F6FORBAL

DEFINITION OF FIREARM

An instrument or device with which it is possible to propel a projectile by means of the

expansive force of the gases generated by the combustion of an explosive substance.
A barreled weapon of any description from which any shot, bullet or other missile can be
discharged. It includes any prohibited weapon, whether a lethal weapon or not.
Firearms are any weapon that is used to fire a projectile with the help of gunpowder.

HISTORY OF FIREARM
• Firearms were invented in 1260 in China, after the Chinese had invented
gunpowder in the 9th century
• These inventions were later transmitted to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa
• Almost every gun is based on the same simple concept by apply explosive pressure
behind a projectile to launch it down a barrel.
• The earliest & simplest application of this idea is the cannon
• The 1st handheld guns were essentially mini-cannons; you loaded some gunpowder
& a steel ball & lit a fuse
HAND CANNONS (1271-1368)
• The use of the first firearm was recorded in the mid-1300s by the Chinese Yuan
dynasty.
• These were muzzle loading firearms in which the projectile was loaded with
powder, wad, and ball.
• A small touch hole is placed at the breech end with a primer which when ignited by
touching the fire, causes an explosion releasing the projectile from the cannon.
 • Hand cannon was fired using both hands in which one hand holds the weapon to
aim and the other ignites the primer.
• Hand cannon required much more stability for the perfect aim.

MATCHLOCK (EARLY 1400’S)

• The matchlock was the first advance in the history of pistols that could be fired with
one hand which also provides an advantage to aim the target and the straight
wooden stock was replaced by curved stock for better recoil and grip of the weapon.
• In matchlock, the touch hole was replaced by the wick a slow-burning piece of cord)
attached to the S-shaped hook to ignite the primer.
• To fire using matchlock, the hook needs to be pushed forward towards the primer
kept in a pan. The burning wick would ignite the primer thus releasing the projectile
from the weapon.
• Match lock was much better than Hand cannon but had its cons such as Fragility and
Weather sensitivity making it hard for surprise attacks.
• The introduction of the Wheel lock meant the disappearance of the matchlock.

WHEEL LOCK (EARLY 1500’s)

• In the wheel lock mechanism, the wick was replaced by the steel serrated wheel
which is mounted at the side of the rear of the weapon. The spinning wheel is
mounted with a chain round in such a way that when the trigger is pulled, the wheel
rotates.
• The wheel is positioned in such a way that it rotates against the steel holding the
primer to cause friction and ignite a spark in order to release the projectile.
• The wheel lock is much more efficient, accurate, weather-resistant. However, wheel
locks are much more expensive and complicated than matchlocks.
FLINT LOCK (EARLY 1600’S)
• The introduction of Flintlock solved a longstanding problem of an efficient, reliable,
and easy to use firearm.
• The flintlock firearm was designed in such a way that flint was attached to the jaw-
shaped device or a hammer-like structure or a pivoted arm called a cock which
could be operated with the help of a trigger.
• When the trigger is pulled, the flint attached to the hammer strikes against the steel
cover kept over the priming pan to ignite the powder.
• This spark when created then travels through the touch hole into the main charge so
that the projectile is discharged from the weapon.
• The flintlock remained in use for over two centuries without any changes

PERCUSSION CAP (1805)

 • The percussion cap ignition system was developed in 1807 by Alexander John
Forsynth of England.
• After the use of flintlock for almost 200 years, the invention of a sensitive compound
Mercury fulminate opened a wide range of possibilities for advanced firearms.
• Alexander experienced that when the trigger is pulled and the hammer strikes the
primer, it causes enough spark almost immediately to ignite the main powder to
discharge the weapon. With this, a separate primer and the striking system were no
longer required.
• With new possibilities and a new system, it took 7 years to use this percussion
system efficiently in 1814. Until that, it went through many systems namely
Forsynth scent bottle, pill locks, tube locks, and finally percussion cap which was
claimed by many scientists but was finally attributed to Joshua Shaw of Philadelphia.

PINFIRE SYSTEM (1840)

• The pinfire system was one of the first breech-loading firearms in which the primer,
propellant, and missile are all held together in a cartridge.
• In the pinfire system, the percussion cap is inside the cartridge case while the pin
which rests inside the percussion cap is protruded through one side of the cartridge
case.
• When the trigger is pulled, the hammer strikes the firing pin driving it into the
priming compound causing it to detonate the main charge and discharge the bullet.
• Pinfire system revolvers used bullets of 5, 7, 9, 12 & 15mm calibers while rifle and
shotgun ammunition of 9mm & 12 bore calibers were also available.
• While the pinfire system was one of the greatest advancements in the history of
firearms, it had many drawbacks, one being the reliability or the tendency of a
cartridge to discharge if dropped onto its pin.
RIMFIRE SYSTEM (1851)
• The introduction of the rimfire system in 1851 was a major breakthrough as it was
much more reliable and eliminated almost all the problems including drawbacks of
the pinfire system.
• The rimfire cartridge is a thin-walled cartridge with a hollow flanged rim. In this
cartridge, no cartridge pin was required. The rim was filled with a small amount of
priming compound.
• When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin strikes the rim crushing it in the process
which explodes the priming compound thus igniting the propellant.
• The initial development of the rimfire system was made by Flobert, a gunsmith from
Paris. The first revolver to fire rimfire cartridges was developed by Smith & Wesson
in 1855.
• Rimfire is Cheap, reliable, and accurate while it also has cons such as the limitation
of velocity and caliber.

CENTER FIRE SYSTEM (1861)

 • This was one of the major developments in the history of firearms.
• In centerfire ammunition, the primer is at the center of the base of the cartridge and
the primer needs to be soft enough to be crushed by the firing pin.
• Unlike other systems, the centerfire primer is a separate component seated into its
case head which is replaceable by reloading.
• The exact date of the centerfire system is not precise yet a patent was issued in 1861
namely Daws Centerfire system.
• The principles used in centerfire ammunition had a significant effect as it is still
used in modern firearms from small handguns to large artillery weapons.
• It has certain advantages such as accuracy, cheap, reloading, and reliability.

PERSONALITIES WHO GIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARM

CHINESE FIRE LANCE (10TH CENTURY)
• The Chinese fire lance, a bamboo tube that used gunpowder to fire a spear, invented
in the 10th century, is regarded by historians as the first gun ever made. Gunpowder
was previously invented in China in the 9th century.
JOSHUA SHAW (1815)
• He invented percussion caps, which replaced the flintlock trigger system. The new
percussion caps allowed guns to shoot reliably in any weather condition.
CASIMIR LEFAUCHEUX (1835)
• He invented the first practical breech loading firearm with a cartridge. The new
cartridge contained a conical bullet, a cardboard powder tube, and a copper base
that incorporated a primer pellet.

HIRAM MAXIM (1884)

• The Maxim machine gun was the first fully automatic machine gun. It was developed
by an engineer and inventor, Hiram Maxim, in 1884 in England. This automatic gun
was also known as the Vickers-Maxim or just Vickers.
SAMUEL COLT (1849)
• American firearms inventor, manufacturer, and entrepreneur who popularized the
revolver.
• As a teenaged seaman, Colt carved a wooden model of a revolving cylinder
mechanism, and he later perfected a working version that was patented in England
and France in 1835 and in the United States the following year.
• Featuring a multichambered cylinder that rotated and locked by cocking the
hammer, Colt’s repeating single-barreled pistols, rifles, and shotguns were slow to
gain acceptance, and a company that formed to manufacture them in Paterson, New
Jersey, failed in 1842. The following year he devised an electrically discharged naval
mine, the first device using a remotely controlled explosive, and he conducted a
telegraph business that utilized the first underwater cable
RICHARD J. GATLING (1862)
• Gatling’s career as an inventor began when he assisted his father in the construction
and perfecting of machines for sowing cotton seeds and for thinning cotton plants.
In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steamboats, only to find that a
patent had been granted to John Ericsson for a similar invention a few months
earlier.
• In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid-fire machine gun that is associated with
his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in perfecting the weapon; but the war was
practically over before the federal authorities consented to its official adoption.
JOHN MOSES BROWNING
• An American firearm designer who developed many varieties of military and civilian
firearms, cartridges, and gun mechanisms – many of which are still in use around
the world.[2] He made his first firearm at age 13 in his father's gun shop and was
awarded the first of his 128 firearm patents on October 7, 1879, at the age of 24.[3]
He is regarded as one of the most successful firearms designers of the 19th and 20th
centuries and pioneered the development of modern repeating, semi-automatic, and
automatic firearms.
• Browning influenced nearly all categories of firearms design, especially the
autoloading of ammunition. He invented, or made significant improvements to,
single-shot, lever-action, and pump-action rifles and shotguns. He developed the
first reliable and compact autoloading pistols by inventing the telescoping bolt, then
integrating the bolt and barrel shroud into what is known as the pistol slide.
• Browning's most successful designs include the M1911 pistol, the water-cooled
M1917, the air-cooled M1919, and heavy M2 machine guns, the M1918 Browning
Automatic Rifle, and the Browning Auto-5 – the first semi-automatic shotgun. Some
of these arms are still manufactured, often with only minor changes in detail and
cosmetics to those assembled by Browning or his licensees. The Browning-designed
M1911, and Hi-Power, together with the CZ75, are some of the most copied firearms
in the world.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS

