smell of seldom-clean carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or
cracked leather seats, and have the seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a
strange angle. The newer twin and quad theatres offer their own problems. Sitting in an area
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 only one quarter the size of a regular theatre, moviegoers often have to put up with the sound
of movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie involves racing cars or a
karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quite love story. And whether the theatre is old or
new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber cement. By the end of a movie,
shoes almost have to be pried off the floor because they have become sealed to a deadly
compound of spilled soda, hardening bubble gum, and crushed jujubes.

Third Even more of, a problem than the theatre itself, are some of the other patrons. Little kids
Supporting race up and down aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by
Paragraph talking back to the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises.
Adults act as if they were at home in their own living rooms and comment loudly on the
ages of the stars or why movies aren’t as good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle
candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and
soda on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file out for
repeated trips to the rest rooms or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on
either side of your seat.

Concluding After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a
Paragraph moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the movies and
dealing with the theatre itself and other patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV
service installed in my home. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I will
be more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room.

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY

The essay just presented – "The Hazards of Movie going" – is a good example of the standard short essay you will
write in academic writing. It is a composition of slightly over five hundred words that consists of a one-paragraph
introduction, a three-paragraph body, and a one-paragraph conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are described
and illustrated below.
Introductory Paragraph of an Essay
The introductory paragraph of an essay should start with several sentences that attract the reader's interest. It should
then advance the central idea or thesis that will be developed in the essay. Part of that thesis may include a plan of
development – a "preview" of the major points that will support the thesis. These supporting points should be listed
in the order in which they will appear in the essay. In some cases, the plan of development is presented in a sentence
separate from the thesis; in other cases, it is omitted.
Activity 1
1. In' 'The Hazards of Movie going," which sentences are used to attract the reader's interest?
a. First sentence
b. First two sentences
c. First three sentences
2. The thesis in "The Hazards of Movie going" is presented in the
a. Third sentence
b. Fourth sentence
3. The thesis contains a plan of development.
a. Yes
b. No
4. Write down the words in the thesis that announce the three major supporting points in the essay:
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 a. __________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________________
Supporting Paragraphs, or "Body," of an Essay
Most essays have three supporting points, developed at length over three separate paragraphs. (Some essays will
have two supporting points, others four or more. For the purposes of this book, your goal will be three supporting
points for each essay.) Each of the supporting paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence that states the point to
be detailed in that paragraph. Just as the thesis provides a focus for the entire essay, the topic sentences provide a
focus for each supporting paragraph.
Activity 2
1. What is the topic sentence for the first body paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2. The first topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. Long ticket line_____
3. What is the topic sentence for the second body paragraph?
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. The second topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. Problems of old theaters (mustiness and )
b. Problems of new theaters ( and sound of adjoining movie)
c. Problem of old and new theaters (
5. What is the topic sentence for the third body paragraph?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. The third topic sentence is then supported by details about (fill in the missing words):
a. Patrons (kids, and ______________________)
b. Distractions caused by People of all ages
Concluding Paragraph of an Essay
The concluding paragraph often summarizes the essay by restating briefly the thesis and, at times, the main
supporting points of the essay. In addition, the writer often presents a concluding thought about the subject of the
paper.
Activity 3
1. Which two sentences in the concluding paragraph restate the thesis and
supporting points of the essay?
a. First and second
b. Second and third
c. Third and fourth
2. Which sentence contains the concluding thought of the essay?

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 a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth

INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS OF AN ESSAY

So far, you have learned ways to organize the body paragraphs of an essay. A well-organized essay, however,
should also have a strong introductory paragraph and an effective concluding paragraph.
Introductory Paragraph
A well-written introductory paragraph will perform several important roles:
1. It will attract the reader's interest, encouraging him or her to go on and actually read the essay. Using
one of the methods of introduction described ahead can help draw the reader into your paper.
2. It will supply any background information needed to understand the essay. Such information is
sometimes needed so that the reader has a context in which to understand the ideas presented in the
essay.
3. It will present a thesis statement. This clear direct statement of the main idea to be developed in the
paper usually occurs near the end of the introductory paragraph.
4. It will indicate a plan of development. In this' 'preview, " the major points that will support the thesis are
listed in the order in which they will be presented in the essay. In some cases, the thesis and plan of
development appear in the same sentence. In some cases, also, the plan of development may be omitted.
Common Methods of Introduction: Here are some common methods of introduction. Use anyone method, or
combination of methods, to introduce your subject in an interesting way to the reader.
1. You can begin with a broad, general statement of your topic and narrow it down to your thesis statement.
Broad, general statements ease the reader into your thesis statement by providing a background for it. In the
example below, the writer talks generally about diets and then narrows down to comments on a specific
diet.
Bookstore shelves today are crammed with dozens of different diet books. The American public seems willing
to try any sort of diet, especially the ones that promise instant, miraculous results. And authors are more than willing
to invent new fad diets to cash in on this craze. Unfortunately, some of these fad diets are ineffective or even unsafe.
One of the worst is the "Palm Beach diet." It is impractical, does not achieve the results it claims, and is a sure route
to poor nutrition.
2. You can also start with an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one you will develop. This approach
works because your readers will be surprised, and then intrigued, by the contrast between the opening idea
and the thesis that follows it.
When I decided to return to school at age thirty-five, I was not at all worried about my ability to do the work.
After all, I was a grown woman who had raised a family, not a confused teenager fresh out of high school. But
when I started classes, I realized that those "confused teenagers" sitting around me were in much better shape
for college than I was. They still had all their classroom skills in bright, shiny condition, while mine had grown
rusty from disuse. I had totally forgotten how to locate information in a library, how to write a report, and even
how to speak up in class discussions.
3. Another way of introducing an essay is to explain the importance of your topic to the reader. If you can
convince your readers that the subject in some way applies to them, or is something they should know more
about, they will want to keep reading.
Diseases like scarlet fever and whooping cough used to kill more young children than any other cause. Today,
however, child mortality due to disease has been almost completely eliminated by medical science. Instead, car
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 accidents are the number one killer of our children. And most of the children fatally injured in car accidents
were not protected by car seats, belts, or restraints of any kind. Several steps must be taken to remedy this
serious problem.
4. It is also possible to use an incident or brief story. Stories are naturally interesting. They appeal to a reader's
curiosity. In your introduction, an anecdote will grab the reader's attention right away. The story should be
brief and should be related to your main idea. The incident in the story can be something that happened to
you, something you have heard about, or something you have read about in a newspaper or magazine.
5. Furthermore, you can begin by asking one or more questions. But remember that questions need answers.
You may simply want the reader to think about possible answers, or you may plan to answer the questions
yourself later in the paper.
6. Use a quotation. A quotation can be something you have read in a book or article. It can also be something
that you have heard: a. popular saying or proverb ("Never give advice to a friend"); a current or recent
advertising slogan ("Reach out and touch someone"); a favorite expression used by friends or family ("My
father always says. . . "). Using a quotation in your introductory paragraph lets you add someone else's
voice to your own.
Activity 4
Read the introductions that follow and, in the space provided, write the kind of introduction used in each case.
1. General to narrow
2. Starting with an opposite
3. Stating importance of topic
4. Incident or story
5. Questions
6. Quotation
1. Diseases like scarlet fever and whooping cough used to kill more young children than any other cause.
Today, however, child mortality due to disease has been almost completely eliminated by medical science.
Instead, car accidents are the number one killer of our children. And most of the children fatally injured in
car accidents were not protected by car seats, belts, or restraints of any kind. Several steps must be taken to
remedy this serious problem.
2. "Fish and visitors," wrote Benjamin Franklin, "begin to smell after three days." Last summer, when my
sister and her family came to spend their two week vacation with us, I became convinced that Franklin was
right. After only three days, I was thoroughly sick of my brother-in-law's corny jokes, my sister's endless
complaints about her boss, and their children's constant invasions of our privacy.

3. Early Sunday morning the young mother dressed her little girl warmly and gave her a candy bar, a picture
book, and a well-worn stuffed rabbit. Together, they drove downtown to a Methodist church. There the
mother told the little girl to wait on the stone steps until children began arriving for Sunday school. Then
the young mother drove off, abandoning her five-year old because she couldn't cope with being a parent
anymore. This incident is one of thousands of cases of child neglect and abuse that occur annually. Perhaps
the automatic right to become a parent should no longer exist. Would-be parents, instead, should be forced
to apply for licenses granting them the privilege of raising children.

