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IEEE Guide for Establishing Power

Transformer Capability while under

Geomagnetic Disturbances

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Guide for Establishing Power

Transformer Capability while under
Geomagnetic Disturbances

Sponsor

Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society

Approved 3 September 2015

IEEE-SA Standards Board

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Abstract: The effects of geomagnetic disturbances (GMD) on power transformers when there is
the presence of geomagnetically induced current (GIC) in a power transformer are described.
Specification parameters and performance characteristics for power transformers to help
minimize the risk and impact when GIC is present in the power system are established. The intent
is to provide a background that can help evaluate the effect of GIC on a power transformer design
and its GIC capability. This includes the evaluation techniques to determine the performance
characteristics while under the influence of GIC.

Keywords: core saturation, design review, geomagnetically induced current (GIC),

geomagnetically induced current signature, geomagnetic disturbances (GMD), IEEE C57.163,
magnetic, monitoring, temperature gradient, testing, thermal, power transformers

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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Copyright © 2015 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

IEEE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.

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Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Establishing Power Transformer Capability while under
Geomagnetic Disturbances Working Group had the following membership:

Jane Verner, Chair

Gary Hoffman, Vice Chair
William Bartley, Secretary

Raj Ahuja Wayne Johnson Alfons Schrammel

Javier Arteaga Kurt Kaineder Hemchandra Shertukde
Peter Balma Andy Lawless Shane Smith
Jeffrey Benach Gustavo Leal Andrew Steineman
David Berrtagnolli So-young Lee Dejan Susa
Daniel Blayton Xose Lopez-Fernandez Mark Tostrud
Juan Castellnos Thomas Lundquist Jason Varnell
Donald Chu Kumar Mani Kiran Vedante
Mohamed Diaby Robert Mayer Jos Veens
Anthony Franchitti Emilior Morales Cruz Rogerio Verdolin
Shawn Galbraith David Murray Dharman Vir
Eduardo Garcia Ali Naderian Loren Wagenaar
Ramsis Girgis Sanjay Patel Sukhdev Walia
Jeffrey Golarz Verena Pellon David Wallach
Jorge Gonzalez de la Vega Brian Penny Reigh Walling
William Griesacker Donald Platts Jeffrey Wright
Ismail Guner Johannes Raith Shuzhen Xu
Jose Izquierdo Marnie Roussell Baitun Yang
Paul Jarman Roderick Sauls Waldemar Ziomek
Markus Schiessi

The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.

William Ackerman Marcel Fortin Neil Kranich

Stephen Antosz Shawn Galbraith Jim Kulchisky
Peter Balma David Gilmer Saumen Kundu
William Bartley Ramsis Girgis John Lackey
Christopher Baumgartner Jalal Gohari Marc Lacroix
Jeffrey Benach James Graham Chung-Yiu Lam
Wallace Binder William Griesacker Aleksandr Levin
Thomas Blackburn Randall Groves Thomas Lundquist
Thomas Blair Ajit Gwal J. Dennis Marlow
Daniel Blaydon Donald Hall Lee Matthews
William Bloethe John Harley Omar Mazzoni
William Boettger Roger Hayes Susan McNelly
Kent Brown Gary Hoffman John Miller
Paul Cardinal Jill Holmes Michael Miller
Juan Castellanos Philip Hopkinson Daniel Mulkey
Arvind Chaudhary Randy Horton Jerry Murphy
Stephen Conrad Richard Jackson Ryan Musgrove
John Crouse Laszlo Kadar Ali Naderian Jahromi
Willaim Darovny Gael Kennedy K. R. M. Nair
Mohamed Diaby Sheldon Kennedy Michael Newman
Dieter Dohnal James Kinney Dhiru Patel
Gary Donner Zan Kiparizoski Brian Penny
Fred Elliott Gary Kobet Branimir Petosic
Joseph Foldi Axel Kraemer Donald Platts

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Alvaro Portillo Bartien Sayogo Jason Varnell
Iulian Profir Devki Sharma Kiran Vedante
Reynaldo Ramos Hemchandra Shertukde John Vergis
Leslie Recksiedler Hyeong Sim Jane Verner
Jean-Christophe Riboud Jeremy Smith Loren Wagenaar
John Roach Jerry Smith David Wallach
Michael Roberts Gary Smullin Reigh Walling
Charles Rogers Sanjib Som John Wang
Oleg Roizman Wayne Stec Joe Watson
Thomas Rozek Michael Swearingen Kenneth White
Dinesh Sankarakurup Malcolm Thaden Jeffrey Wright
Daniel Sauer Michael Thompson Kipp Yule
Roderick Sauls Mark Tostrud Waldemar Ziomek
James Van De Ligt

When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 3 September 2015, it had the following
membership:

John D. Kulick, Chair

Jon Walter Rosdahl, Vice Chair
Richard H. Hulett, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary

Masayuki Ariyoshi Joseph L. Koepfinger* Stephen J. Shellhammer

Ted Burse David J. Law Adrian P. Stephens
Stephen Dukes Hung Ling Yatin Trivedi
Jean-Philippe Faure Andrew Myles Philip Winston
J. Travis Griffith T. W. Olsen Don Wright
Gary Hoffman Glenn Parsons Yu Yuan
Michael Janezic Ronald C. Petersen Daidi Zhong
Annette D. Reilly

*Member Emeritus

vii
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Introduction

This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.163-2015, IEEE Guide for Establishing Power Transformer Capability
while under Geomagnetic Disturbances.

This guide has been developed to address the global impact of geomagnetic disturbances (GMD) on the
reliable operation of bulk electric system (BES) including power transformers. The Standards
Subcommittee of the IEEE Power and Energy Society Transformers Committee responded by assembling a
working group to develop this guide. The intent of this guide is to provide a common framework for
considering the capability of power transformers while under the impact of geomagnetic disturbances. This
IEEE Transformer Committee guide is the first industry document of its type and facilitates the evaluation
and understanding of performance of transformers under GMD conditions.

viii
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Contents

1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2

3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2

4. Background ................................................................................................................................................ 3

5. Effects of GIC on power transformers........................................................................................................ 4

5.1 Basics of the effects of dc on power transformers ............................................................................... 4
5.2 Additional var demand and current harmonics associated with GIC ................................................... 7
5.3 Thermal effects of GIC ........................................................................................................................ 8
5.4 Other effects of GIC in transformers ................................................................................................... 8

6. Thermal response of transformers to GIC .................................................................................................. 8

6.1 Thermal effects of dc current ............................................................................................................... 8
6.2 Typical signature/profile of GIC.........................................................................................................13
6.3 The effect of the short duration of GIC pulses on transformer temperatures......................................15
6.4 Procedure for calculation of thermal response of windings and structural parts to a GIC profile ......16
6.5 Example of calculation of thermal performance to a typical GIC profile ...........................................18

7. GIC capability of a transformer design .....................................................................................................21

7.1 GIC magnetic capability .....................................................................................................................21
7.2 GIC thermal capability .......................................................................................................................24

8. Evaluation of susceptibility of existing fleet of transformers to effects of GIC ........................................27

8.1 Design-based susceptibility ................................................................................................................27
8.2 GIC level-based susceptibility ............................................................................................................28
8.3 Total GIC susceptibility ......................................................................................................................28

9. Specifications ............................................................................................................................................29
9.1 GIC signature ......................................................................................................................................29
9.2 Recommended temperature limits ......................................................................................................30
9.3 Recommended design review requirements .......................................................................................31
9.4 Testing ................................................................................................................................................31

10. Transformer GIC monitoring...................................................................................................................32

10.1 Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................32
10.2 Predicting part-cycle core saturation ................................................................................................34

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ............................................................................................................36

ix
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1. Overview

1.1 Scope

This guide describes the effects of geomagnetic disturbances (GMD) on power transformers when there is
the presence of geomagnetically induced current (GIC) in a power transformer. It establishes specification
parameters and performance characteristics for power transformers to help minimize the risk and impact
when GIC is present in the power system. The intent is to provide a background that can help evaluate the
effect of GIC on a power transformer design and its GIC capability. This includes the evaluation techniques
to determine the performance characteristics while under the influence of GIC.

It does not include the effect of GIC on other power system devices beyond power transformers and
accessories. It does not discuss mitigation techniques and mitigation devices such as neutral-blocking
devices on equipment beyond power transformers and accessories.

1
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IEEE Std C57.163-2015
IEEE Guide for Establishing Power Transformer Capability while under Geomagnetic Disturbances

2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.

IEEE Std C57.12.00™, IEEE Standard for General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers. 1, 2

IEEE Std C57.12.80™, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.

IEEE Std C57.91™, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers and Step-Voltage
Regulators.

IEEE Std C57.110™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Liquid-Filled and Dry-Type Power
and Distribution Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents.