RIFLE
Butt: Don’t let your mind drift other places now. A butt of a rifle is different. It is the rear
end of the stock which comes in contact with your shoulder when you fire a round.
Stock: As mentioned above, the stock is the rear wooden or polymer part of the rifle which
lets you hold it against your shoulder when you are firing.
Trigger Guard: The trigger guard is a D-shaped metal loop which protects the
trigger and prevents any accidental discharge. It also works as a reference rest for your
finger to allow you to shoot quickly without looking at the trigger.
Trigger: The trigger is a curved piece of metal which is the operational switch
of the trigger assembly. Once you pull the trigger on a loaded and charged weapon, a shot is
fired.
There are multiple types of triggers including single stage, dual stage, and drop-in triggers.
Safety: Also known as the safety lock, this switch controls the movement of
the trigger. If the safety is on, your weapon won’t fire even if the gun is loaded and charged.
Semi-auto and auto rifles have more settings on this switch for 3-round and full auto burst
modes.
Bolt Handle: Also known as the charging handle, it helps cycle rounds in the action. To put
it simply: it's the thing a sniper pulls after every shot in movies.
Bolt: A bolt is responsible for all the basic action of a firearm. A bolt has a firing pin which
fires the bullet, then the extractor pulls and ejects a spent cartridge from the chamber using
the force of expanding gasses, and draws new cartridge from the magazine and loads it in
the chamber.
Magazine: A magazine is a sorted array arrangement of multiple rounds. A magazine
holds rounds inside and can have different capacities ranging from five rounds to even
hundreds.
Chamber: This is the base of the barrel where the round is held ready for shooting. The
bullet separates from the cartridge here.
Forestock: The wooden/polymer base right below the barrel. It helps the user grip the
weapon on the front end.
Barrel: The rifled metal tube through which the bullet travels when it is fired.
Barrel length affects accuracy.
Sight: Device to be used for aiming. Front sights and rear sights are aligned to take
proper aim.
Muzzle: The fore-end of the barrel where the bullet exits the gun.

HANDGUN

Bore: The bore in the inside of the buns barrel through which the projectile travels when
fired.
Breech: The Breech is the area of the firearm that contains the rear end of the barrel, where
the cartridge is inserted.
Cylinder: The Cylinder is the part of a revolver that holds cartridges in separate chambers.
The Cylinder of a revolver rotates as the gun is cocked, bringing each chamber into
alignment with the barrel.
Grip: The Grip is the portion of a handgun that’s used to hold the firearm.
Hammer: The Hammer on a revolver is the part that strikes the firing pin or the cartridge
primer directly, detonating the primer which discharges the gun.
Magazine: A Magazine is a spring-operated container, that can be fixed or detachable,
which holds cartridges for a repeating firearm.
Muzzle: The muzzle of a gun is the front end of the barrel where the projectile exits the
firearm.
Trigger: The Trigger is the lever that’s pulled or squeezed to initiate the firing process.
Trigger Guard: The trigger guard is the portion of a firearm that wraps around the trigger
to provide both protection and safety.

SHOTGUN

STOCK
The stock is the part of the shotgun you steady against your shoulder muscles when you
shoot. It also provides structural support for the gun’s action, barrel, and firing mechanism.
There may be a recoil pad attached to the butt (the very back end of the stock) to help
cushion your shoulder and dampen recoil (sometimes called “kick,” recoil is the backward
movement of the gun when it is fired).
Most manufacturers make the stock from wood, laminated wood, a composite material like
fiberglass or Kevlar. Sometimes, they’ll even use metal.
A recoil pad helps cushion your shoulder from the gun’s “kick.”

A recoil pad helps cushion your shoulder from the gun’s “kick

TRIGGER GUARD
The trigger guard is the piece that surrounds the trigger. This piece is usually made of
metal and designed to help protect against accidental discharge caused by bumps, snags, or
careless handling.
TRIGGER
This is the lever you pull to initiate the firing sequence.
 Trigger and trigger guard.

SAFETY
A mechanism that helps prevent accidental discharge by blocking the trigger or hammer. It
is typically located on or in front of the trigger guard or at the top of the receiver. Although
a mechanical safety will help prevent accidental firing, it does not excuse unsafe handling of
a firearm.

Shotgun with the safety positioned on top of the receiver.

 Thumb on a trigger guard safety
RECEIVER
The receiver houses the internal action components (trigger mechanism, bolt, etc.) and has
threading for attaching external components (barrel and stock).

The receiver up close and personal

BOLT
The bolt blocks the breech while propellant burns and moves back and forth for proper
loading and unloading of shotshells.
 A closer look at the bolt.

CHAMBER
The chamber is the part of the gun where the shotshell sits. You can access the chamber
from the side or top. It depends on the model of your shotgun.
Chamber size refers to the length of the chamber and determines the length of shotshells
the gun will safely fire. Most chambers measure 2 ¾, 3, or 3 ½ inches.
 Loading a shotshell into the chamber.

ACTION
As the name implies, this is where all the action takes place. The action is the part of the
shotgun that loads, fires, and unloads ammunition. Shotguns may have a pump-action,
semi-automatic, bolt-action, or break-action (either single or double barrel).
 close up of a shotgun action

MAGAZINE
This is where the shotshells are held until they are loaded into the chamber by the action.
Depending on the shotgun, the magazine may be a short tube located below the barrel or a
box that snaps into the receiver.
FOREND
The iconic “pump” of a pump action shotgun, the forend (also called the forestock) slides
back to eject a spent shell and cock the action. When slid forward, it loads a new shotshell
from the magazine into the chamber.
 The forend (or forestock) of a pump action shotgun.

BARREL
The barrel is a long metal tube that provides a straight exit path for shot to travel as they
are pushed forward by expanding gases.
BORE
The hollow inside of the barrel is called the bore. Most shotguns have a smooth bore.
However, some barrels designed for sabot slugs will have rifled barrels (barrels with
grooves machined into the barrel’s surface. “Rifling” spins a projectile as it travels down the
barrel).
The diameter of the bore determines the gauge of the shotgun. When it comes to shotguns,
the smaller the gauge, the wider the bore. We determine gauge by taking a lead ball that fits
snugly inside the barrel and analyzing how many of those balls it would take to weigh a full
pound. As an example, it takes twelve lead balls the diameter of a 12 gauge shotgun barrel
to add up to a pound.
Thankfully, most shotguns have the gauge stamped somewhere on the barrel. Only load
your shotgun with shotshells that match the gauge of your weapon.
 Most shotguns have the gauge stamped on the barrel.
MUZZLE
The muzzle is the very front end of the barrel where the projectiles exit.
CHOKE
The muzzle end of your shotgun has a choke that helps control shot constriction. It works
like the nozzle of a garden hose, controlling the spray of shot like the nozzle controls the
spray of water.
Some shotguns have a fixed choke integrated into the barrel. Others have interchangeable
screw-in chokes so you can switch out chokes to match your shooting needs.
 A screw-in choke tube.

BEAD
More traditional shotguns have a round bead on the top of the barrel used for aiming.
“Drawing a bead” means lining up the sights with your target. Newer shotguns may have
more rifle-style post and blade sights that are more appropriate for hunting big game.
A traditional bead sight.
 A shotgun with modern fiber optic post and blade sights.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FIREARM

REVOLVER
Is a short or hand-held firearm with a revolving cylinder typically of five to nine chambers,
manually loaded with cartridges. As the cylinder rotates into position, the trigger can be
pulled, releasing the hammer firing the cartridge. Expended cartridge cases remain in the
cylinder until manually unloaded.
Action: Revolvers are usually repeating firearms. According to the system of operation of
the trigger tail, revolvers can be of double (when the trigger also cocks the hammer) or
single action (when the hammer is cocked manually)
PISTOL
Is a short or hand-held firearm designed for semi-automatic operation. The chamber is part
of the barrel. Cartridges are generally loaded into a magazine, which is inserted into the
grip. The action of the firearm feeds the next cartridge and expels the spent round.
Action: single shot, repeating, semi-automatic and automatic pistol.

SHOTGUN
Is a shoulder-fired long gun with one or two unrifled barrels (side-by-side or over
configuration), usually designed to shoot many small projectiles ("shots") rather than a
bullet. The calibre of a shotgun is referred to as the gauge and is usually larger in diameter
than other small arms.
Action: Usually single-shot. May also be repeating, or semi-automatic

RIFLE OR CARBINE
Is a shoulder-fired long gun, with a series of spiral grooves cut inside the barrel ("rifling")
imparting spin to the projectile. Some rifles have a detachable magazine like the pistols
described above, and others have integral magazines. A carbine resembles a rifle but has a
shorter barrel.
Action: Single-shot, repeating, semi-automatic or fully automatic.

ASSAULT RIFLE
Can be considered a subcategory of rifles and represent ' any of various intermediate-
range, magazine-fed military rifles (such as the AK-47 or M16) that can be set for automatic
or semiautomatic fire…' (Merriam-Webster).
Action: Semi-automatic or fully automatic.

SUB-MACHINE GUN
It is a hand-held, lightweight short barrelled machine gun consisting of relatively low-
energy handgun-type cartridges and fired from the hand, hip or shoulder.
Action: Semi-automatic or fully automatic. Where the firing system is automatic, the
firearm would be classified as an automatic pistol or automatic sub-machine gun.