4. The ad, in full color on a glossy magazine page, shows a beautiful kitchen with gleaming counters. In the
foreground, on one of the counters, stands a shiny new food processor. Usually, a feminine hand is
touching it lovingly. Around the main picture are other, smaller shots. They show mounds of perfectly
sliced onion rings, thin rounds of juicy tomatoes, heaps of matchstick-sized potatoes, and piles of golden,
evenly grated cheese. The ad copy tells you how wonderful, how easy, food preparation will be with a
processor. Don't believe it. My processor turned out to be expensive, difficult to operate, and very limited
in its use.

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 5. People say, "You can't tell a book by its cover." Actually, you can. When you're browsing in the drugstore
or supermarket and you see a paperback featuring an attractive young woman in a low-cut dress fleeing
from a handsome dark figure in a shadowy castle, you know exactly what you're getting. Every romance
novel has the same elements: an innocent heroine, an exotic setting, and a cruel but fascinating hero.

6. What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special person, how can we
tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they are genuine, will these feelings
last? Love, as we all know, is difficult to define. But most people agree that true and lasting love involves
far more than mere physical attraction. It involves mutual, respect, the desire to give rather than take, and
the feeling of being wholly at ease.

7. We Americans are incredibly lazy. Instead of cooking a simple, nourishing meal, we pop a frozen dinner
into the oven. Instead of studying a daily newspaper, we are contented with the capsule summaries on the
network news. Worst of all, instead of walking even a few blocks to the local convenience store, we jump
into our cars. This dependence on the automobile, even for short trips, has robbed us of a valuable
experience--walking. If we drove less and walked more, we would save money, become healthier, and
discover fascinating things about our surroundings.

8. When I decided to return to school at age thirty-five, I was not at all worried about my ability to do the
work. After all, I was a grown woman who had raised a family, not a confused teenager fresh out of high
school. But when I started classes, I realized that those "confused teenagers" sitting around me were in
much better shape for college than I was. They still had all their classroom skills in bright, shiny condition,
while mine had grown rusty from disuse. I had totally forgotten how to locate information in a library, how
to write a report, and even how to speak up in class discussions.
Concluding Paragraph
A concluding paragraph is your chance to remind the reader of your thesis idea. Also, the conclusion brings the
paper to a natural and graceful end, sometimes leaving the reader with a final thought on the subject.
1. End with a summary and final thought.
Summarize the main points and then give a final comment that "rounds off" the paper and brings the
discussion to a close. This combination of a summary and a final thought is the most common method of
concluding an essay.
2. Include a thought-provoking question or short series of questions.

A question grabs the reader's attention. It is a direct appeal to your reader to think further about what you
have written.
3. End with a prediction or recommendation.

Like questions, predictions and recommendations also involve your readers. A prediction states what will
or may happen in the future. A recommendation suggests what should be done about a situation or problem.
Activity 5
Read the following concluding paragraphs and identify how they were made:
a) Summary and final thought
b) By raising question
c) With a prediction or recommendation
1. Stereotypes such as the helpless homemaker, harried executive and dotty grandparent are insulting enough
to begin with. Placed in magazine ads or television commercials, they become even more insulting. Now
these unfortunate characters are not just being laughed at; they are being turned into hucksters to sell
products to an unsuspecting public. Consumers should boycott companies whose advertising continues to
use such stereotypes.

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 2. If people stopped to think before acquiring pets, there would be fewer instances of cruelty to animals. Many
times.. it is the people who adopt pets without considering the expense and responsibility involved who
mistreat and neglect their animals. Pets are living creatures. They do not deserve to be acquired as
carelessly as one would acquire a stuffed toy.

3. You may never need surgery. But if you do, you can prepare for it by getting as much information as you
can, keeping your body as strong as possible, and maintaining a positive, relaxed attitude. Such thorough
preparation can make a difficult experience bearable.

4. What, then, will happen in the twenty-first century when most of the population will be over sixty years
old? Retirement policies could change dramatically, with the age-sixty-five testimonial dinner and gold
watch postponed for five or ten years. Even television would change as the Geritol generation replaces the
Pepsi generation. Glamorous gray-haired models would sell everything from toilet paper to televisions.
New soap operas and situation comedies would reveal the secrets of the "sunset years." It will be a different
world indeed when the young finally find themselves outnumbered.

5. Catalog shopping at home, then, has several advantages. Such shopping is convenient, saves you money,
and saves you time. It is not surprising that growing numbers of devoted catalog shoppers are welcoming
those full-color mail brochures that offer everything from turnip seeds to televisions.
Activity 6
Choose any topic and compose a five paragraph essay.

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