IEC 60076-7, Power Transformers—Part 7: Loading Guide for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers. 3

3. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. For other terms, the standard
transformer terminology available in IEEE Std C57.12.80™ shall apply. The IEEE Standards Dictionary
Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause. 4

geoelectric field: The electric field within the earth. A geomagnetic disturbance of sufficient intensity and
duration changes the earth’s magnetic field thereby inducing atypical electric fields in the earth. The
horizontal field near the surface of the earth, typically measured in V/km and characterized by the earth
surface potentials, induces the flow of geomagnetically induced currents in power systems.

geomagnetic disturbance (GMD): A disturbance of the magnetic field of the earth caused by the ejection
of plasma from the sun, due to coronal mass ejections (CME) and high speed solar wind streams, and its
interaction with the earth’s magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces voltages in the loops
formed by transmission lines, grounded-wye transformers, and the paths through earth between the
transformer neutrals. The changing magnetic field induces the changes in the geoelectric field and the earth
and surface potentials, resulting in the flow of geomagnetically induced current (GIC).

quasi-dc potentials: The potentials existing in geoelectric field, characterized by relatively slowly time-
varying values of same polarity. Quasi-dc potentials are also commonly referred to as earth surface
potentials.

T-beam: A T-shaped beam used in shell form transformers. T-beams are typically made of non-magnetic
steel and are located at the bottom and may also be at the top of the core, supporting the core passing
through the coils and the winding assembly.

1
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2
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ
08854, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
3
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also
available in the United States from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
4
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at:
http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.

2
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temperature gradient: In transformers, temperature gradients are most frequently used to indicate the
difference between the temperature the core, winding, or other transformer components and adjacent oil
temperature in kelvin (K) in response to a change in loading.

tie-plates: Structural members typically utilized in core form transformers to tie the top and bottom core
yokes and clamping structures together, which maintain clamping force on the windings. They are also
known as flitch plates or tie-bars.

4. Background
Geomagnetic disturbance (GMD) is a naturally occurring phenomenon of a disturbance in the earth’s
magnetic field that starts with activity in the sun. Various events can occur on the surface of the sun, which
can produce strong and complex magnetic fields. Sunspots, which are relatively cool areas shielded by
complex magnetic fields, can give rise to solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CME). The CME can be
visualized as an enormous ball of plasma that travels outward into space. When a CME is directed toward
the earth, it interacts with the earth’s magnetic field. One effect is to direct charged particles toward the
earth’s magnetic poles where, upon impacting the upper atmosphere, cause the phenomenon commonly
known as the northern lights (aurora borealis), and southern lights (aurora australis). When a CME interacts
with the magnetosphere, the movement of the geomagnetic field relative to the conductive ionosphere
increases the magnitude of currents flowing 100 km to 150 km above the earth’s surface in the electrojets,
which are currents in the order of millions of amperes. These electrojet currents induce quasi-dc potential in
series with the transmission lines, which in turn drives the flow of geomagnetically induced current (GIC)
wherever there is a path for them to flow. It is the GIC that flows in the transmission lines which affects the
power grid, i.e., the transmission systems and the power transformers. This flow is depicted in Figure 1.

EHV /U HV T ransm ission Line

T ransform er Bank T ransform er Bank
G IC

Transm ission
Line Tower

G eo electric F ield
G IC G IC

Figure 1 —GIC flow in a power network

GIC is quasi-dc current because of its generally low frequency, typically 0.01 Hz to 0.5 Hz. At these
frequencies the high-voltage (HV) network is essentially resistive; thus, inductance, capacitance, and the
effects of magnetic coupling can be ignored in the calculation of steady-state GIC levels.

A GMD event can last one to two days, and continually generates low to moderate levels of GIC relative to
the maximum GIC during the event. The periods of high intensity GIC are generally of the most concern
for power system impacts and operation.

This guide provides some engineering information to help gain a better understanding of the extent of the
potential problems, and to understand that GIC risk is not uniform across the system. It is highly dependent
on the actual characteristics of the GMD event and each part of the power system. Factors that influence the
degree of risk to power transformers include:

 Geomagnetic latitude
 Local earth resistivity

3
Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.

 Coastal effect
 The network topology
 The design and technical specification of the power transformer
 Storm duration and intensity
 Loading

These factors play critical roles in determining the risk exposures, both in terms of the frequency and the
severity on the impact to the power grids (IEEE PES [B16]) 5

5. Effects of GIC on power transformers

5.1 Basics of the effects of dc on power transformers

The flow of GIC through power transformers is the root cause of nearly all GMD-related issues (IEEE TDC
[B18]). It causes part-cycle saturation in power transformers, which can result in issues such as increased
reactive power absorption, current harmonic generation, system voltage instability, and transformer
heating. Therefore, an accurate assessment of the GIC that is expected to occur during a given GMD is
paramount. This GIC flow through the transformer is described pictorially in Figure 2.

Geoelectric Field

Vinduced
- +
Vinduced
- +

Vinduced
- + GIC
GIC

Figure 2 —GIC flow through grounded neutral connections of power transformers

As per Figure 2, when the induced voltage, Vinduced, appears in the transmission line, transformer, and
ground loop, almost all of this voltage appears initially across the unsaturated magnetizing inductances of the
transformers in the loop because these inductances are far greater than those of the transmission line. Because
the induced voltage is very low frequency (quasi-dc), it causes an increase in the dc flux density offset,
allowing only a small amount of dc current to flow until the ac plus dc peaks and the transformer core flux
density reaches the transformer core saturation level. The dc voltage drops across the circuit resistance and
causes a decrease in the quasi-dc voltage applied to the transformer and therefore the rate of increase of the dc

5
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.

4
Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.

flux density offset slows down. The dc flux density offset stops increasing when the dc component of the
magnetizing current equals the dc induced voltage divided by the circuit resistance. This dc current is the
steady-state GIC which gives rise to the eventual dc flux density shift in the transformer core.

The magnitude of this flux density shift depends on the magnitude of the dc current, number of turns in the
windings carrying the dc current, and reluctance of the path of this dc flux. The result is that the dc flux
adds to the amplitude of the ac flux in one half-cycle and subtracts from the amplitude of the ac flux in the
other half-cycle as illustrated in Figure 3. When the dc flux is large enough, the peak flux densities in the
magnetic core reach the pre-saturation range in one half of the cycle resulting in core saturation for a small
part of a cycle. This is referred to as part-cycle saturation. Figure 4 shows the (B-I) magnetic flux density-
current characteristics which represents the B-H curve of core material since magnetic field strength, (H) is
proportional to current. The B-H characteristics of the transformer core materials is inherently very non-
linear. For higher magnitudes of dc, the core provides a much higher reluctance to the dc ampere-turns and
therefore results in a smaller incremental increase in the flux density shift and a higher peak magnetizing
current pulse.

Three-phase, three-limb cores with core form construction provide a high reluctance path to dc flux. This is
because this core type offers an order of magnitude higher magnetic reluctance to the dc ampere-turns in
the core-tank magnetic circuit. The DC flux has to pass through the very high reluctance path from the top
yoke of the core to the tank cover, through the tank walls, and return to the bottom yoke through the high
reluctance path from the tank bottom. Therefore, this core type is less susceptible to part-cycle core
saturation. However, it is susceptible to high magnitudes of magnetizing current. Single-phase, shell form,
and five-leg core form transformers present lower reluctance to the dc flux within the core. Therefore, they
are more susceptible to part-cycle core saturation at lower levels of dc. Also, while the flux density of the
core is an important factor in determining the final value of the peak of the sum of the ac and dc flux
density in three-phase core form transformers with a three-limb core, this is not the case for transformers
with other core types.

Figure 3 —Flux density shift in the core caused by dc current

5
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Figure 4 —Part–cycle saturation of transformer cores under effect of dc

Figure 5 presents an example of calculated magnetizing current pulses in a 250 MVA, 500 kV/230 kV
single-phase autotransformer of core form construction, when subjected to dc/GIC levels of 10 A, 15 A,
and 20 A. As can be seen from the figure, the peaks of the current pulses in this case are 16%, 25%, and
34% of the full load rms current, respectively. The average duration of this current pulse is only in the
range of 1/10th to 1/12th of a cycle.

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Figure 5 —Magnetizing current pulse for 3 different levels of GIC

5.2 Additional var demand and current harmonics associated with GIC

The high-magnetizing currents, resulting from core saturation, will increase the effective reactive power
absorbed by the transformer. Consequently, the bulk electric system sees a large increase in the reactive
power (var) demand for the duration of the GIC flow. Also, the transformer magnetizing current pulse
injects significant amounts of even and odd harmonics into the power system to which the transformer is
connected.