MACHINE GUN
It is a firearm that is capable of full automatic firing (more than one shot without manual
reloading, by a single function of the trigger) and that fires rifle ammunition. It is generally
crew-operated ('heavy machine gun'), but some forms may be fired by single individuals
('light machine gun'). Most machine guns have the ammunition fed by belts, although some
use magazines.
Action: Semi-automatic or fully automatic.
Significance of ballistics to law enforcement

*Forensic Ballistics – Reconstructing a Crime using Bullets

Ever wondered what a host of information a bullet can provide to forensic investigators involved in a
criminal investigation? This has been made possible by a branch of forensic science called Ballistics.
Forensic ballistics or ballistic fingerprinting as such is a field of mechanics that is applicable to the
launching, behavior, flight, and effect of projectiles. It is particularly applicable to bullets, rockets, and
unguided bombs. Simply put, ballistics is the application of science to inspect the path of a bullet from
source to target.

In forensics, ballistics is the science which helps deduce information admissible in the court of law or any
other part of the legal system that is pertaining to the use of bullets in a crime. This is possible by the
scientific analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to arrive at logical inferences about the incident. In
layman’s language, forensic ballistics involves the matching of recovered bullets and their casings to the
firearm from which they are likely to have been fired.

*Ballistic Fingerprinting – The Science of Firearm Ballistics

Ballistic fingerprinting involves the analysis of tool mark evidence, firearm, and ammunition. This helps
to match a bullet with the firearm it was fired with. Ballistic fingerprinting is based on the fundamental
principle that there are inevitable variations on all firearms. These are marks created during the
machining process and also from normal wear and tear.

*Remarkable ways of linking a Gun to a Crime Scene

Although guns and bullets are associated with the most serious and deadly crimes, they also tend to
leave behind the most explicit evidence. The crucial clues sought by crime scene investigators include
bullet cavities, shell casings, blood spatter patterns and even dropped weapon.

Wondering how forensic ballistics can be used to recreate a crime scene or investigate a criminal
incidence? Here’s how.

1. Patterns left by Gunpowder Residues

Though it may seem that the bullet is the only object that leaves the barrel when a gun is fired. In
reality, firing also ejects gunpowder residues that create a unique pattern on an object close to the
barrel. The nature of the pattern varies as per the distance between the weapon and the target.
Forensic ballistic experts can co-relate such patterns to the approximate distance from which the
particular firearm was used. There have been numerous past cases when the criminal(s) tactfully left the
victim in a state ostensibly suggesting a suicide. However, the absence of powder marks on the hand
holding a gun or the area around a bullet hole makes the chances of a suicide highly unlikely.

2. Analyzing Trajectory, Bullet Cavities, and Ricochet

Tracing the flight path of a bullet significantly helps investigators recreate the events of a crime. The
trajectory of a bullet helps forensic ballistic experts deduce the direction from which a projectile is fired.
Once bullet holes are located on floors, walls, ceilings or other places/objects at the crime scene,
investigators can use two methods for determining the trajectory. The older method involved the
insertion of sticks and strings into the bullet holes to establish the bullet’s flight path and also the
shooter’s position, height, and many other details. The newer method involves the use of a laser to
ascertain the bullet’s trajectory. Additionally, investigators can gather more details from the trace
evidence that bullets that ricochet collect.

3. Striations on a Fired Bullet

What makes every firearm unique is the process of ‘rifling’ that during the manufacturing of its barrel.
This process results in the creation of a series of grooves and spirals along the inside of its barrel. These
grooves are necessary as they provide the requisite spin to a bullet in order to improve its flight accuracy
and stability. Therefore, a bullet once fired always bears markings that mirror the spiraling grooves and
lands inside the firearm barrel. This is crucial evidence to match a bullet to the weapon used for firing it
as no two grooves within a firearm barrel is the same, just like fingerprints!

To further narrow down to the specific firearm used, ballistic fingerprinting experts analyze and measure
the type, angle, and the number of the spiral grooves, and also inspect if they rotate anti-clockwise or
clockwise. However, use of shotguns in a crime is likely to leave forensic investigators scratching their
heads to trace it back. This is because such guns lack rifling due to which the bullets shot from them do
not have any striations.

4. Firing pin, Extractor pin, and Ejector Impressions

When a gun is fired, the firing pin strikes the center of the cartridge to ignite the primer and it is only
then that the bullet is released. Just so you know, the primer is the explosive cap that is responsible for
igniting the gunpowder when it is hit by the firing pin. Furthermore, when the firing pin strikes the
central ring of the cartridge case, it leaves a characteristic indentation on it. This impression being
unique to the firing pin of a particular gun can actually be used to link cartridges to specific firearms, just
like the comparison of rifling marks with bullet striations. Additionally, the extracting pin and the ejector
inside a firearm which are responsible for ejecting the spent shell casing from the gun’s chamber also
create distinct impressions on the shell casing which are unique to a particular firearm.

5. Tissue damage due to the bullet

Forensic examiners are quite skilled at uncovering a plethora of information from the wound(s) inflicted
on the victim. Irrespective of whether the bullet fragment is recovered or not, the wound itself can
reveal the bullet type, sequence of hits, distance from which the bullet was fired, its velocity and much
more! The distance, velocity, and direction of the shot can be determined from the cracked lines in
dense bones such as skulls. In fact, grazing bullets are known to create little areas of ragged skin that are
hauled up and torn due to a high-speed bullet. Therefore, the nature of wounds and bone/tissue
damage open up a whole world of information for forensic investigators.

6. Fingerprints

It is but obvious that a gunman would be physically handling the bullets while loading them into a
cylinder. This results in the deposition of sweat on the surface of the firearm every time it is touched.
The intense heat that is generated when a bullet is fired results in the evaporation of the moisture in the
sweat, leaving behind the salts on the surface of the gun. This is the precursor to recovering the
fingerprints from its surface! Once the recovered firearm is exposed to superglue (cyanoacrylate) fumes,
the fumes adhere to these salts and etch the fingerprints onto the gun’s surface. The contrast of the
fingerprints is further improved by using a fingerprint powder. Once the fingerprints are recovered, they
can be matched against a fingerprint database such as the Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (IAFIS) to lead to the suspect.

7. Extraction of Serial Number

Every legally produced firearm is etched with a unique serial number during its manufacturing. The
engraving process results in the impressing of the digits below the surface of the metal too. Often a
criminal uses his devious ingenuity to destroy this serial number by filing/grinding to avoid tracing the
weapon. However, the fact that they are completely oblivious to is that these serial numbers can be
recovered by forensic scientists. Two commonly used techniques for the same are – Chemical
restoration and magnetic particle inspection. Various reagents are available for restoring the serial
number by the reacting them with the surface of the firearm. However, chemical restoration often ends
up damaging the evidence to a great extent and is usually the last resort when magnetic inspection fails.
Once the serial number is successfully recovered, it helps determine the weapon’s history as well as its
owner.

8. Thorough Firearm Examination

A thorough examination of a firearm helps deduce whether it was actually used for firing the shots in
question or not? Although a number of evidence recovered from the incident scene (cartridge cases,
spent ammunition, gunshot residues, wounds etc.) can be used to establish this, firearm examination is
also as much crucial in ascertaining its link to the crime.

Some suspects of shooting feign the discharge of the firearm as an accident or the result of a weapon
malfunction. A careful examination of the firearm helps establish this claim, especially trigger pressure –
the force required to pull a trigger. Certain firearms have light trigger pulls which may result in an
accidental firing. Therefore, calculating the trigger pressure can actually help determine the possibility of
an accidental discharge. Additionally, it is also essential to verify if the firearm had an option of selecting
a normal trigger pull or a light trigger pull. In order to determine if the firing was accidental, the firearm
is subjected to a jarring test. This involves subjecting it to a series of impacts involving various distance
and surfaces to consider the possibilities of an accidental discharge. Sometimes, a test-firing into water
or gelatin may also be required in order to obtain test bullets and shell casings. This helps in matching
them with the recovered evidence.

Origin

-The term ballistic is derived from the Greek work "ballo" or "ballein" meaning "to throw”. Its roots were
said to be derived from the name of early roman war machine called the "ballista" Latin word of ballistic
which was used to hurl missiles or large objects at a distance like stones against animal (game) or their
enemy forces.
Ballistics is the field of mechanics concerned with the launching, flight behavior and impact effects of
projectiles, especially ranged weapon munitions such as bullets, unguided bombs, rockets or the like;
the science or art of designing and accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

A ballistic body is a free-moving body with momentum which can be subject to forces such as the forces
exerted by pressurized gases from a gun barrel or a propelling nozzle, normal force by rifling, and gravity
and air drag during flight.

A ballistic missile is a missile that is guided only during the relatively brief initial phase of powered flight
and the trajectory is subsequently governed by the laws of classical mechanics; in contrast to (for
example) a cruise missile which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight like a fixed-wing aircraft.

Definition and etymology of ballistics

ballistics

"Art of throwing large missiles; science of the motion of projectiles," 1753, with -ics + Latin ballista
"ancient military machine for hurling stones," from Greek ballistes, from ballein "to throw, to throw so
as to hit," also in a looser sense, "to put, place, lay" (from PIE root *gwele- "to throw, reach").

Kinds of motion:

1. Direct - The action of expensive force of gases out of the burning powder.

2. Rotary - The action of the rifling found on the inner surface of the barrel.

3. Translational - The projectile hits the target and subsequently ricocheted.

It's legal meaning

What is the legal definition of ballistic?