NOTE—The additional reactive power demand during a GMD event, if not offset by available resources, can cause a
reduction in system voltage to the point of encroaching secure system limits. In extreme cases, where a severe GMD is
coupled with multiple contingencies occurring over a short period of time, the reactive power demand may result in
voltage collapse. As reactive power resources near their point of exhaustion, emergency operating actions may become
necessary (IEEE PES [B16]). Thus, the reactive power demand resulting from part-cycle saturation of transformer
cores is one of the major concerns during GMDs. Additionally, the frequency spectrum of the magnetizing current
pulse (one per cycle per phase) resulting from core saturation contains both even and odd harmonics. These harmonics
can cause protection relay misoperations, overstress of capacitor banks, and overheating of generator rotors (EPRI
TR-102621 [B8], Bozoki, et al. [B5], Wik, et al. [B40], IEEE PES [B16], Rezaei-Zare and Martil [B35]. Power system
studies will need to be performed to examine the impact of the additional var demand and current harmonics on the
power system and its components. 6

Additionally, during the short duration when the core saturates due to the flow of GIC in one winding, a
much lower than rated voltage is induced in the other transformer windings of that phase resulting in an

6
Notes to text, tables, and figures are for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement the standard.

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asymmetrical three-phase voltage condition. This situation occurs three times per cycle and has
consequences on the power system to which the transformer is connected. The magnitude of this voltage
asymmetry depends on the design and the winding layout of the transformer.

NOTE—Power system studies will need to be performed to examine the impact of this voltage asymmetry on the power system and
its components.

5.3 Thermal effects of GIC

Higher magnitudes of the magnetization current and the associated current harmonics produce higher
magnitudes of stray flux that is also rich in harmonics. This results in much higher eddy and circulating
current losses in the windings, as well as in the structural parts of the transformer, causing corresponding
increases in losses and temperatures. Also, as the core saturates, part of the main flux strays to tie plates,
tank, windings, etc. causing higher losses and temperatures in these parts. However, due to the short
duration of high level GIC pulses, the temperature rises of windings and structural parts are much smaller
than those calculated for dc current application. Additionally, as the core saturates, the pattern of the load
leakage flux changes and this can cause higher circulating currents and winding overheating in some pre-
1970 shell form designs. This can happen at relatively low levels of GIC.

Another consequence of the unidirectional flux density shift in the core is that significant increases in core
losses are experienced for the duration of the GIC pulse. The increase in core losses results in an increase in
the core hot-spot temperature. However, the core’s thermal time constant is typically much longer (30 min
to 45 min) than the duration of the high peak GIC pulses and correspondingly only small increases in the
core temperatures would be experienced.

5.4 Other effects of GIC in transformers

Other effects of part-cycle core saturation are higher core sound levels, tank vibrations, and load sound
levels during the GMD event. These high tank vibrations may cause loosening of terminal leads and may
also impair accessories mounted on the tank.

6. Thermal response of transformers to GIC

This clause presents more details of the thermal effects of GIC in both core form and shell form
transformers. First, the thermal effects of the dc current in the windings and structural parts are explained,
followed by a discussion of the nature of the signature of GIC as it relates to the thermal effect of GIC.
Finally, the thermal effects of GIC are presented with an illustration of a numerical example.

6.1 Thermal effects of dc current

6.1.1 Thermal effect on windings

Higher magnitudes of the magnetization current pulse, associated with core saturation, produce higher
magnitudes of stray flux that is also rich in harmonics. This results in much higher eddy and circulating
current losses in the transformer windings, and therefore an increase in the temperatures of the transformer
windings.

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In Figure 6, the calculated temperature gradients (above oil temperature) of the hot-spots in the windings of
a 250 MVA, single-phase autotransformer are presented when the transformer is subjected to 10 A, 20 A,
and 50 A per phase dc currents for a 30-min duration, while fully loaded. Figure 6 shows that the steady-
state winding hot-spot temperature is reached within approximately 30 min from the application of the dc
current. This is a typical thermal response corresponding to a winding thermal time constant of 7 min to 8
min.

An additional thermal effect of dc to be considered on windings can occur in transformers with delta
windings. Such windings are also susceptible to overheating when the magnitude of dc is high enough to
cause core saturation. This is due to the fact that different phases in a bank of single-phase transformers, or
a three-phase transformer, will experience core saturation at different points on the cycle. This results in a
net voltage in the delta winding leading to a circulating current having high-peak pulses; three per cycle
(Girgis, Vedante, and Burden [B13]). The magnitude of this circulating current is a function of the
transformer design, winding arrangement, and the magnitude of dc. It is limited by the impedance seen by
this winding during the period of core saturation. These circulating currents cause additional high winding
losses that could result in winding overheating. Whether this overheating may be damaging to this winding
depends on the thermal rating of the winding. Further, this circulating current will reflect to the primary
winding, superimposing on the load current and the high magnetizing current that flow in the primary
winding.

However, delta windings, whether associated with autotransformer tertiaries or generator step-up (GSU)
primary windings, have an advantageous effect in delaying core saturation due to GIC and, hence, reducing
the increase of transformer temperatures due to short-duration GIC pulses. This is due to the induced
reverse voltage that develops in the tertiary windings as a consequence of the high rate of rise of these GIC
pulses. The location of the tertiary winding in the whole winding arrangement of the transformer and its
impedance would impact the magnitude of this effect. This effect is most significant in GSU primary delta
windings because these windings have low resistances due to their full MVA rating and are subject to loss
evaluation more so than tertiary windings.

Figure 6 —Calculated temperature gradient of the winding hot-spot of a fully loaded

250 MVA single-phase autotransformer due to the flow of dc current

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6.1.2 Thermal effect of dc on tie-plates

Under the effect of the dc current, and as the core is driven into magnetic saturation for a fraction of a
cycle, some of the main flux strays outside of the core and flows into the tie-plates. This causes higher eddy
losses along the length of the tie-plates. As the level of dc current increases, the magnetic flux density in
the tie-plates increases linearly until it reaches the magnetic saturation level of the tie-plate material, then
the flux density will level off.

Also, the high-peak magnetizing current pulse, associated with core saturation produces correspondingly
high levels of leakage flux that is also rich in higher-order harmonics. This leakage flux impinges on the
tie-plates causing high localized eddy losses. This component of losses increases approximately linearly
with the level of dc current. The combination of these two loss components causes the higher temperatures
in the tie-plates.

The aforementioned effects are demonstrated in the measurements presented in Figure 7 for three different
large power transformers subjected to varying levels of dc current. The figure illustrates the trends for the
increase of the tie-plate temperature with the magnitude of the dc current. For example, Figure 7 shows that
the rate of increase of the temperature of the tie plates in the transformer (Lahtinen and Elovaara [B21])
slows at higher levels of dc current. It also demonstrates the significant dependence of the temperature rise
on the design of the transformer. Some of the design parameters determine how much core flux flows into
the tie-plates, some determine the resulting flux density in these plates, and some determine the resulting
temperature rises. These parameters are the number of turns of the winding through which the dc flows,
core-type construction, core dimensions, material and dimensions of the tie-plates, distance between the
core and tie plates, and how the tie-plates are cooled.

Figure 7 —Measured steady-state temperature rises of tie-plates upon application

of dc current 7

7
Test (Lahtinen and Elovaara [B21]), was performed with the transformer connected to the power grid while tests (Raith and
Ausserhoffer [B32] and Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33] were performed in the factory.

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6.1.3 Thermal effect of dc current on yoke-clamps

The high-peak magnetizing current pulse, associated with core saturation, produces high levels of leakage
flux that is also rich in higher-order harmonics. This leakage flux impinges on the yoke clamps causing
high localized eddy losses and higher temperatures. This loss component and the resulting temperature rise
of the yoke clamps increase almost linearly with the level of dc current. This is demonstrated in the
measurements presented in Figure 8 for two different transformers subjected to varying levels of dc current
and another transformer which was tested only at 50 A per phase dc. Figure 8 shows that magnitudes of the
steady-state temperature rise of yoke clamps can vary from one design to another. This temperature rise is,
again, a function of several design parameters and the type of shielding used on the clamps and/or the tank
walls and whether the shielding is achieved by magnetic shunts or conducting shields.

Another contributor to the differences in performance observed in Figure 7 and Figure 8 between measured
temperature rises of the different transformers could be the limitations of the experimental setup. The dc
tests corresponding to references Raith and Ausserhoffer [B32] and Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33]
were performed in a test laboratory with limited var support while the test corresponding to reference
(Lahtinen and Elovaara [B21]) was performed on the grid.

Figure 8 —Measured steady-state temperature rises of yoke clamp upon

application of dc current 8

8
Test (Lahtinen and Elovaara [B21]), was performed with the transformer connected to the power grid while tests (Raith and
Ausserhoffer [B32] and Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33] were performed in the factory.

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6.1.4 Thermal effects on shell form core support or T-beam

In shell form transformers, as the transformer core partially saturates due to the flow of dc current in the
winding, some of the main core flux flows into the structural metallic components surrounding the core
(i.e., tank, T-beam, clamping structure). This leakage flux results in increased losses and localized heating.
Figure 9 shows the calculated steady-state temperature rise of the T-beam of a 425 MVA single-phase
500 kV/230 kV shell form autotransformer when subjected to 25 A, 50 A, 75 A, and 100 A per phase in the
transformer winding.

Figure 9 —Steady-state temperature rise of the T-beam with different dc currents

6.1.5 Thermal effects on shell form transformer tanks

Again, as the core saturates due to dc current, some of the AC core flux will stray outside the core and into
the tank creating localized additional losses and heating. Again, as explained in the next clause of this
guide, because of the short duration of the high peak GIC pulses, the increase in temperature has less
impact on the overall integrity of the transformer. Table 1 presents the calculated localized temperatures in
the tank of a large shell form 425 MVA single-phase autotransformer when the dc current of 25 A, 50 A,
75 A, and 100 A per phase flow in the transformer winding.

Table 1 —Calculated temperature rise of the transformer tank for

different levels of GIC
GIC, amperes per phase Tank temperature rise (K)
25 8
50 17
75 28
100 41

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6.2 Typical signature/profile of GIC

Figure 10 shows an example of GIC signature; measured in 2012 at a large generating station located in the
northeastern part of the United States of America.

As it is demonstrated in this figure, a geomagnetic disturbance associated with GIC is quasi-dc

characterized by a large number of narrow consecutive pulses of low to medium levels over a period of
hours separated by a few high peak pulses of less than a minute to few minutes duration. For a better
illustration, the part of the signature in Figure 10 that includes the highest peaks and the following pulses is
presented in Figure 11 and Figure 12 with expanded time scales. Figure 11 presents a 4-min period that
includes the two highest pulses on left side of graph in Figure 10, while Figure 12 presents the 12-min
period following the highest GIC peak. Figure 11 shows that the highest peak pulse has a magnitude of
45 A and pulse width of 45 sec at the base. The second highest pulse contains two peaks of 35 A, and
remains for a total duration of 80 sec. Figure 12 shows a base GIC level of approximately 15 A during that
12-min period.

10
GIC, Amps

-10

-20

-30

-40
0:14:24 1:26:24 2:38:24 3:50:24 5:02:24 6:14:24

Time : Hour, Minute, Second

Figure 10 —Measured GIC profile at neutral of a generator step-up transformer

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Figure 11 —A 4-min period that includes the two highest pulses on left side
of graph above

Figure 12 —A 12-min period following the highest GIC peaks period

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6.3 The effect of the short duration of GIC pulses on transformer temperatures

As illustrated in Figure 10, Figure 11, and Figure 12, the duration of high peak GIC pulses is in the range of
tens of seconds to a few minutes. The corresponding duration for medium level GIC pulses is in the several
minutes range. Therefore, the thermal responses of the transformer windings and structural parts to GIC
pulses may be based on much shorter time durations than steady-state used for dc current.

For example, Figure 13 and Figure 14 present temperature rise over top oil measurements of the tie-plate
and yoke clamps caused by injecting dc current in a large power transformer for up to 30 A per phase
(Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33]). As shown in these figures, the steady-state temperature rises are
compared to those reached after 2 min, 5 min, and 10 min after application of the dc current. These figures
demonstrate that the thermal response of these parts is much lower than those reached after steady-state
(dc). For example, a dc current of 30 A per phase, the temperature rise of the tie-plate reached only 11 K
after 2 min versus the 54 K steady-state temperature rise.

Correspondingly, in Figure 14, for the yoke clamps the temperature rise reached only 1.5 K after 5 min
versus the 13 K steady-state temperature rise for a dc current of 30 A per phase. The same could be seen
from the measurements presented in reference (Lahtinen and Elovaara [B21], Picher, et al. [B29]).

It is to be noted that high peak GIC pulse activities are typically separated by an hour, or more. Therefore,
and in terms of the transformer’s thermal time constant, each individual high GIC pulse activity may be
considered as an isolated event. This is because the transformer temperature drops back to near normal
during the time period without GIC activity.

Figure 13 —Measured temperature rises of tie-plates at different time durations

(Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33])

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Figure 14 —Measured temperature rise of yoke clamps at different time durations

(Raith, Wagner, and Ausserhoffer [B33])

6.4 Procedure for calculation of thermal response of windings and structural parts
to a GIC profile

The following steps are recommended for the calculation of temperatures of the windings and structural
parts of the transformer due to a specified GIC signature. These calculations require details of the
transformer design and materials used. The steps include:

1) Magnetic modeling of the transformer under GIC to calculate the resulting flux density shift and
associated magnetizing current pulse and its harmonics
2) Magnetic modeling of the transformer under saturated core conditions to determine the magnitude
and pattern of the leakage flux due to both load current and magnetizing current as well as that of
the main core flux under those conditions
3) Calculation of the resulting total losses and localized loss densities in windings and different
structural parts of the transformer
4) Calculation of the total temperature rise of the windings and structural parts and hot-spots due to
above effects; using the calculated total localized loss densities and accounting for the magnitude
and duration of the different parts of the GIC signature

Based on observation and study of a number of signatures of GIC, as exemplified in Figure 10, Figure 11,
and Figure 12, a typical GIC signature can be characterized by a large number of consecutive pulses of low
to medium levels over a period of hours interrupted by high peak GIC pulses of less than a minute to
several minutes duration. Therefore, a given GIC profile can be represented by two different categories of
GIC; namely:

 Base GIC: currents that are low to moderate in magnitude sustained for periods that could last a
fraction of an hour to several hours.
 GIC Pulses: High magnitude current pulses of durations of a fraction of a minute to a few minutes.

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The following general steps should be followed when calculating the temperature rise of the hot-spot in the
windings and the structural parts due to a GIC profile. First, the temperature calculations due to base GIC
are described. Next, the calculations due to GIC pulse of a predetermined magnitude “Ig” and time duration
“Tg” are described. Finally, these calculations are combined for the GIC profile.

6.4.1 Procedure for calculation of the thermal response of windings and structural parts to
a long duration base GIC

Step 1: Determine the flux density shift in the core due to current to the base GIC level.

Step 2: Calculate resulting magnetizing current pulse and its harmonics.

Step 3: Calculate additional losses in the core, windings, and structural parts of the transformer as a whole
as well as the localized losses at the locations of the hot-spots (Wik, et al. [B40]).

Step 4: Calculate corresponding change in transformer oil temperature, considering the change in the total
losses of the transformer (core plus load losses) and oil time constant for the duration of the base GIC
current.

Step 5: Calculate the resulting change in windings and structural parts hot-spot temperatures, considering
the change in the oil temperature calculated in Step 4.

6.4.2 Procedure for calculation of the thermal response of windings and structural parts to
a GIC pulse of predetermined magnitude and duration

Step 1: Determine the flux density shift in the core due to current “Ig.”

Step 2: Calculate the resulting magnetizing current pulse and its harmonics.

Step 3: Calculate additional losses in the core, windings, and structural parts of the transformer as a whole
as well as the localized losses at the hot-spot locations (Wik, et al. [B40]).

Step 4: Calculate the resulting hot-spot temperature gradient change in windings and structural parts.

6.4.3 Procedure for calculation of the thermal response of windings and structural parts
using a GIC profile

Step 1: Calculate the increase in the hot-spot temperatures of the oil and the windings and core for the base
part of the GIC profile.

Step 2: For the first GIC pulse, calculate the resulting increase in hot-spot temperature gradients for the
duration of the GIC pulse.

Step 3: Calculate the rise or drop in the hot-spot temperature at the end of the next GIC pulse or base GIC
in the GIC profile.

Step 4: Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for the duration of the entire GIC profile.

For a worst-case scenario, the above calculations would need to be performed assuming the transformer is
operating at full load and maximum ambient temperatures.

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The procedure described above requires detailed design and test information. Therefore, it is applicable to
new transformers as well as older transformers where design information is available. For older transformer
designs being evaluated where the design information is not available, calculations can be performed using
design information of a similar newer design along with test data, if available.

6.5 Example of calculation of thermal performance to a typical GIC profile

Figure 15 presents the absolute magnitudes of GIC calculated from magnetic field measurements made at
the Ottawa magnetic observatory in Canada during the GMD that occurred on March 13–14, 1989. For
purposes of illustration, the GIC levels have been scaled up by a factor of five to produce a GIC signature
of levels that are representative of a GMD event that would warrant an evaluation.

In order to illustrate the calculation of expected thermal performance of a transformer, (a 250 MVA,
500/230 kV single-phase autotransformer of core form construction was used for this example) due to a
typical GIC profile, a simplified version of the GIC profile from Figure 15 is derived as shown in
Figure 16. It consists of a base level of 10 A per phase (30 A for a three-phase bank), followed by a 6-min
duration GIC peak of 100 A per phase magnitude (300 A for a three-phase bank), two “sub-peaks” which
occur later in the 1-hour cycle (e.g., 65 A per phase for 6 min and 60 A per phase for 4 min) and two longer
duration medium magnitude GIC (35 A per phase for 24 min and 25 A per phase for 18 min). The
temperature calculations corresponding to this GIC profile were made for a 250 MVA single-phase
autotransformer. Figure 17 and Figure 18 presents the calculated winding and tie-plate hot-spot
temperatures in this transformer when subjected to the Figure 16 GIC profile, while the autotransformer is
fully loaded and the ambient temperature is 30 °C.