Ballistics, Interior - the study of the motion of the projectile within the firearm from the moment of
ignition until it leaves the barrel. Ballistics, terminal - the study of the projectiles impact on the target.

Ballistics is the study of the firing, flight, and effect of ammunition. A fundamental
understanding of ballistics is necessary to comprehend the factors that influence
precision and accuracy and how to account for them in the determination of firing data.
Gunnery is the practical application of ballistics so that the desired ejects are obtained
by fire. To ensure accurate predicted fire, we must strive to account for and minimize
those factors that cause round-to-round variations, particularly muzzle velocity. Ballistics
can be broken down into four areas: interior, transitional, exterior, and terminal. Interior,
transitional, and exterior ballistics directly affect the accuracy of artillery fire and are
discussed in this chapter.

The term ballistics refers to the science of study of the action, motion and behaviour of a
projectile during its flight in any given medium. The flight path of a bullet includes:
•Travel down the barrel (Internal Ballistics),
•Path through the air (External Ballistics), and
•Path through a target (Terminal Ballistics)

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
INTERIOR BALLISTICS
Interior ballistics is branch of ballistics that deals with the combustion of powder in a
gun, the pressure developed, and the motion of the projectile along the bore of the gun.
Internal ballistics (also interior ballistics), a subfield of ballistics, is the study of the
propulsion of a projectile.
In guns internal ballistics covers the time from the propellant's ignition until the projectile
exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users
of firearms of all types, from small-bore rifles and pistols, to high-tech artillery.
When a projectile weapon, such as used in naval artillery, is launched from the gun
barrel, it is accelerated to a high velocity by the burning of propellant. The propellant
may travel with the projectile or be stationary in the barrel. The gasses produced by the
burning propellant are trapped in the volume behind the projectile. The introduction of
more heat into the product gasses causes the pressure to rise which in turn will
accelerate the projectile. On the other hand, the movement of the projectile increases
the volume which tends to drop the pressure.

Figure 1. How projectiles are launched from a gun.

Initially, the pressure will rise, dominated by the introduction of heat. As the projectile
gains speed, the expansion effect will get larger until a maximum pressure is reached.
Afterwards, the pressure will drop rapidly. The maximum or peak pressure determines
how much stress the barrel must be designed to withstand. Very large peak pressures
require thick barrels.

Propellant Types
The exact shape of the pressure vs. position curve will depend on how the propellant
burns rate is controlled. The propellant burns on its surface. If we take an ordinary
shape for the propellant, the surface area which is burning will decrease with time. This
is called a degressive propellant.
 Figure 2. Degressive burn rate.

On the other hand, if the propellant is burned from the inside as well as the outside, the
net surface will stay the same, creating a neutral propellant.

Figure 3. Neutral burn rate.

Lastly, the burn may proceed from many smaller interior positions, in which case the
propellant will be progressive:
 Figure 4. Progressive burn rate.

Most propellant is not solid, but it comprised of many small pellets. The shape of the
individual pellets will determine the type of burn rate. For cylindrical pellets the three
types might look like this:

Figure 5. Pellet type propellant shapes.

The type of propellant will alter the shape of the pressure vs. position curve.
Progressive pellets raise the pressure more slowly than degressive propellants. For this
reason, the peak pressure is often less. On the other hand, degressive propellants
accelerate the projectile more rapidly in the initial portion of the barrel, while progressive
propellants can reach higher exit velocities. A comparison of the two types is shown
below:
 Figure 6. Progressive vs. degressive propellants.
Which type of propellant to use depends on the application. If the barrel cannot be
made very long, it is better to use a degressive propellant to achieve the maximum exit
velocity in a limited distance. An example might be cannon on an aircraft. As a
consequence, however the barrel must be thicker to withstand the increased peak
pressure. If length is not restricted, a progressive propellant can be used to minimize
stress and achieve the maximum exit velocity. An example might be a gun on a ship or
tank.
Rifling
Most of the projectiles are spun as they travel down the barrel. The barrel usually has
rifling, which is either and indentation or projection that twists around the barrel along its
length.
 Figure 7. Gun barrel rifling.

If the projectile is soft, like a bullet, the rifling digs into the bullet to engage it. If the
projectile is hard, it must have projections on it which fit into the grooves on the barrel.
For naval ammunition, this is found on the rotating band, which also serves to seal the
volume behind the projectile so that propellant gasses cannot escape. Here is the
architecture of a typical projectile:

Figure 8. Typical projectile architecture.

The parts function as follows:

Ogive - provides a protective cover with an aerodynamic shape.

Bourrelet - centers the projectile while minimizing the surface area in contact with the
barrel to reduce friction.

Body - contains the warhead.

Rotating Band - engages the rifling and seals the volume behind the projectile to
contain the propellant gasses. The rotating band also centers the projectile like the
bourrelet.

Base - provides a flat surface for the expanding gasses to push on and accelerate the
projectile down the barrel. The base may also contain a firing mechanism to ingite the
propellant if self-contained.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior ballistics is the branch of the science that deals with the projectile after it
clears the muzzle and throughout its time of flight.
Exterior ballistics a science that deals with the factors affecting the behavior of a
projectile after the projectile leaves the muzzle of the firing weapon (such as the initial
velocity of the projectile, the force of gravity, and atmospheric conditions)
Gravity

Once the projectile leaves the muzzle (the end of the barrel) its trajectory is governed
many forces. Primarily, gravity exerts a constant pull on the body and acts through the
center of gravity (CG) which is determined by the distribution of weight throughout the
body. Gravity always produces a uniform vertical acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
Aerodynamic Forces

Next, we have aerodynamic forces which provide lift and drag the body as it flies
through the air.
 Figure 9. Aerodynamic forces.

Aerodynamic forces are generally proportional to the velocity squared. The

aerodynamic forces act through the center of pressure (CP) which is a function of the
body's shape.

There are three types of drag force which apply to projectiles:

1. Skin drag- friction on the outer surface as it moves through the air
2. Shape drag- caused by low pressure behind the body due to the flow of air around
its shape.
3. Wave drag - a loss of energy that is put into acoustic waves as the body passes
through the air. Particularly strong near the speed of sound in air.

All drag forces act at the center of pressure and are in the opposite direction as the
motion of the projectile. The drag force can be written as

Fdrag = CD(a) A ½ rv2

where:
CD(a)= the coefficient of drag, which is a function of the angle of attack, a;
A = the effective area of the body;
r = the density of air (~1.2 Kg/m3); and
v = the velocity of the body relative to the air stream.
The lift force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion relative to the air stream. It
has the same form as drag

Flift = CL(a) A ½ rv2

where: CL(a) = the coefficient of lift, which is a function of the angle of attack, a.

Aerodynamic Stability
If the center of pressure is located behind the center of gravity, when the body changes
its angle of attack, the aerodynamic forces create a restoring torque which tend to drive
the body back to its neutral angle, where all the torques are balanced. This situation is
therefore inherently stable, since the body will always be driven back to neutral angle.

Figure 10. Flight stability.

The situation can be improved further by spin stabilization. When the body is rapidly
rotating about its principle axis, the action of aerodynamic torque is altered. Instead of
changing the angle of attack, the same torque will act at a right angle and change the
yaw angle. Furthermore, the amount of deflection will be reduced proportionally to the
amount of spin. If the body id spinning very rapidly, the amount of deflection will be very
small and the body will require a large amount of torque to alter its orientation in any
direction. The spin is achieved by the rifling inside of the barrel.
 Figure 11. Spin stabilization.
Suppose a gust of wind tries to increase the angle of attack by applying a torque T for a
short duration of time, Dt. The torque will change the angular momentum, L, by an
amount TDt. Recall that the angular momentum,
L = Iw,

where:
I= the moment of inertia, and
w = the angular velocity (rotation rate).

The additional angular momentum will be at a right angle to the previous angular
momentum. As seen from the top, the projectile will deflect by an angle f. For small
deflection this angle can be approximated by
f TDt/Iw
From this form, it should be apparent that the amount of deflection can be reducing
proportionally to how fast the projectile is spinning about its principal axis.

Drift
Projectiles which are spin stabilized, are subject to another force called drift. This is the
same force that deflects a "curve ball" in baseball. As the projectile moves vertically, up
initially then back down under the influence of gravity, the spinning will tend to deflect
the projectile perpendicularly to the motion.
Coriolis force
Projectiles which travel great distances are subject to the Coriolis force. This is a artifact
of the earth's rotation. The local frame of reference (north, east, south and west) must
rotate as the earth does. The amount of rotation, also known as the earth rate is
dependent on the latitude:

Earth rate = (2p radians)/(24 hours) sin(latitude).

For example, at 30o N, the earth rate is 0.13 radians/hr (3.6 x 10-5 rad/sec).

As the frame of reference moves under the projectile which is traveling in a straight line,
it appears to be deflected in a direction opposite to the rotation of the frame of
reference.

Figure 12. Coriolis force.

In the northern hemisphere, the trajectory will be deflected to the right. A projectile
traveling 1000 m/s due north at latitude 30o N would be accelerated to the right at 0.07
m/s2. For a 30 second time-of-flight, corresponding to about 30 km total distance
travelled, the projectile would be deflected by about 60 m. So for long range artillery, the
Coriolis correction is quite important. On the other hand, for bullets and water going
down the drain, it is insignificant!

Aiming Errors
When launching ballistic projectiles, an error in the initial direction of flight will cause a
significant change in the location of the projectile at the end of its flight. The longer the
range, the greater the error. Suppose the aim is off by some small angle, Ɵ , then after
traveling a distance R, the change in the position, Δx, will be approximately
Δx RƟ
Aiming errors can be caused by many things. First of all, it is important to align the
barrel of the gun with the direction it is aimed. In aircraft, this is called bore sighting,
where the gun barrel is aligned with the principal axis of the aircraft. More commonly,
the aiming device is aligned with the gun barrel, called sighting.
Another type of error occurs when the aiming device is separated from the gun barrel by
a significant distance. This creates parallax which can be corrected for, but only if the
range is accurately known.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Terminal ballistics (also known as wound ballistics) is a sub-field of ballistics
concerned with the behavior and effects of a projectile when it hits and transfers its
energy to a target.
Bullet designs (as well as the velocity of impact) largely determine the effectiveness of
penetration.
Terminal ballistics is in many cases, the least considered aspect of ballistics when
determining the kind of bullet to use for a specific purpose. Yet, it's an important process
to understand if you want to achieve optimal results.
Terminal ballistics is the study of how a projectile behaves when it hits its target and
transfers its kinetic energy to the target. The bullet’s design, as well as its impact
velocity, plays a huge role in how the energy is transferred.
Also known as wound ballistics, terminal ballistics is important to hunters because it
illustrates how a particular bullet will transfer its potential energy when it strikes the
target. Ethical hunters want as quick and humane a kill as possible, and death is
ultimately caused in one of two ways:
 1. Severely interrupting or stopping the flow of oxygenated blood to the brain by
damaging a major blood-bearing organ or by causing significant damage to the
vascular system; or
2. Causing severe damage to the brain and/or cerebellum.
Bullet design plays a very significant role in what kind of wound cavity the bullet will
make in soft tissue. The type of wound cavity is critical to the quick and humane kill that
hunters owe to the animals they hunt.

Permanent & Temporary Cavitation

The primary way a bullet causes damage to an animal is through the permanent cavity it
leaves - the hole that is created as the bullet passes through skin, bone or flesh. This
wound channel is the same diameter as the bullet/bullet fragments and is a function of
bullet penetration and expansion.

A secondary way that a bullet causes damage is by the temporary cavity it causes.
When a bullet hits soft tissue, the tissue acts more like a fluid than a solid as it gives
way and tries to absorb the bullet’s energy. The bullet does not immediately penetrate
the tissue; instead, it makes an impact crater that stretches in until the bullet penetrates
the tissue.

As the bullet continues its path, it violently pushes the tissue ahead of it both directly
and indirectly in such a way that the tissue is stretched beyond its elasticity and is cut
and torn as it quickly tries to return to its original position and beyond.

In essence, a bullet going through soft tissue has the same effect as dropping a stone
into a pail of water - if the stone (bullet) enters the water slowly, the water (tissue)
displacement is so gradual that is has little effect on the surrounding molecules. If the
stone (bullet) enters the water (tissue) with a lot of momentum, however, the
surrounding molecules have to act a lot more quickly and violently, resulting in a splash
(temporary cavity). Temporary cavitation is important because it can be a tremendous
wounding mechanism.

Both permanent and temporary cavities are greatly affected by a bullet’s design,
sectional density, and velocity at the time of impact.
 How Bullet Design Affects Cavitation
DESIGN
Bullets designed with heavier jackets tend to stay together better and penetrate deeper,
while lighter jacketed bullets tend to fragment and expand more rapidly, creating a wider
wound channel and increasing temporary cavitation, but generally don’t achieve as
much penetration.
Expansion can be controlled by the bullet’s tip design and by the jacket construction.
Rapidly expanding bullets create a wider wound channel, displacing even more tissue
and increasing temporary cavitation, but they also increase drag, thus requiring more
energy and momentum to drive through tissue, and in general don’t penetrate as deeply
as bullets designed to expand more slowly. Expansion is beneficial, but penetration is
essential in order to ensure that the bullet reaches the animal’s vitals.

SECTIONAL DENSITY
A bullet’s sectional density also affects the amount of damage it can cause. Sectional
density (a bullet’s weight in pounds divided by its diameter squared) describes a bullet’s
length for its diameter: The higher the number, the longer the bullet. Generally
speaking, the larger a bullet’s sectional density, the deeper it will penetrate.

VELOCITY
The third thing mentioned, velocity, also can have a large effect on a bullet’s
performance. Velocity is often the culprit behind premature bullet destruction because
as velocity increases, so does drag, and the tissue being entered gets “harder,” in
effect, because it cannot get out of the way fast enough. A simple analogy would be the
difference between stepping into a swimming pool versus diving into it from a tall diving
platform.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Forensic ballistics - is the science of analysing firearms usage in crimes. It involves
analysis of bullets and bullets impact to determine information of use to a court or other
part of legal system. Separately from the ballistics information, firearm and tool mark
examinations also involves analysing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in
order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of crime.
Forensic Ballistics:
 - branch of forensic science which deals with the examination of the firearm and
related evidences encountered at the scene of crime in a shooting incident, and
their linkage to the firearm, and Identification of the shooter.

- it is the examination of evidence relating to firearms at a crime scene, including

the effects and behavior of projectiles and explosive devices. A forensic ballistics
expert matches bullets, fragments, and other evidence with the weapons of
alleged suspects or others involved in a case. Experts may be asked to explain
their findings to a jury during criminal or civil trials.
DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1. Field Investigation
Refers to the work of an investigation in the field. It concerns mostly with
the collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of firearms
evidences. It includes the study of the class characteristics of firearms and
bullets.
2. Technical Examination
Refers to the examiners who examines bullets and/or shells whether fired
from also whether or not cartridge were loaded and ejected made by the
suspected firearm submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and
testify in court regarding their reports.
FIELDS OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Ballistic experts, also known as firearm examiners, use their analytical nature and eye
for detail to catch suspects who have used guns and weapons in a crime.

What You’ll Do as a Ballistics Expert

Ballistics experts often work for police forces, but it’s becoming more common for them
to be hired by private agencies as well. Guns leave ballistic “fingerprints,” which result
from the weapon’s individual twists and grooves that spin the bullet as it shoots. Here’s
what you can expect to do if you become a ballistics expert:

 Analyze guns and weapons used to commit crimes

 Analyze powder markings and bullet holes at the crime scene
 Use computer databases and lasers at the scene
 Collect, study, and sort evidence and determine its importance to an investigation
 Testify in court and serve as a witness
 Ballistics Expert Qualifications
  Educational requirements can vary by state, but in most cases, a bachelor’s
degree in criminal justice or related sciences is required to work in a forensics
lab.

However, some forensics laboratories may accept experience with firearms as a

sufficient substitution. Occasionally police officers gain further instruction and enter the
field.

Because there is a growing interest in the field of forensic science, competition is likely
to heat up. Aspiring ballistics experts with a degree in forensics or criminal justice may
have the best chances of being hired.

Career Description, Duties, and Common Tasks

A ballistics expert understands the different marks that firearms leave on bullets when
they are fired, including the marks of the rifling on a barrel and other striations on the
projectile. They may also perform modeling of the scene to identify where a firearm or
explosive was used and perform chemical analysis to identify the weapon that was
used. Ballistics experts frequently display graphics, video, or other explanations of the
results of their analysis in court. Forensic ballistics experts typically work in crime labs
for local governments, state governments, or the federal government, including such
organizations as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Other experts offer private
consulting services.
Steps for Becoming a Forensic Ballistics Expert
Ballistics experts generally complete coursework similar to other forensic scientists,
such as biology and physics. Similar to accident reconstruction experts, ballistics
experts’ coursework may include trigonometry, chemistry, metallurgy, and the use of
computer-based modeling programs. A bachelor’s degree in forensic science or ballistic
forensic science is common. Aspiring ballistic experts may be required to complete
post-bachelor’s training to keep up with the latest trends. The typical steps for becoming
a forensic ballistics expert are as follows:

Attend a degree program and/or gain experience in criminal justice or a related field. *
Apply for an open position.
Attend an interview.
Successfully complete a physical examination, drug test, polygraph exam, and
background investigation.
Get hired as a ballistics expert.
Receive on-the-job training after being hired.
*A degree may not be required for a forensic ballistics’ expert job. Check the job
opening to read about educational and experiential requirements.

Forensic Ballistics Expert Job Training

Novice ballistics experts should be prepared to initially work in a supporting role,
working alongside a seasoned firearms analyst to gain hands-on training. Training
requirements depend on the employer and typically allow novices to gain experience in
identifying firearms, handling evidence, searching crime scenes, and providing expert
testimony in court.

Other Helpful Skills and Experience

Prospective firearms experts should have strong written and oral communication skills,
as they will be expected to write detailed reports and to testify in court. They should
have strong knowledge of different firearms, ammunition, and possess the ability to
handle them. Individuals with law enforcement or criminal justice experience may find
this experience beneficial in securing employment as a forensic ballistics’ expert.