Figure 15 —GIC profile calculated from magnetic field measurements in March 1989;
using a magnification factor of five 9

9
Figure 15 illustrates absolute values of the magnitudes of GIC. Actual GIC values vary both positively and negatively.

18
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Figure 16 —Simplified GIC profile (used for the calculation in Figure 17 and Figure 18) 10

It can be seen from Figure 17 for windings that:

1) The temperature rise of the winding hot-spot, due to the base GIC of 10 A, is negligible.
2) The temperature of the winding hot-spot, due to the 6-min duration of a 100 A per phase GIC pulse,
increases by about 7 °C; resulting in a hot-spot total temperature of about 117 °C.
3) After the 6-min duration, the hot-spot temperature of the windings immediately begins to decrease.
During the 6-min sub-peak that occurs immediately after the 100 A maximum, the winding hot-
spot continues to decrease by about 4 °C. Following that period, the GIC drops and the hot-spot
temperature continues to fall until the 38-min mark, when the next peak of GIC occurs.
4) The winding hot-spot does not completely recover to original temperature prior to the 100 A GIC
peak, due to continued GIC oscillations around 35 A and a second sub-peak 30 min after the first
sub-peak. However, if low levels of GIC are assumed to return at the end of the 1-hour profile (as
shown in minutes 52 to 60 of the actual storm profile), it is estimated to take only about 13 min for
winding temperature to return to normal. Once again, this is because the time constant of the
windings is only a few minutes long.

Such magnitudes of excursions of the winding hot-spot temperatures for short-duration GIC magnitudes
should not cause any damage to the windings or any significant loss of life of the winding insulation.

Similarly, for the thermal effect of GIC on the structural parts of the transformer it is demonstrated in
Figure 18 that the maximum tie-plate temperature rise due to the base 10 A is again negligible. The 6-min
duration of 100 A per phase of GIC, increases maximum tie-plate temperature by about 11 °C; resulting in
a maximum temperature of about 129 °C. After the 6-min maximum, the GIC activity continues at a lower
level, and the tie-plate maximum temperature drops back to a rise of 6 °C above the original temperature
existing before the start of the GIC event. Such maximums of structural part temperatures are acceptable
for the expected short duration of GIC maximums.

10
Figure 16 illustrates absolute values of the magnitudes of GIC. Actual GIC values vary both positively and negatively.

19
Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Depending on the transformer design and actual GIC magnitudes and duration, the tie-plate maximum
temperatures could possibly reach levels that would produce small magnitudes of hydrocarbons gasses; this
is of little consequence on the reliability of the transformer. Industry Standards, such as
IEEE Std C57.91™, allow much higher maximum temperature levels on structural parts for much longer
duration under emergency loading conditions.

Figure 17 —Calculated winding hot-spot temperature using GIC profile of Figure 16

Figure 18 —Calculated tie-plate hot-spot temperatures using GIC profile of Figure 16

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The long-duration GIC profile shown in Figure 15 shows that a high GIC magnitude may exist for only a
few minutes, and each such maximum is separated by relatively long intervals. The GIC profile adopted in
Figure 16 and the corresponding calculated hot-spot temperatures presented in Figure 17 and Figure 18,
illustrate that GIC causes hot-spot temperature rises for only a few minutes per GIC peak event.

Finally, it is to be noted that the above maximum temperatures of windings and structural parts were
calculated while the transformer is fully loaded and the ambient temperature is 30 °C. The calculated
winding and structural parts temperatures will be lower when the transformer is not fully loaded and/or the
ambient temperature is less than 30 °C as it would have lower temperatures at the beginning of the GMD
event. Conversely, the calculated winding and structural parts temperatures are higher during periods of
loading beyond the nameplate rating and for ambient temperatures higher than 30 °C.

7. GIC capability of a transformer design

As described in detail in Clause 5, the main effects of GIC flow through the transformer are: a high peak
narrow current pulse one per cycle, a significant increase in reactive power demand, significant current
harmonics, and increased transformer windings and structural parts heating. The GIC capability of a power
transformer constitutes both a GIC magnetic capability and a GIC thermal capability (Girgis and Vedante
[B12]).

7.1 GIC magnetic capability

Upon customer’s request, the following calculated data can be provided for a particular transformer design
versus level of GIC per phase:

 Peak of magnetization current

 Fundamental reactive power
 Peak amplitude of magnetizing current harmonics up to the eleventh harmonic

NOTE—Power systems analysts need such data to perform various power system studies to determine the effect of
these on the system and its components, as well as to study mitigation of these effects if deemed necessary.

It is noted that for autotransformers, the value of the GIC current to be used in the calculations should be
the effective current (Ieffective) that accounts for the different levels of GIC current that the HV and low-
voltage (LV) sides of the transformer experience during a GMD storm. Using Ieffective produces the same
GIC ampere-turns of IH passing through the series winding and IN/3 passing through the common winding
of the autotransformer. The value of Ieffective is determined using Equation (1) (NERC [B23]).

IN V
I effective = I H +  − I H  ×  X 
 (1)
 3   VH

where

IH = GIC in the series high voltage winding per phase

IN = GIC in the neutral of a three-phase system or three-phase transformer
VH = rms rated voltage at the HV terminals
VX = rms rated voltage at the LV terminals

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Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.

7.1.1 Magnetizing current pulse associated with core saturation

Figure 19 presents an example of the calculated peak of magnetizing current drawn by a 250 MVA, single-
phase transformer, calculated for a wide range of GIC levels. The figure shows significant levels of the
magnetizing current peaks which increase linearly with the GIC level to which the transformer is subjected.

It is to be noted that these levels are calculated with the assumption that with the transformer connected to
the power grid, the system voltage will be sustained when the core gets into magnetic saturation. However,
if the voltage experiences a reduction during that period, the peak of the magnetizing current will be
slightly lower than those given in Figure 19. Also, the dc flux density shift will be slightly larger resulting
in a slightly wider magnetizing current pulse and hence lower magnitudes of the higher-order harmonics
than those shown in Figure 21 and Figure 22.

Figure 19 —Calculated peak of magnetizing current in % of rated current versus levels of GIC

7.1.2 Inductive reactive power (vars) drawn by the transformer

As stated earlier, for satisfactory operation of power systems, information on the additional reactive power
(var) consumption corresponding to different levels of GIC needs to be determined. Figure 20 shows an
example of the calculated inductive fundamental vars drawn by the same 250 MVA, 500 kV/230 kV single-
phase autotransformer when subjected to different magnitudes of GIC. These calculations are made using
the fundamental frequency component of the magnetizing current pulse. Figure 20 shows a linear
relationship between the reactive power absorbed by the transformer and the GIC level to which the
transformer is subjected.

22
Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 20 —Calculated reactive power drawn by a 250 MVA, single-phase autotransformer

7.1.3 Current harmonics associated with GIC

As stated earlier, the magnetization current pulses inject higher-order current harmonics in the power
system. Figure 21 and Figure 22 present the calculated magnitudes of the magnetizing current harmonics
versus magnitude of GIC for the same 250 MVA, single-phase, auto transformer. These figures show that
the higher the level of GIC, the greater the magnitude of these harmonics expressed as a percentage of the
rated current. This is obviously caused by the higher magnetizing current for higher GIC levels. The figures
also show that the harmonic content of the magnetizing current pulse associated with GIC is characterized
by magnitudes of harmonics that do not decrease significantly for higher-order harmonics. This is due to
the short-duration nature of the magnetizing current pulse.

Figure 21 —Calculated 2nd to 5th harmonics

Figure 22 —Calculated 6th to 11th harmonics

7.2 GIC thermal capability

The GIC thermal capability of a transformer is mainly a function of the magnitude and duration of the GIC
waveform. Therefore, the signature of GIC versus time is paramount to the determination of the GIC
thermal capability of a transformer design. For a given transformer, a GIC pulse of 50 A per phase for 2

min may cause the clamp hot-spot temperature to reach 140 °C. However, the same temperature may be
reached for a GIC level of 24 A per phase for 10 min (Ngnegueu, et al. [B27]).

7.2.1 Suggested standard GIC signature

Based on observation and study of a number of GIC signatures as exemplified in Figure 10, Figure 11, and
Figure 12, GIC signatures can be generally characterized by a large number of consecutive narrow pulses
of low to medium levels over a period of hours interrupted by high peaks of less than a minute to several
minutes duration. Therefore, GIC signatures are made of two main stages of GIC, namely:

 Base stage: Consists of multiples of small to moderate magnitudes of GIC sustained for periods that
could be as short as a fraction of an hour to several hours.
 Peak GIC pulse stage: Consists of high levels of GIC pulses of durations of a fraction of a minute
to several minutes.