Possible Job Titles for This Career

Ballistics Expert
Ballistics Analyst
Firearms Examiner
Firearm and Toolmark Examiner
Forensics Firearms Analyst
Forensic Ballistics Expert

AMMUNITION
AMMUNITION
The term ammunition can be traced back to the mid-17th century. The word comes from
the French la munition, for the material used for war. Ammunition and munitions are
often used interchangeably, although munition now usually refers to the actual weapons
system with the ammunition required to operate it. In some languages other than
English ammunition is still referred to as munition, such as French ("munitions"),
German ("Munition"), Italian ("munizione") or Portuguese ("munição").
Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped or detonated
from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g.,
bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weapons that
create the effect on a target (e.g., bullets and warheads). Nearly all mechanical
weapons require some form of ammunition to operate.
Ammunition refers to the complete round/cartridge or its components, including bullets
or projectiles, cartridge cases, primers/caps and propellants that are used in any small
arm or light weapon' (UNGA1999b, para.14).

Basic Components of Ammunition

1. Cartridge/Casing
The casing is the container, or housing, into which all the
other components fit. It is the job of the case to hold the
other 3 or 4 components in the correct position needed for
proper operation. Early firearms utilized casings
constructed of paper, which were then burned or
discharged during the firing process.
Modern firearm cartridges utilize a case constructed of
metal (brass, steel, copper or aluminum are most
common) or plastic (most common in shotgun
cartridges).When selecting a cartridge for your firearm it is vital that you ensure the case
is the correct size for the chamber, otherwise you risk malfunction and even a
dangerous explosion.
Although the case is commonly referred to as “brass” this term only applies to the
expelled cases after they have been fired. Technically, the increased use of metals
other than brass have made this slang inaccurate, however, it remains a commonly
used and accepted term. If you will be reloading you should stick with brass, brass alloy
or plated brass. Pure first run brass is best; however, recycled brass can be used as
well. In fact, the highest quality brass casings can be reloaded as many as 6 or 7 times.
Other forms of brass, including alloys or plated versions, can be used but will have a
much shorter life span.
 2. Propellant/Gunpowder
Early firearms relied on gunpowder, which is
a specific combination of chemicals that
burns rapidly and quickly creates expanding
gases as it burns.
Developing the ability to confine and control
the burning process and gas expansion was
the key to developing reliable, and safe,
firearms. Unfortunately, gunpowder is
unstable and dirty, capable of exploding or burning easily if mishandled.
Due to its instability gunpowder has been replaced by modern chemical compounds that
accomplish the same result without the danger. The most common of these
combinations is saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. The result is a propellant that burns fast,
is reliable and more stable.
3. Primer
The propellant requires a smaller charge to be safely
igniting and this is accomplished by the primer. In modern
cartridges, this primer is placed in the rear of the case,
either in the rim or a small-cap located at the center,
which is activated via a strike of the firing pin. As is the
case with the propellant, gunpowder has been replaced
by more stable modern chemical compounds in the
construction of the primer. Quality primers are essential to
proper, reliable ammunition performance. A damaged or
wet primer will often result in failure to fire or a delayed, hang, fire situation.

4. Projectile
Every firearm requires an object that will be expelled
from the firearm which will, in turn, be used to hit the
intended target.
This object is called the projectile, although the
terms bullet, slug or shot are often used in its place.
In reality rifles & handguns fire bullets while
shotguns fire slugs or shot, the latter being used to
describe a group of pellets expelled from a single
shell or casing.
Most projectiles are constructed of metal and consist of either lead, steel, tungsten,
bismuth or combinations of these metals. Some manufacturers have even experimented
with adding a polymer cone to hollow point designs. The result is controlled expansion
and deeper penetration.
5. wad
A seal and/or shot container made of paper or plastic
separating the powder from the slug or shot in a shotshell. The
wad prevents gas from escaping through the shot and holds
the shot together as it passes through the barrel.

VARIOUS TYPES AMMUNITION

 RIMFIRE AMMUNITION- consists of a short brass tube, generally 0.22inch in
diameter close at one end.
 CENTRE FIRE AMMUNITION- is also generally made from brass, but the head
is thick & heavy with central recess or pocket for the primer cap.
 CASELESS AMMUNITION- consists of a bullet with the propellant formed
around the bullet as a single solid piece & there is no cartridge case.
 BLANK AMMUNITION- is exactly the same bulleted ammunition except for the
emission of the missile.
Characteristics of Ammunition and Types of Cartridges

1. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Ball, M193.

The M193 cartridge is a center-fire cartridge with a 55-grain, gilded metal-
jacketed, lead alloy core bullet. The M193 round is the standard cartridge for field
use with the M16A1 rifle and has no identifying marks.

2. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Tracer, M196.

(Used in the M16A1 rifle) The M196 cartridge has a red or orange painted tip. Its
main uses are for observation of fire, incendiary effect, and signaling. Soldiers
should avoid long-term use of 100 percent tracer rounds, which could cause
deposits of incendiary material, or chemical compounds that could damage the
barrel. Therefore, when tracer rounds are fired, they are mixed with ball
ammunition in a ratio of no greater than one-to-one with a preferred ratio of three
or four ball rounds to one tracer round.

3. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Dummy, M199.

(Used in all rifles.) The M199 dummy cartridge is used during dry firing and other
training. This cartridge can be identified by the six grooves along the sides of the
case beginning about 1/2 inch from its tip. It contains no propellant or primer. The
primer well is open to prevent damage to the firing pin.

4. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Blank, M200. (Used in all rifles.) The M200 blank cartridge
has no projectile. The case mouth is closed with a seven-petal rosette crimp and
shows a violet tip.
 5. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Ball, M855.
(Used in the M16A2/3/4 and M4-series weapons.) The M855 cartridge has a 62-
grain, gilded metal-jacketed, lead alloy core bullet with a steel penetrator. The
primer and case are waterproof. This round is also linked and used in the M249.
It has a green tip. This ammunition should not be used in the M16A1 except
under emergency conditions, and only at targets less than 90 meters in distance.
(The twist of the M16A1 rifling is not sufficient to stabilize the heavier projectile of
the round).

6. Cartridge, 5.56-mm, Tracer, M856.

(Used in the M16A2/3/4 and M4-series weapons.) The M856 tracer cartridge has
characteristics similar to the M196 tracer with a slightly longer tracer burnout
distance. This cartridge has a 63.7-grain bullet. The M856 does not have a steel
penetrator. It has a red tip (orange when linked 4 to 1 for the M249). This
ammunition should not be used in the M16A1 except under emergency
conditions, and only at targets less than 90 meters in distance. (The twist of the
M16A1 rifling is not sufficient to stabilize the projectile of the heavier
ammunition).

7. Cartridge, 5.56-mm Short-Range Training Ammunition (SRTA), M862.

(Used in all rifles.) The M862 SRTA is designed exclusively for training. It can be
used in lieu of service ammunition on indoor ranges and by units that have a
limited range fan that does not allow the firing of service ammunition. SRTA
ammunition must be used with the M2 training bolt.

8. Although SRTA closely replicates the trajectory and characteristics of service

ammunition out to 25 meters, it should not be used to set battle sight zero of
weapons to fire service ammunition. The settings that are placed on the sights for
SRTA could be different for service ammunition.

9. If adequate range facilities are not available for sustainment training, SRTA can
be used for any firing exercise of 25 meters or less. This includes the 25-meter
scaled silhouette, 25-meter alternate qualification course, and quick-fire training.
SRTA can also be used for Urban Operations training.

BULLET
A bullet is a kinetic projectile, a component of firearm ammunition that is shot
from a gun barrel. The term is from Middle French, originating as the diminutive of the
word boulle, which means "small ball". Bullets are made of a variety of materials, such
as copper, lead, steel, polymer, rubber and even wax.
The projectile. They are shaped or composed differently for a variety of purposes.
"round-nose" - The end of the bullet is
blunted.
"jacketed" - The soft lead is surrounded
by another metal, usually copper, that
allows the bullet to penetrate a target
more easily.
"semi-wadcutter" - Intermediate between
round-nose and wadcutter.
Sometimes incorrectly called a slug or
round.

TYPES OF BULLETS
1. FULL METAL JACKET (FMJ)
They are usually pointy, round, or even flat. Wound channels are typically small
and go through a target. Great for the range but not preferred for defensive rounds.
2. HOLLOW POINT BULLET
Hollow points are made to expand once they hit something. They are the go-to round for
police officers, concealed weapon carriers, and home defense guns because of their
stopping power.
- There is a hole in the bullet that creates expansion when a target is struck, creating
more damage.

3. OPEN TIP BULLETS

Open-tip bullets look like hollow points since they have an opening at the top, but this is
more because of their manufacturing process. The openings are too small to expand
effectively.
4. BALLISTIC TIP
This is what you get when you combine the aerodynamics of an FMJ with the stopping
power of a hollow point. This is a hollow point covered with plastic to mimic the profile of
an FMJ. They are usually used in hunting.
5. SOFT POINT BULLET
In soft point bullets, part of the lead is exposed at the tip. The softer lead is designed to
flatten better when the bullet hits a target. But for the most part, ballistic tips have
surpassed the performance of soft points.
6. INCENDIARY BULLET
These bullets are made with an explosive or flammable mixture in the tip that is
designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent is to ignite fuel or munitions in the
target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the bullet itself.
7. EXPLODING BULLET
Similar to the incendiary bullet, this type of projectile is designed to explode upon hitting
a hard surface, preferably the bone of the intended target. Not to be mistaken for
cannon shells or grenades with fuse devices, these bullets have only a cavity filled with
a small amount of low explosive depending on the velocity and deformation upon impact
to detonate. Exploding bullets have been used on various aircraft machine guns and on
anti materiel rifles.
8. TRACER BULLET
These have a hollow back, filled with a flare material. Usually this is a mixture of
magnesium metal, a per chlorate, and strontium salts to yield a bright red color,
although other materials providing other colours have also sometimes been used.
9. ARMOR PIERCING BULLET
Jacketed designs where the core material is a very hard, high-density metal such as
tungsten, tungsten carbide, depleted uranium, or steel.
10. DUM DUM BULLET
These are projectiles designed to expand on impact, increasing in diameter to limit
penetration and/or produce a larger diameter wound for faster incapacitation.
11. SWAGED LEAD BULLET
In ammunition manufacture, swaged bullets are bullets manufactured by compressing
metal at room temperature into a die to form it into the shape of a bullet.
12. WIRE PATCHED BULLET
A wire patched bullet is a cast lead bullet wrapped with wire on the bearing surface to
strengthen the bullet and permit higher velocities without stripping or leading the bore.
13. WADCUTTER BULLET
A wadcutter is a special-purpose flat- fronted bullet specifically designed for shooting
paper targets, usually at close range.
14. RUBBER BULLET
They are intended to be a non-lethal alternative to metal projectiles.

SHOTGUN SHELL
A shotgun shell, shotshell or simply shell is a type of rimmed, cylindrical (straight-
walled) cartridges used specifically by shotguns, and is typically loaded with numerous
small, pellet-like spherical sub-projectiles called shot, fired through a smoothbore barrel
with a tapered constriction at the muzzle to regulate the extent of scattering. A shell can
sometimes also contain only a single large solid projectile known as a slug, fired usually
through a rifled slug barrel. The shell casing usually consist of a paper or plastic tube
mounted on a brass base holding a primer, and the shots are typically contained by a
wadding/sabot inside the case. The caliber of the shotshell is known as its gauge.

TYPES OF SHOTGUN SHELL

1. Bird Shot
Bird Shot is a shotgun shell filled with a large number of very small shot.
It’s called bird shot because it’s most commonly used to shoot birds. The large
number of projectiles means that they have an even and wide spread, making it
easier to hit moving, small targets. In addition, the lightweight projectiles cause
less damage to smaller targets, whilst still being lethal.
Birdshot pellet sizes are typically smaller than 3mm and shells tend to
have hundreds of pellets in them.
2. Buckshot
Buckshot is a much heavier form of shotgun round and fires 6-10 larger
diameter ball bearings (no larger than 9.1mm). They carry more energy and do
much more damage to a target when compared to birdshot. Typically, this kind of
round is only used for large game where legal and humane to do so.
 3. Slug
In the UK, slugs are relatively rare due to needing an FAC and the inability
to shoot live quarrel with it. However, we’ll cover it anyway. Slugs are simply one
large chunk of lead like a bullet. It may be rifled to give it spinning stability in a
smooth barrel, or the barrel itself may be rifled to stabilise it. It goes without
saying that using a Slug with a choked shotgun is not a smart idea.

CARTRIDGE
 A cartridge is a metal or cardboard tube containing a bullet and an explosive
substance. Cartridges are used in guns.
 Also called cartouche. a cylindrical case of pasteboard, metal, or the like, for
holding a complete charge of powder, and often also the bullet or the shot for a
rifle, machine gun, or other small arm.

OTHER VARIOUS TYPES OF CARTRIDGES

a) GRENADE LAUNCHER CARTRIDGES- are only encountered in military rifle
calibers.
b) DUMMY CARTRIDGES- have neither primer nor powder & are only used for
weapon functioning tests. These cartridges are normally chromium-plated or
painted a silver color.
c) SNAP CAPSARE- for the practice of firing a weapon without damaging the firing
pin.
THE CARTRIDGE CASE IS THE ENVELOPE (CONTAINER) OF A CARTRIDGE.
 For rifles and handguns it is usually a metal cylindrical tube, normally made of
brass but sometimes of steel. It holds the bullet at the neck, the propellant charge
inside, and the primer in its base. The outer circumference of the base of the
cartridge case normally has a groove and rim to assist in extraction from the
weapon after firing.
 Cartridge cases are most commonly made of brass, although steel is also widely
used, and cases for shotgun pellets are made of brass and cardboard. The cases
of most military rifles and machine guns have a bottleneck shape, allowing a
small-calibre bullet to be fitted

THE COMPLETE HISTORY OF SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION AND CARTRIDGES

The First Ammunition

In the first firearms the propellant and bullet were loaded into the gun separately – just
think of the cannons used on ships until the 1800s. Whilst a cannonball can technically
be called “ammunition”, I suppose, the first truly integrated types of small arms
ammunition date to the 1500s.
There is some evidence that the first paper cartridges were in use as early as the
14th Century, but they didn’t become widely used until the 17 th Century. Their design
remained remarkably stable throughout this period consisting of black powder and a rifle
ball encased in paper. It’s a little-known fact that “cartridge” paper, now commonly used
for drawing rather than ammunition, gets its name from these early cartridges.
These paper cartridges were used with muzzle-loading guns and sound like they were a
real hassle to use. To fire a shot a soldier had to rip or bite off the end of the paper
cartridge then pour the powder down into his gun. The ball was then rammed down on
top. In theory the paper was supposed to be discarded, but in practice most soldiers
used it as wadding to improve the power of their weapon.
After all that, priming powder still needed to be poured into the barrel, as the main
charge was not volatile enough to ignite on its own. The musket was then fired by a lit
match or, later, a flint hammer mechanism.

The Percussion Cap

The invention of the percussion cap revolutionized small arms ammunition. It was first
tested by the British, at Woolwich in 1834. By using a combination of more easily
flammable chemicals the percussion cap ignited when given a sharp blow in a particular
place. This obviated the need for soldiers to carry matches and flints and greatly
improved the reliability of small arms ammunition - especially in wet conditions.
Though the advantages of the percussion cap were obvious, it would take 25 years for
the British Army to adopt them. From 1842 they started to adapt the Brown Bess – the
standard infantry rifle of the day – to take percussion cap ammunition. This was
achieved by replacing the pan that once held priming powder with a nipple that struck
the new cartridges.
This new design required soldiers to place the round next to the hammer mechanism -
which accidentally brought about the next big transformation in firearm technology
– breech loading. A huge advance over the complex procedure of muzzle-loading, once
the advantages of the new system were recognized it was applied to every type of
firearm - from military rifles to civilian revolvers.
In the early years of the percussion cap, however, some engineers identified a problem.
The new rounds were surrounded by a metal case that held the priming powder and
propellant together. This case had to be ejected from the rifle before a new round could
be loaded, complicating the mechanism of these guns.
Many people tried to overcome this problem in various ways. Some designed
complicated ejection devices, but these were prone to jamming. Some said that “self-
consuming” cartridges should be used, which destroyed the cartridge case when it was
fired - but these also proved ineffective. In the end, the consensus was the advantages
of metal cases outweighed the occasional jamming problems - and it is this design that
is still used for small arms ammunition.
Integrated Cartridges
The next huge advance in small arms ammunition was the introduction of the integrated
cartridge, where all the components of the ammo – the percussion cap, the propellant,
and the bullet itself – where built into a single unit.
The very first integrated cartridge was made in 1808 by the Swiss gunsmith Jean
Samuel Pauly, working with the French gunsmith François Prélat. This cartridge set the
standard for all following small arms ammunition. It used a centrally-placed needle to
fire and this “centerfire” arrangement is still seen on the majority of cartridges today.
The invention of the integrated cartridge brought two great advantages. The first was
since all components of ammunition were contained within a single unit they could be
produced away from the battlefield- giving rise to the ammunition industry we see today.
The second advantage was that the new cartridges had a case which expanded as the
round was fired. This stopped hot gases from escaping backward through the breech of
the weapon, reducing wear on the gun and improving power simultaneously.
The American Civil War saw many military firsts - including the first widespread use of
integrated metal cartridges. In the early years of the war soldiers generally relied on
their own, muzzle-loading guns. However, by 1864 the Sharps rifle, a breech-loading
rifle that used integrated cartridges, was being issued to troops on both sides of the war.
In addition, during the war Smith and Wesson produced the first revolvers, initially as
side-arms for cavalry troops. These also used integrated cartridges and led to the post-
war adoption of this type of ammunition among the civilian population. By the 1870s,
they were in widespread use.

The First “Modern” Cartridges

Though the cartridge developed by Pauly in the first decades of the 19 th Century was
technically an integrated, centerfire, all-metallic cartridge, it didn’t look much like the
ammo of today. The first truly modern cartridge was patented in Paris in 1846 by
Benjamin Houllier.
This cartridge was patented in both rimfire and centerfire variants, and used either
copper or brass casings. It was the first all-metallic cartridge to become popular, and
therefore forms the basis of many modern rounds.
1857 saw the arrival, finally, of a cartridge that we are still using today. The .22 short, a
rimfire cartridge, was first designed for the Smith and Wesson Model 1 revolver. The
success of this weapon led to many imitations, and for years Smith and Wesson were
involved in lawsuits over supposed copyright infringement. However, these imitations
led to the almost universal adoption of all-metallic cartridges by 1870.
By this date, the basic design of ammunition had been almost universally agreed upon.
From this point forward, almost all small arms ammunition would be integrated, metallic,
and make use of a percussion cap. Though rimfire cartridges are still used to this day,
the vast majority of ammunition, since 1900, has been center-fire.