As shown in Clause 9, Figure 24 presents a recommended generic GIC signature that can be used for the
thermal evaluation of a transformer design. Users would provide values of the base GIC (Ibase) current and
the peak GIC pulses (Ipeak) specific to their power transformers on their respective power system. These
two parameters are to be determined based on the geographic location of the transformer as well as the part
of the power grid to which the transformer is connected. For standardization purposes, the time durations of
the base GIC and GIC pulses; tb1, tb2 and tp can be fixed at; say, 60 min, 20 min, and 2 min; respectively.
Alternatively, they can be defined by the user. Also, the full duration of the high-level GMD event can be
standardized to be approximately 8 hours long; encompassing approximately 6 cycles of the GIC signature.
It is worth noting here that the rectangular-shaped GIC signature proposed here is more conservative than
actual GIC signatures, but at the same time it simplifies calculations of the transformer magnetic and
thermal response to GIC.

7.2.2 Temperature limits

The thermal GIC capability of a transformer design is determined by the maximum allowed temperatures
for the windings and structural parts due to combinations of both load current and GIC. For base GIC, the
temperature limits recommended by IEEE Std C57.91 and IEC 60076 for long duration overloading of
transformers may be used. Correspondingly, the limits for short-duration emergency overloading can be
used for the high peak, short-duration GIC events. Therefore, the temperature limits in Table 3 may be used
for time-dependent GIC thermal evaluation for new transformers.

As stated by IEEE Std C57.91, the purpose of these recommended temperature limits is to provide
reasonable values for the rate of loss of life of the solid insulation used in the transformer and also prevent
gas bubbles in the oil.

Under normal loading conditions the loss of insulation life of transformers is small, therefore, the same
temperature limits can be used for GIC thermal life as in-service transformers. However, for transformers
that are known to have had significant loss of life or have been heavily loaded throughout their service
years, lower winding hot-spot temperature limits may be specified by users. Also, moisture accumulation in
older transformers is an important factor in bubble formation at the hot-spot location and should be
considered in deciding on the temperature limits to be used for the GIC capability of power transformers.
Finally, for transformers with non-upgraded paper, the winding hot-spot temperature limits are 15 °C lower
than those for transformers with thermally upgraded paper. See IEEE Std C57.154 [B17].

7.2.3 Calculated thermal capability curve of transformer for base and peak levels of GIC

Figure 23 presents an example of the calculated GIC capability for both the base GIC (30 min duration) and
the short-duration peak GIC pulses (2 min duration) for loads up to 130% of full load. This calculation is
made for the same 250 MVA, single-phase autotransformer. The figure uses 160 °C and 180 °C on the tie-
plate hot-spot temperature as the thermal limits for base and peak GIC, respectively. The figure shows that,
for this transformer design, the transformer can be loaded up to full load for a base GIC level of about 65 A
per phase and up to about 230 A per phase of peak GIC lasting < 2 min. Even at an overload of 130% of
MVA rating, the transformer temperature limit would not be exceeded up to a peak GIC pulse of about 140
A per phase. However, note that the thermal capability of the transformer to prevent failure under GIC
conditions would be much higher than presented in Figure 23. On the other hand, be cautioned that the GIC
capability curves presented in Figure 23 are based on the IEEE recommended hot-spot temperatures for
overload assuming reasonable insulation system conditions (age and moisture content). As stated in 7.2.2,
other temperature limits would need to be used for transformers with non-upgraded paper, old transformers
that had been either heavily loaded, experienced incidents that caused significant loss of life, or have high
moisture content.

Figure 23 —Calculated example of thermal GIC capability of a transformer design;

using the tie-plate temperature criteria

Finally, note that the example presented above applies to designs where the higher temperatures are the
result of higher losses caused by the magnetizing current and the stray flux due to this current. In the case
of power transformers where part-cycle core saturation would cause high winding circulating currents, it is
necessary to account for the winding temperatures due to these currents.

8. Evaluation of susceptibility of existing fleet of transformers to effects

of GIC
This clause provides a screening and prioritization tool to assist the transformer user with a way to
prioritize the work to evaluate his fleet of transformers. Determining the total GIC susceptibility, as a
screening method, is important so that expensive assets are not needlessly replaced, other mitigation
techniques are not implemented for unfounded reasons, or a great number of transformers are required to
go through detailed thermal assessment needlessly. Higher voltage transformers may be exposed to higher
levels of GIC so transformers with a wye-connected winding greater than 200 kV should be evaluated for
GIC susceptibility (NERC 2012 [B25]).

The evaluation of the susceptibility of a transformer to the effects of GIC can be completed in multiple
steps. The first step is to determine the susceptibility of the transformer based solely on its design. The
second step of the evaluation process is to consider the location and the expected levels of exposure to GIC.
Combining design information and the GIC level susceptibility information is critical to determine the total
susceptibility of a transformer to effects of GIC (Girgis, Vedante, and Burden [B13]). A susceptible design
type may be located in an area where the expected levels of GIC are low, therefore, the total GIC
susceptibility of the transformer would be much lower than that indicated by only its design.

8.1 Design-based susceptibility

A fleet of transformers can be divided into the following categories to define its design-based susceptibility
classification to the effects of GIC:

 Classification A: Transformers not susceptible to effects of GIC

 Classification B: Transformers least susceptible to core saturation but susceptible to high
magnetizing current
 Classification C: Transformers susceptible to core saturation and possible structural parts
overheating
 Classification D: Transformers susceptible to core saturation as well as possible damaging
windings and structural parts overheating

The evaluation of the design-based susceptibility may consider the following key electrical parameters and
core and winding design of a transformer (Girgis, Vedante, and Burden [B13]).

Transformer winding design:

 If the HV winding of the transformer is connected in delta, the transformer is not susceptible to
GIC and may be considered to be in Classification A.
 In transformers with core types other than the three-phase, three-limb core, if the LV winding of the
transformer is delta-connected, or if the transformer has a delta-connected tertiary winding the
transformer may be susceptible to possible significant winding overheating and may be considered
to be in Classification D.

Transformer type:
 A three-phase core form transformer with a three-limb core has lower susceptibility to core
saturation but it is susceptible to high levels of magnetizing current and tank heating and may be
considered to be in Classification B.

 Transformers with core types other than the three-phase, three-limb core; using a T-beam (shell
form), or near-core flitch-plates or tie-rods (core form) are susceptable to core saturation and
structural parts overheating and may be considered to be in Classification C.
 Transformers with core types other than the three-phase, three-limb cores with magnetic steel bolts
through the core limbs or yokes are susceptable to overheating of core bolts during core saturation
and may be considered in Classification D.
 Some of the pre-1970 shell form designs could be susceptible to appreciable winding overheating
due to high circulating currents in the low voltage windings when the core saturates and may be
considered to be in Classification D (Girgis and Chung-Duck [B10]).

Transformer design types that are not mentioned above should have an assessment performed to determine
the susceptibility of the design to effects of GIC.

8.2 GIC level-based susceptibility

This assessment represents the other part in the process of evaluating the total susceptibility of a
transformer to effects of GIC. As stated earlier, the total susceptibility of a transformer cannot be correct
without considering the level of GIC the transformer may be exposed to. This level of GIC is determined
by a number of factors, such as the region where the transformer is located, the resistance of the soil in that
location, etc. The process of evaluating the GIC level-based susceptibility divides transformers into three
exposure categories; namely, high (greater than or equal to 75 A per phase), medium (greater than 15 A per
phase but less than 75 A), and low (less than or equal to 15 A per phase). These categories may be
determined using calculated relative levels of GIC that transformers in a certain location would be
subjected to for the benchmark GMD storm (NERC Project 2013-03 [B26]).

8.3 Total GIC susceptibility

The process of assessing the total susceptibility of a transformer to effects of GIC is basically combining
the results of the design-based susceptibility assessment analysis and the GIC level-based susceptibility
assessment. This process involves the following procedure:

 Transformers assessed to have a high level of total susceptibility to GIC effects (category IV) are
those which belong to design classification D and are, at the same time, located in high or medium
GIC level areas. For this group of transformers, both magnetic and thermal GIC capability
(winding hot-spot and structural parts hot-spot) evaluation may be performed.
 Transformers assessed to have a medium level of total susceptibility to effects of GIC (category III)
are those which are determined to be either in design classification B and are located in high GIC
level areas or design classification C and located in medium or high GIC level areas. For these
groups of transformers, both magnetic modelling and thermal assessment of structural parts may be
performed.
 Transformers assessed to have a low total susceptibility to effects of GIC (category II) are those
which are determined to belong to design classification B and are located in medium GIC level
areas or design classifications C or D and located in low GIC level areas. For these groups of
transformers, only magnetic modelling may be performed.
 Transformers assessed to have practically no susceptibility to effects of GIC (category I) are those
which are determined to be either:

1) Design classification B and are located in low GIC level areas, or

2) Design classification A

For category I transformers, no further action may be considered.

It is important, however, to note here that identifying a group of transformers to be highly susceptible to
winding or structural parts overheating does not imply that these transformers will experience this
overheating. It only identifies those transformers that need detailed thermal assessment. Table 2 is a
summary of category versus GIC exposure level classification.