The 20th Century Arms Race

Though a standard design for cartridges had been agreed upon, this did not mean that
development of small arms ammunition ceased. In fact, the 20 th Century saw the fastest
pace of small arms ammunition development to that point.
Though, in general, no great strides were made in the way in which bullets were
designed or made, one clear story is discernible in the 20 th Century. Cartridges became
more and more powerful throughout the Century. The World Wars of the early part of
the period led to militaries adopting ever more powerful rounds for small arms, and the
increasing effectiveness of body armor meant more power was needed to take out
targets.
Here, I don’t have the time to go through every single cartridge that was developed.
However, the process arguably culminated in the development of the 7.62×51mm
NATO round in the 1950s. Introduced originally in the M14 machine gun, it was later
adopted by militaries all over the world as the standard full-power assault rifle round.
The 7.62mm represented the limit of what soldiers could be expected to carry in the
field, and was therefore always a compromise between power and mobility. Though
some even larger cartridges were tested, and some are used for snipers and other
situations in which more power is required, this bullet still represents the peak of
cartridge power.
That said, as the 20th Century progressed, increasing numbers of civilians, mainly in the
US, started to carry their own handguns. This led to certain, smaller calibers becoming
very popular. Notably, the 9mm cartridge was raised from relative obscurity to become
the most popular round used in handguns today.
And as the civilian market expanded and diversified, it gave rise to a huge variety of
small arms ammunition. Though the military tends to stick to pretty standard rounds,
because this makes logistics easier, hunters and competitive shooters have no such
worries, and have driven a huge diversification of bullet types and calibers, to the point
that today the range of ammunition available is truly staggering. Look at any website
where you can buy ammo online, and the options are almost endless. This is even
before you get into making your own bullets, which is becoming increasingly popular,
and allows shooters to customize their rounds to their heart’s content.
 PRIMER AND GUN POWDER

Primer is used to initiate the burning of a propellant

o A priming compound is a highly sensitive explosive chemical which, when struck by the
firing pin or hammer of a weapon, will explode with great violence, causing a flame to
ignite the propellant.
o An explosive substance that ignites when struck to detonate the powder in a cartridge.
"Rimfire" cartridges have a primer mixture crimped inside the base, while "centerfire"
cartridges have a primer mixture in a ‘cup’ in the middle of the base of the cartridge
case.
o Primer is an assembly which ignites the propellant

Composition of Primer (Chemical Compound)

Primers are made of a copper or brass alloy cup with a brass anvil and are filled with an impact-
sensitive lead styphnate igniter. The metal parts of the primer are usually nickel-plated to resist
corrosion.

Primer cases are of similar composition (Cu-Zn). Bullet cores are most often lead and antimony,
with a very few having a ferrous alloy core. Bullet jackets are usually brass (90% copper with
10% zinc), but some are a ferrous alloy and some are aluminum. Some bullet coatings may also
contain nickel.

Types of Primer

A BOXER PRIMER consists of a brass or gilding-metal cup, a pellet containing a sensitive

explosive, a paper disk and a brass anvil. These component parts are assembled to form a
complete primer. The boxer primer has a single large flash hole in the bottom of the case.

European metallic cartridges traditionally are loaded with Berdan primers.

The BERDAN PRIMER differs from the American boxer primer in that it has no integral anvil.
Instead, the anvil is built into the cartridge case and forms a projection in the primer pocket.
Berdan primers have two flash holes in the primer pocket.

Inventor of Berdan and Boxer Primer

Berdan primers are named after their American inventor, Hiram Berdan of New York
who invented his first variation of the Berdan primer and patented it on March 20, 1866. A small
copper cylinder formed the shell of the cartridge, and the primer cap was pressed into a recess
in the outside of the closed end of the cartridge opposite the bullet. In the end of the cartridge
beneath the primer cap was a small vent-hole, as well as a small teat-like projection or point
 (later to be known as an anvil) fashioned from the case, such that the firing pin could crush the
primer against the anvil and ignite the propellant. This system worked well, allowing the option
of installing a cap just before use of the propellant-loaded cartridge as well as permitting
reloading the cartridge for reuse.

Colonel Edward Mounier Boxer, of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England was working on a
primer cap design for cartridges, patenting it in England on October 13, 1866, and subsequently
received a U.S. patent for his design on June 29, 1869.

Boxer primers are similar to Berdan primers with one major difference: the location of the anvil.
In a Boxer primer, the anvil is a separate stirrup piece that sits inverted in the primer cup
providing sufficient resistance to the impact of the firing pin as it indents the cup and crushes
the pressure-sensitive ignition compound. The primer pocket in the case head has a single flash-
hole in its center. This positioning makes little or no difference to the performance of the round,
but it makes fired primers vastly easier to remove for re-loading, as a single, centered rod
pushed through the flash hole from the open end of the case will eject the two-piece primer
from the primer cup. A new primer, anvil included, is then pressed into the case using a
reloading press or hand-tool. Boxer priming is universal for US-manufactured civilian factory
ammunition.

Parts of a Primer

1. Primer Cup - A small metal cup, into which the primer mixture is loaded. The capsule that is
open to one side, into which the anvil and the primer ignition material are inserted.

2. Charge/Primer Compound/Primer Mix/Pellet - serves to ignite the main powder charge.

3. Paper Disc - (Foil) acts as a shield for the pellet, protecting it from moisture and other
disruptive influences that may effect performance or reliability.
Foil Paper (Paper Disc) is placed between the mix and the anvil to facilitate assembly.
 4. Anvil - the point against which the priming compound is crushed to detonate the primer.

GUN POWDER
 is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount
of chemical energy
 also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the
earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, carbon (in the form of
charcoal) and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The sulfur and carbon act as fuels while the
saltpeter is an oxidizer
 Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and
consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate (i.e., burn at subsonic speeds), whereas
high explosives detonate producing a supersonic shockwave.

History of Gunpowder

Black powder is thought to have originated in China, where it was being used in fireworks and
signals by the 10th century. Between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Chinese developed the huo qiang
(“fire lance”), a short-range proto-gun that channeled the explosive power of gunpowder through a
cylinder—initially, a bamboo tube. Upon ignition, projectiles such as arrows or bits of metal would be
forcefully ejected, along with an impressive gout of flame. By the late 13th century, the Chinese were
employing true guns, made of cast brass or iron. Guns began to appear in the West by 1304, when the
Arabs produced a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a charge of black powder to shoot an
arrow. Black powder was adopted for use in firearms in Europe from the 14th century but was not
employed for peaceful purposes, such as mining and road building, until the late 17th century. It
remained a useful explosive for breaking up coal and rock deposits until the early 20th century, when it
was gradually replaced by dynamite for most mining purposes.

In the 1850s Thomas J. Rodman of the U.S. Army developed black powder grains so shaped that
they provided a progressively greater burning surface as the combustion progressed, with a resulting
maximum energy release
after the projectile had
already begun to travel
down the bore of the
gun. Beginning in
the 1860s, black powder
was gradually supplanted for
use in firearms by
guncotton and other,
more stable forms of
nitrocellulose.
Unlike black powder, which
burns by the chemical
reactions of its constituent ingredients, nitrocellulose is an inherently unstable compound that burns by
decomposing rapidly, forming hot gases.
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

BLACK POWDER

The oldest known explosive was initially made of saltpeter (potassium nitrate 75%) acts as
oxidizer, charcoal 15%, and sulfur 10% (both charcoal and sulfur serve as fuel, it helps the burning
process)

it produced a cloud of smoke. The Black powder ash contains a high proportion of potassium or
sodium sulfates and carbonates, and because the inorganic saltpeter component was about 2/3 of the
total weight of black powder, you had a lot of ash.

SMOKELESS POWDER- is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and
less fouling when fired compared to gunpowder

o nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as the major ingredient

o produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to gunpowder ("black
powder")
o smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material
associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel.
o Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic
firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery.

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

 single based- pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose

 double based- nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose with minor ingredient which provide additional
power.

 triple based- nitroglycerin, nitrocellulose and nitro-guanidine- it lowers the flame temperature
while still adding active explosive constituent

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES FOR SMOKELESS POWDER

Ballistite (cordite in U.K)

- Is a smokeless propellant made from two high explosive such as nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose
chiefly in a 40 to 60 percent ratio: used as a solid fuel for rocket.

Lyddite

- Utilized picric acid in addition to cellulose powder used in Great Britain.

Trinitrotoluene (TNT)

- More powerful than picric acid but much more difficult to detonate.
 - Is used as a high explosive for military and industrial applications. It is also an intermediate
in the production of dyes and photographic chemicals.

TYPES OF BULLETS

Bullet: The projectile.

They are shaped or composed differently for a variety of purposes.

 "Round-nose" - The end of the bullet is blunted.

 "Hollow-point" - There is a hole in the bullet that creates expansion when a target is struck,
creating more damage.
 "jacketed" - The soft lead is surrounded by another metal, usually copper, that allows the bullet
to penetrate a target more easily.
 "wadcutter" - The front of the bullet is flattened.
 "semi-wadcutter" - Intermediate between round-nose and wadcutter.