Table 2 —Transformer total susceptibility to the effect of GIC

GIC exposure level (amperes per phase)

Classification of
Low exposure Medium exposure High exposure
transformer design–based
(≤ 15 A) (> 15 A to < 75 A) (≥ 75 A)
susceptibility

Not susceptible (A) I I I

Least susceptible (B) I II III

Susceptible (C) II III III

Highly susceptible (D) II IV IV

9. Specifications

9.1 GIC signature

For the thermal evaluation of new power transformers, the simplified GIC signature shown in Figure 24 is
recommended. As stated in 7.2.2, this signature is based on observation and study of a large number of
measured GIC signatures and the reference geoelectric profile proposed in the NERC thermal assessment
document (NERC Project 2013-03 [B26]).

The magnitudes of the base GIC (Ibase) and peak GIC pulses (Ipeak) would be specific to the power
transformer to be thermally evaluated. These two parameters would be specified by the user based on
system studies of response of the different transformers on the grid to a reference GMD event. They can be
as conservative as the user would want them to be. For standardization purposes, not unlike the standard
impulse wave, the time durations of the base GIC and GIC pulses, tb and tp, respectively, should have fixed
values. The suggested values are tb1 = 60 min, tb2 = 20 min, and tp = 2 min. The full duration of the full
GMD event can be represented with several such cycles, as shown in Figure 24, such that events lasting
many hours can be modelled. If the user’s studies produce requirements that do not fit this profile, then the
profile provided to the manufacturer should represent the expected actual requirements.

Figure 24 —Recommended simplified GIC signature

9.2 Recommended temperature limits

Again, as stated in 7.2.2, the GIC capability of a transformer design is determined by the maximum allowed
temperatures for the windings and structural parts resulting from combinations of both load current and
GIC. The following temperature limits, as given in Table 3, may be used for time-dependent GIC thermal
evaluation for the new transformers. These temperatures correspond to temperature limits recommended by
the industry loading standards for long and short duration of emergency loading of transformers. Finally,
for transformers with non-upgraded paper, the winding hot-spot temperature limits are 15 °C lower than
those for transformers with upgraded paper. IEEE Std C57.12.00™ and IEEE Std C57.91 provide values
for transformers with non-thermally and thermally upgraded paper insulation.

Table 3 —Recommended hot-spot temperature limits for GIC

GIC type
Component Base GIC Short duration GIC events
IEEE/IEC IEEE IEC
Cellulose insulation 140 °C 180 °C 160 °C
Structural parts 160 °C 200 °C 180 °C

9.3 Recommended design review requirements

During design reviews on new transformers, the manufacturer should demonstrate an understanding of the
effects of short-term and long-term GIC events on the operation of the transformer at nameplate and
overload conditions specified by the user. This demonstration includes providing the calculations,
modeling, and analysis to verify that the transformer is properly designed and manufactured to meet the
customer’s specifications and prove the GIC capability of the transformer design. The user can specify that
the following information and considerations be provided by the manufacturer.

1) Magnitude and wave shape of the resulting magnetizing current and magnitudes of the
associated reactive power (var) demand and harmonics for the specified range of GIC. Refer to
Figure 19 through Figure 22 for examples.
2) Graphs showing the hottest spot temperatures of winding and structural parts in response to user
specified GIC wave shape, including magnitudes. The graphs should plot the calculated
temperature rise response to the GIC wave shape utilizing the temperature limits specified in
Table 3. Refer to Figure 17 and Figure 18 for examples. The transformer nameplate rating may
be used as base loading prior to the GIC event. Analyses of the user’s specified maximum
overload values can also be specified.
3) In order to establish how much loading capability of the transformer is reduced, if any, as the
GIC magnitude increases, the user can specify that the manufacturer supply GIC capability
curves showing calculated permissible GIC magnitude as a function of percent transformer
rating. The user, with recommendations from the manufacturer, can establish compensatory
measures such as turning on additional fans or pumps, reducing loading, taking the transformer
out of service, etc. during short-term and long-term GIC events. Refer to Figure 23 as an
example.
4) In order to monitor maximum temperatures of the winding and structural parts during a GIC
event, fiber optic sensors can be specified to be placed at the locations where the manufacturer
predicts that the maximum temperatures may occur.
5) Discuss the user’s loading practices regarding transmission system voltage variation, the
settings used for de-energized tap changers, and the expected routine exposure to over-
excitation. This is most applicable to three-phase, three-limb, core form type transformers.

9.4 Testing

Testing transformers with dc involves complicated test setups as presented in Raith and Ausserhoffer
[B32]. Additionally, dc laboratory testing does not reproduce exactly the transformer service conditions
during a GMD event with the transformer connected to the power grid and carrying real and reactive loads.
It is recommended that specifications require that the transformer manufacturer supply data during the
design review process to provide the basis for ensuring the GIC capability of the transformer design or on
similar transformer designs. The validity of the calculation method used could be indicated with laboratory
or on-site measurements. Particular attention should be paid to differentiating between steady-state hot-spot
temperatures of windings and structural parts (caused by dc current) and those caused by short-duration
GIC pulses.

As stated above, laboratory dc testing is not representative of actual service conditions with the transformer
connected to the grid and carrying load during a GMD event. Therefore, laboratory test results do not
accurately portray actual outcomes. Here are some of the reasons:

1) When dc testing is performed in the test lab, the test system voltage collapses as the core saturates,
which is associated with large var demand. However, conditions are different when the
transformer is connected to the power grid, where the system voltage is maintained throughout.

Therefore, the losses and resultant hot-spot temperatures will be different during factory testing
conditions compared to when the transformer is connected to the power grid.
2) When factory testing is performed, dc rather than GIC is applied to the transformer. The GIC
phenomenon is a series of high peak short-duration pulses (1 min to 2 min duration). Therefore,
the temperatures reached due to dc current will be much higher than what would be observed
when, for example, the transformer is subjected to a 2-min GIC pulse of the same magnitude. For
example, if 30 A dc were applied to a single-phase, 133 MVA, core form transformer, the tie-
plates would reach 67 K (Raith and Ausserhoffer [B32]) in approximately 50 min after application
of the dc current. However, when short-duration GIC pulses were applied the temperature
increased only 13 K after 2 min (20% of the steady-state dc value).
3) Testing with dc in the factory is limited by the laboratory setup used and can be performed only at
relatively low levels of dc. However, the greater interest is in evaluating the thermal performance
of the transformer at high levels of GIC. This is obviously not feasible to perform in the factory.
At the same time, the thermal performance of transformers to dc is not linearly proportional to the
magnitude of dc. Therefore, temperature measurements obtained at lower levels of dc cannot be
extrapolated to high levels of dc. For instance, in the 133 MVA transformer cited above, the tie-
plate temperature rose 41 K when the first 10 A dc was applied and only additional 26 K after the
dc current was increased to 30 A.
4) In the test laboratory, dc testing is performed at no load where insulating fluid’s viscosity is higher
and oil is not moving (stagnant). This results in higher temperature rises than what would be
expected when the transformer connected to the power grid is subjected to GIC while the
transformer is loaded. The impact of this issue can be reduced if the test is performed shortly after
the heat run test.

Hence, dc factory testing is of little value and of little relevance to the thermal performance of transformers
exposed to high levels of GIC when the transformer is connected to the power grid and at load.
Furthermore, the time constants of the stressed components are much longer than the duration of high peak
short-duration GIC pulses. Therefore, overheating within the power transformers due to these peak GIC
pulses during GMD events would not be a significant issue. Moderate base GIC levels have longer
durations and can cause more heating than that caused by high short-duration peak GIC pulses, as stated in
7.2.1.

Finally, note that factory dc testing may be performed by a manufacturer for the sake of verification of
magnetic and thermal modelling provided that the actual testing setup and capabilities are modelled.
However, this objective can be better served by correlating measured var demand, current harmonics, and
hot-spot temperatures in the transformer with measured GIC and comparing the measured quantities to
calculated values. In either case, the model verification would generally apply to the range of the dc or GIC
levels used in the verification. If the user still desires testing, field testing or an independent testing
laboratory are other options. Note that producing dc currents on top of ac to represent what happens under a
GIC event is very difficult to replicate.

10. Transformer GIC monitoring

10.1 Monitoring

Transformers play a significant role in providing a path for GIC to enter the power system. If the levels of
GIC are high enough, the core of the transformer may undergo part-cycle core saturation. Core saturation
of a transformer will generate harmonics that will increase heating within the transformer. Measuring both
GIC and harmonics provides awareness that the transformer may be experiencing difficulty handling the
GIC flow.

Users should monitor a rapid change in transformer Mvar losses in a short time (approximately 10 min) as
well as on line temperature alarms. Depending on the transformer design, the actual GIC magnitudes and
duration, the tie-plate or other structural parts maximum temperatures could possibly reach levels that
would produce small magnitudes of hydrocarbons gasses; this is of little consequence to the reliability of
the transformer. If on-line dissolved gas analysis (DGA) monitors are available, this data may be reviewed
to determine if the GIC had any impact on the transformers. Alternatively, manual insulating liquid samples
can be taken and analyzed.

10.1.1 GIC measurement

GIC is typically measured by the amount of dc current flowing through the grounded neutrals of power
transformers. Since GIC is quasi-dc with a bandwidth between 0.01 Hz and 0.5 Hz, the devices measuring
this current should utilize a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency such that the attenuation is greater than
40 dB at the fundamental power system frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz and should be at least 40 dB of
attenuation at each harmonic of the power system frequency out to 1000 Hz. Devices employed to measure
this current are Hall-effect sensors or a resistor in series with the neutral connection to the transformer.

Hall-effect sensors, also known as Hall-effect current transformers (CTs) are non-intrusive to the neutral
conductor and measure both ac and dc. A Hall-effect CT can be obtained as a solid core or split core and
care should be exercised in using either a weatherproof sensor or protect the sensor in a suitable NEMA 4
or 3R enclosure appropriate for the environment where the sensor is to be applied. Since sensors are
typically installed outdoors, care should be exercised to select a sensor with a temperature range
appropriate for the climate where the sensor is to be installed. Also, for Hall-effect CTs, consideration
should be given to the window size relative to the neutral conductor to be measured. In addition, when
applying Hall-effect CTs, consideration should be given to when fault current flows through the neutral
conductor. High fault currents may cause the core within the Hall-effect CT to magnetize. If facilities are
not provided to zero this effect, it may be necessary to demagnetize the Hall-effect CT core. Imbalance of
neutral current should be taken into consideration as it may limit the measurement range of the GIC sensor.

In addition, when applying Hall-effect CTs, other considerations should be taken into account:

 Desired accuracy and resolution of the sensor

 Measurement range of the sensor depending on the maximum expected level of dc to be measured
at the site where the GIC sensors are installed
 Supplier recommendations for possible core magnetization in the case of fault currents flowing
through the neutral conductor and remediation if the sensor indicates an offset in the measured
value due to possible core magnetization
 A method to communicate the measured dc

While a series resistor on the neutral may be used to measure GIC flow, care should be exercised to review
that the insulation level of the neutral connection is not compromised and the resistor has sufficient power
rating to handle the designed fault current level.

Measurement range of the dc sensor may vary depending on the maximum expected level of dc to be
measured at the site where the GIC sensors are installed. The maximum measurement range can be −500 A
dc to +500 A dc with a resolution to detect low level events of 0.1 A dc.

Another consideration when monitoring dc is the method of sampling chosen. One issue in monitoring GIC
is that it is not pure dc but quasi-dc with a maximum frequency of 0.5 Hz. Since many systems are digital
in nature, care should be exercised to choose a sampling rate of the analog signal at least twice the
frequency being measured. Since this may be as high as 0.5 Hz, sampling should be done at least once a
second to prevent aliasing of the data.

10.1.2 Harmonic measurement

While measurement of GIC provides important information, it is not sufficient to provide information for
determining whether the transformer core is undergoing part-cycle core saturation or predicting the
increases in eddy-current losses. When the core saturates, the transformer current will be rich in harmonics
that may be at levels that are higher and for a longer sustained period of time than other dc induced events.

Once a transformer undergoes part-cycle saturation, harmonics will be present on the windings which may
be measured at the secondary of the bushing CT. The magnitude of harmonic rms currents shown in
Figure 21 and Figure 22 drops off as the harmonic order increases.

The transformer’s harmonics may be monitored and recorded by a variety of equipment. This includes but
may not be limited to protective relays, digital fault recorders, power quality meters, or transformer
monitors. Harmonics generated by the transformer should be measured from the bushing CT. Voltage
transformers should not be used since harmonic measurement from a PT may not indicate whether the
harmonics are generated in the transformer or elsewhere.

Measured harmonics along with the magnitude of GIC, can be used together to assist in situational
awareness of how the transformer is responding to a GMD event. The measured magnitudes of the current
harmonics can give a rough indication of the additional eddy losses in the windings and in metallic
structural components. Equation 2 in IEEE Std C57.110™-2008 may give an estimate of the increased
losses.

10.2 Predicting part-cycle core saturation

Continuous monitoring of the GIC, harmonics, and reactive power (var) flow to and from the transformer
provides sufficient information to make decisions whether more vulnerable transformers are being affected
by a GMD event. One phenomena associated with part-cycle core saturation is the generation of harmonics.
The harmonics associated with part-cycle core saturation has a unique signature that along with the
presence of dc from GIC can indicate that the core is undergoing saturation. The signature is a pattern of
harmonics where the majority of current from even harmonics is greater than the odd harmonics (Price
[B30]).

One example of a method to compare even and odd harmonics is to calculate the total even harmonic
distortion and compare it against the calculated total odd harmonic distortion with a sufficiently high level
GIC present. Equations (2) and (3) illustrate the method to calculate even and odd total harmonic distortion.

hE −MAX 2
 I h×2 
THDEVEN = 100 × ∑h =1

 I f 
(2)

where

THDEVEN = Total harmonic distortion in percent of even harmonics

If = rms fundamental current
Ihx2 = rms even harmonic current
h = harmonic order
hE-MAX = highest measured even harmonic

hO − MAX 2
 I (2× h +1) 
THDODD = 100 × ∑h =1

 I f 
(3)

where

THDODD = total harmonic distortion in percent of odd harmonics

If = rms fundamental current
I(2xh+1) = rms odd harmonic current
h = harmonic order
hO-MAX = highest measured odd harmonic

If the result of Equation (2) is 50% larger than Equation (3) with sufficient GIC simultaneously measured
and sufficient loading the transformer may be considered in saturation. The event duration should be taken
into consideration.

One final consideration when measuring harmonics on three-phase transformers is to use only the outer
phases: H1, H3, X1, X3, Y1, or Y3 because the harmonics, while present on H2, X2, and Y2, will not show
a predictable and useful pattern of even and odd harmonics (Price [B30]). With respect to single-phase
transformers, if they are thermal duplicates, it should not be necessary to monitor all three transformers as
once one transformer saturates, all three will saturate. However if the transformers are not thermal
duplicates, harmonic monitoring should be applied to all three transformers with individual GIC monitors
for each transformer neutral.

Since lightly loaded transformers can show this harmonic pattern, care should be exercised to verify
sufficient GIC is flowing commensurate with the susceptibility of the specific transformer type. See 8.1
(Price [B30]).

Annex A

(informative)

Bibliography

Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.

[B1] Albertson, V. D., et al. (IEEE Transmission and Distribution Working Group on GMD and Power
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Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 3, July 1993, pp. 1206–1216. 11, 12
[B2] Albertson, V. D., J. G. Kappenman, N. Mohan, and G. A. Skarbakka, “Load-Flow Studies in the
Presence of Geomagnetically-Induced Currents,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-100, No. 2, Feb. 1981, pp. 594–607.
[B3] Albertson, V. D., and J. Van Baelen, “Electric and Magnetic Fields at the Earth’s Surface Due to
Auroral Currents,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-89, No. 4, April 1970,
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[B4] Boteler, H., and R. J. Pirjola, “Modelling Geomagnetically Induced Currents Produced by Realistic
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[B5] Bozoki, B., et al., “The Effects of GIC on Protective Relaying,” IEEE Transactions on Power
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[B6] EPRI EL-1949, Minnesota Power and Light Co. Investigation of Geomagnetically Induced
Currents in the Proposed Winnipeg-Duluth-Twin Cities 500 kV Transmission Line. Palo Alto, Calif.:
Electric Power Research Institute, July 1, 1981. 13
[B7] EPRI EL-3295, Mitigation of Geomagnetically Induced and DC Stray Currents. Palo Alto, Calif.:
Electric Power Research Institute, Dec. 1983.
[B8] EPRI TR-102621, Solar Magnetic Disturbances/Geomagnetically Induced Current and Protective
Relaying, Palo Alto, Calif.: Electric Power Research Institute, Aug. 1993.
[B9] Gattens, P., and R. M. Waggel, “Investigation of Transformer Overheating due to Solar Magnetic
Disturbances,” IEEE Special Panel Session Report, July 12, 1989.
[B10] Girgis, R., and K. O. Chung-Duck, “Calculation Techniques and Results of Effects of GIC Currents
as Applied to Two Large Power Transformers,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 7, No. 2, April
1992, pp. 699–705.
[B11] Girgis, R., and K. Vedante, “Effect of GIC on Power Transformers and Power Systems,” IEEE
Transmission and Distribution Conference, Orlando, FL, May, 2012.
[B12] Girgis, R., and K. Vedante, “Methodology for Evaluating the Impact of GIC and GIC Capability of
Power Transformer Designs,” IEEE Power & Energy Society 2013 General Meeting Proceedings,
Vancouver, Canada, pp. 1–5, July 2013.

11
EEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
12
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
13
Available at www.epri.com.

[B13] Girgis, R., K. Vedante, and G. Burden, “A Process for Evaluating the Degree of Susceptibility of a
Fleet of Power Transformers to the Effects of GIC,” IEEE Power & Energy Society Conference, July 2013,
Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Authorized licensed use limited to: Virginia Transformer Corp. Downloaded on June 22,2016 at 15:04:20 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.

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